Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of African Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

A multidisciplinary approach to study slope instability in the Alboran Sea

shoreline: Study of the Tamegaret deep-seated slow-moving landslide in
Northern Morocco
Ali Bounab a, *, Younes El Kharim a, Rachid El Hamdouni b, Rachid Hlila a
a
Geology Department, Sciences Faculty, University Abdelmalek Essaadi, 93000, Tétouan, Morocco
b
Civil Engineering Department, E.T.S. Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Campus Universitario de Fuentenueva, s/n Granada University, 18071, Granada, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Coastal landslides cause great economic damage to human installations along the Mediterranean shoreline. In the
Deep-seated landslide Alboran Sea, this phenomenon is very common and causes many problems for residential resorts and road in­
Mediterranean coast frastructures in coastal areas. In the last two decades, such slope instability processes were the subject of many
Shoreline evolution
studies, which employed multidisciplinary approaches to understand their underlying mechanisms and surficial
UAV
ERT
kinematics in Southern Spain and elsewhere in the Mediterranean. However, advanced and new investigation
PSInSAR methods and techniques used in these studies have never been performed in Northern Morocco despite the
geomorphological, geological and climatic resemblance between the two regions. In this paper we analyze the
mechanisms and processes controlling the Tamegaret slow-moving deep-seated landslide (Northern Morocco) in
order to bridge this knowledge gap and to understand landslide slope dynamics on their regional context. To do
so, Electrical resistivity Tomography, field investigations and multi-temporal Synthetic Aperture Radar Inter­
ferometry (InSAR) were performed to characterize slope instability processes at the study area. The interpre­
tation of Historic aerial photographs and UAV surveys was also conducted to study the major redistribution of
mass caused by recent road widening work at the landslide headscarp. Results show that the Tamegaret landslide
owes its existence to deep creep processes controlled by a rock flow type gravitational deformation. Extensional
tectonic structures and marine erosion processes that eliminate landslide deposits from the foot area constitute
the most relevant control factors of this dynamic. InSAR results show that this deep-seated landslide is currently
(2017–2019) characterized by very slow displacement rates (2–3 cm/year maximum). Yet, the substantial
deformation observed both in the field and on aerial/satellite photographs suggests that the acceleration
occurred during the road-widening work which caused major changes to the natural topography in the period
(2009–2012). This deformation phase was manifested by local shoreline advancement at the landslide foot area.
Such results show that studying historic shoreline variations can be an effective low-cost time-saving tool
allowing the reconstruction of active landslide kinematics in coastal areas. On a regional scale, findings of this
study highlight the resemblance between the coasts of Southern Spain and Northern Morocco in terms of (i) the
geomorphological processes controlling the coastal slope dynamics at the region; (ii) the displacement rates
measured in Tamegaret compared to other unstable slopes in the Northern shore of the Alboran Sea and (iii) the
bad-engineering on old dormant landslides which compromises their stability. Therefore, we suggest limiting
construction work on coastal hillslopes of Northern Morocco in order to prevent bad construction practices from
causing economic losses in the Southern shoreline of the Alboran Sea as well.

1. Introduction decades, the total number of landslide-related deaths amounts to tens of

thousands worldwide (Haque et al., 2016; Petley, 2012; Sepúlveda and
Landslides are amongst the most frequent and widespread natural Petley, 2015; Zhang and Huang, 2018). However, not all landslides are
hazards in mountainous regions. Only citing incidents of the last three fatal. In fact, slow moving deep-seated landslides (SMDSL) (Cruden and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ali-bnb@hotmail.fr, ali.bounab@etu.uae.ac.ma (A. Bounab).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104345
Received 12 August 2020; Received in revised form 19 July 2021; Accepted 22 July 2021
Available online 23 July 2021
1464-343X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Bounab et al.
Varnes, 1996; Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008) rarely result in any ca­
sualties. They mainly cause damage to infrastructures and buildings
constructed over unstable slopes.
The occurrence of such type of landslides can be linked to (i)
unloading of over-steepened slopes due to glacier retreat or fluvial
downcutting, (ii) presence of discontinuities of tectonic origin (joints,
fractures, etc.), (iii) seismic activity (Bisci et al., 1996; Dramis and
Sorriso-Valvo, 1994; Pasuto and Soldati, 1996), (iv) important rainfall
events (Lacroix et al., 2020) or (v) without apparent trigger thus simply
translating the natural evolution of a slope towards failure (Dille et al.,
2019). In addition, removing of support material at the base of the slope
(debutressing/marine storms undercutting) is a typical trigger of slope
failure processes (Collins and Sitar, 2008; Edil, 2013; Edil and Vallejo,
1980). Because of seasonal marine erosion variations and the cyclic
succession of marine storms, the instability of this type of landslides
tends to follow multiannual and seasonal cyclic trends (Budetta et al.,
2008).
Along the West Mediterranean shorelines, coastal landslides are
widespread. However, only in its Northern part, sufficient regional, local
and case studies were made. On a regional scale, Iadanza et al. (2009)
performed a statistical analysis of coastal landslides in the Italian
shorelines. They concluded that deep-seated gravitational deformation
only accounts for 0,4% of the total number of reported landslides, which
constitutes a very small fraction when compared to rockfalls (31,2%)
and other types of slope instability. From a geological point of view, such
results are expected given the abundance of unstable flysch, flyschoid
(Cevasco et al., 2013; Fiorillo et al., 2013); and limestone (Andriani and
Walsh, 2007; Budetta et al., 2008) slopes along the shorelines of Italy in
particular and the central Mediterranean shoreline as a whole, In fact,
these lithofacies tend to promote more rapid landslides. In the southern
coast of Malta, where the landscape is dominated by landslides, similar
processes are observed (Soldati et al., 2019). However, In the western
part of the Mediterranean (Southern Spain and North West of Morocco),
most bedrock outcrops are metapellite and carbonate metamorphic
rocks (schist, gneisses and low grade metamorphic limestones) of the
Ghomarides/Malaguides and Sebtides/Alpujarides structural units
(Didon et al., 1973). In consequence, coastal SMDSLs are more frequent
because of the structural and lithological setting of these geological
units.
Despite the important volume of mass involved by SMDLs, the
displacement caused by this slope instability phenomenon is very slow.
In the west Mediterranean shoreline, evidences for such slow permanent
processes were obtained using multi-temporal Satellite Aperture Radar
interferometry (InSAR) (Bianchini et al., 2013; Mateos et al., 2017). One
of the methods typically used is Persistent Scatter SAR Interferometry
PSInSAR; (Ferretti et al., 2001), which allows to measure the monthly to
yearly surface displacement velocities with millimetric to centimetric
accuracies. Time series of landslide displacement typically show a good
correspondence between exceptional rainy periods and landslide ac­
celeration, especially in parts of the landslides where excavation, filling
buttressing and mass redistribution change dramatically the surface and
subsurface hydrology and the loadings on the slope (Chacón et al., 2019;
Mateos et al., 2017; Notti et al., 2015). In local and regional scale
studies, this technique was used to assist in landslide susceptibility
mapping (e.g. Piacentini et al. (2015) and to support the geomorpho­
logical interpretation of SMDSLs (Mantovani et al., 2016).
To study the geometry of deep-seated landslides, Electrical Re­
sistivity Tomography (ERT) has been widely used in the last decade.
When coupled with precise topographic data obtained using photo­
grammetry or LiDAR, this technique allows to produce very detailed and
accurate 2D profiles of the subsoil structures (Cebulski et al., 2020;
Chalupa et al., 2018; Jomard et al., 2010; Jongmans et al., 2009; Leb­
ourg et al., 2014; Palis et al., 2017; Prokešová et al., 2014; Zerathe et al.,
2012). In the Mediterranean Sea, this technique is rarely used to study
coastal SMDSLs.
In northern Morocco, Mediterranean coastal slopes are affected by
2
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
many old landslides, which show evidence of persistent instability. The
exact date for the initiation of these processes is poorly studied in the
area. However, many paleoclimate studies (Leroy and Roiron, 1996;
Macklin et al., 2002; Vesica et al., 2000; Zazo et al., 2003), suggest the
oxygen isotopic stage OIS (the Riss-Würm interglacial) to be a more
humid period in the Alboran Sea, which could be responsible for the
initiation of most large scale landslides. An example of this is the Bàlitx
coastal lateral spreading where the oldest landslide deposits date back to
82.5 +- 5.6 kyr (Noller et al., 2000). In northern Morocco, SMDSLs were
never dated, but can be associated to the same regional climate change
events affecting southern Spain. In this regard, the Tamegaret landslide
constitutes an example of an old (most likely prehistoric) SMDSL known
for its slow and permanent activity, which was apparently accelerated
following road-widening work in 2009–2012.
Aside from a few regional scale studies (El Gharbaoui, 1981; El
Kharim, 2002; Fonseca, 2014; Maurer, 1968), case studies (Azzouz et al.,
2002; El Fellah et al., 1996; El Fellah and Mastere, 2015), and some
recently published press reports about unstable road cuts in the Medi­
terranean coasts of Morocco (from 2015 onwards), no detailed in­
vestigations were made in the region in order to accurately measure the
activity of SMDSLs and precisely study their geometry.
In this work, we combine the novel landslide investigation tech­
niques described above with field investigations and rainfall and sea
storm data in order to bridge the knowledge gap between the Southern
and Northern parts of the Mediterranean Sea. The multidisciplinary
approach used in this study aims to quantify the displacement rates at
the Tamegaret site and to study its landslide mechanisms and control
factors. A comparison between results of the current investigations and
findings of previous research conducted on similar processes at the
Northern part of the Alboran Sea yields great importance for under­
standing SMDSLs mechanics at the Tamegaret site in their regional
context. Also, the important volume of mass involved by this landslide
constitutes a risk to the stability of the RN16 national road, hence the
role of the multidisciplinary approach adopted in this work to study the
landslide predisposing and triggering factors at the site.
2. Study area
2.1. Geological and geomorphological settings
The Tamegaret landslide is located alongside RN16 national road in
the North of Morocco (Fig. 1). It is 350 m wide and 500 m long. Its total
elevation difference is 300 m.
The landslide is sited in the Rif chain, which is classically subdivided
into three structural zones: internal; flysch nappes and external zones
(Didon et al., 1973; Durand-Delga et al., 1960).
However, only the Akaili structural unit of the internal domain
(Durand-Delga and Kornprobst, 1963) outcrops in the coastal slopes
between Tetouan and Oued-Laou (Fig. 1). Its lithostratigraphic sequence
is mainly formed by Paleozoic (Mainly Silurian to Devonian) low grade
metamorphic rocks. In the Tamegaret site only Silurian material out­
crops (Fig. 2). Its sequence is formed by phyllite (Fig. 2), with irregular
centimetric to decimetric intercalations of calcarenite and greywacke
layers. The whole sequence shows evidences of metamorphism and
deformation in the form of folding and schistosity (Chalouan and
Michard, 1990; Didon et al., 1973), thermal metamorphism (Michard
et al., 2006; Negro et al., 2006), normal faulting (Ouazani-Touhami and
Chalouan, 1995), thrust faulting, and tensional structures related to the
Alboran Sea genesis (Benmakhlouf, 1990; El Kadiri et al., 2012).
The latter plays a major role in shaping the steep coastal slopes of the
“Relief de croupes” morphostructural unit, which reveals morphological
structures mainly oriented NE-SW, and capes representing their pro­
longation into the sea (El Gharbaoui, 1981). The morphological evi­
dence for an active extensional environment is the NW-SE triangular
facets formed along the coastline by truncation of the NNE-SSW and
NE-SW elongated hills (Fig. 1). A type of landforms that represents,
A. Bounab et al.
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Beni Said massif highlighting the location of the Tamegaret landslide.
according to Gutiérrez and Gutiérrez (2016), the surficial manifestation
of tectonic fissures frequently interpreted as normal faults.
2.2. Climate
The study area is characterized by a typical Mediterranean hot
summer climate, marked by the alternation of two contrasted seasons: a
relatively wet and moderately cold winter, and a dry and hot summer.
According to data from the Kourirène meteorological station (X = 5◦ 10′
38.97′′ W; Y = 35◦ 21′ 40.87′′ N), the maximum precipitation levels are
recorded in December (125 mm), and January (105 mm). Nevertheless,
the climate of Northern Morocco follows multiannual cyclic trends
similar to those observed in Southern Spain (Luque-Espinar et al., 2017).
The last multi-annual wet period recorded in the Northern and Southern
coasts of the Alboran Sea corresponds to the period 2003–2010, which
was marked by exceptionally rainy winters and springs, causing floods
(Bracken et al., 2008) and triggering many landslides (e.g. Notti et al.,
2015) in the region.
El Kharim (2002), shows that the study area is located at the limit
between two types of climate: A hot sub-humid climate to its North and a
hot semi-arid climate to its South. This difference is caused by the width
of the Rif chain, which increases to the south, thus depriving the Med­
iterranean coasts (exposed to the east) from the orographic rainfall
coming from the West. This explains the significantly low annual
average rainfall observed in coastal areas located between Tetouan and
Alhoceima (Salhi et al., 2019). The same authors also concluded that
precipitation rates have increased from eastern to western areas since
1996, and that more frequent and extremely wet days have occurred
causing violent floods and torrent discharges.
Since the marine cliffs and coastal slopes are exposed to Mediterra­
nean waves, their evolution is closely related to the marine dynamics of
the study area. In fact, historical simulated wave height data at the
model point SIMAR 2022067 (5.00◦ W; 35.42◦ N), provided by the
Spanish ports authorities (see the “Puertos del Estado de España”
3
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
website at www.puertos.es), show a clear dominance of easterly waves
which occasionally surpass the 5 m mark. These waves, produced by
easterly winds that prevail from May to October (Mrini et al., 2012),
play a major role in the coastal slopes dynamics in particular, and the
evolution of the coastline as a whole.
3. Material and methods
3.1. Photointerpretation and field investigations
We characterized the landslide using visual investigation of multi-
date satellite images from Google Earth, which cover the period from
2003 to 2018. The results were compared to older aerial photographs of
1955 and 1966, as well as new ones from 2010 in order to establish a
landslide inventory for the site and its activity. To complete the latter
and to study the geometry and structure of the landslide, six field in­
vestigations were conducted from March to May 2018, in order to
examine the geology and geomorphology of the landslide. In addition,
the orientation of tectonic joints at 61 locations was measured in order
to understand the geometry of the jointing network in the area.
3.2. Geotechnical investigations
We conducted in situ and laboratory tests to geotechnically charac­
terize the landslide subsoil layers. Two boreholes were used (Fig. 2) to
obtain samples of the landslide subsurface, on which Standard Pene­
tration Tests, SPT (NF P94-105), and pressure meter tests (NFP 94-110-
1) were carried out.
Atterberg limit tests (NFR:94-051) were also performed to study the
plasticity of the weathered layers while some shear box tests
(NM:13.1.021) were conducted to obtain the friction angle and the
cohesion of the soil.
A. Bounab et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345

Fig. 2. Geomorphological map of the Tamegaret landslide with the main joints directions.

3.3. Unmanned aerial vehicle survey (UAV) in Table 1.

In the last decade, many studies (Niethammer et al., 2012; Rossi
et al., 2018; Turner et al., 2015) have used UAVs to characterize land­
slides (Brückl et al., 2006; Young, 2015). For our application, this
technique was deployed to generate a very-high-resolution Digital Sur­
face Model (DSM; 11 cm per pixel) and ortho-image using
structure-from-motion photogrammetry (Eltner et al., 2016). The model
was constructed using the open source software Alicevision Meshroom,
Acquisition parameters and hardware specifications used are indicated
Although this technique could be used for both landslide monitoring
and mapping (Devoto et al., 2020), only the latter function was used in
this study because of our inability to obtain multiple acquisition permits
from local authorities. The ortho-image obtained, allowed the con­
struction of a detailed map of the landslide features and landforms,
while the DSM was used to obtain detailed topographic profiles and
precise elevation measurements used as input data to quantify mass
redistribution during road-widening work and to perform the inversion
of Electrical Resistivity Tomography pseudo-sections.

Table 1
3.4. Time series of displacement from multitemporal InSAR
Acquisition parameters and hardware specifications.
Parameter Value/Specifications Multi-temporal Satellite Aperture Radar interferometry (InSAR)
UAV DJI Phantom 4 techniques are widely used to monitor ground displacement. Of these
Positioning system GPS methods, the Persistent Scatter SAR Interferometry PSInSAR (Ferretti
Maximum wind resistance 10 m/s
et al., 2001); is the most used for landslide investigations.
Mean wind speed at the acquisition date 8,6 m/s
Altitude of flight 80 m In this study, we used the SNAP-Stamps processing chain (Foumelis
Camera DJI- FC6310 et al., 2018; Hooper et al., 2012) to process 21 Copernicus Sentinel 1
Exposure time 1/200 s images covering the period 24/09/2017-15/05/2019, retrieved from
ISO sensitivity ISO-100 ASF DAAC in 10/02/2021. A high resolution 10 m Digital Elevation
Acquisition date 23/01/2018
Model was generated from topographic contours (1/25 000 topographic

4
A. Bounab et al.
maps of 2010), and was used for co-registration and interferogram
computation. In addition, the TRAIN software (Bekaert et al., 2015) was
used to filter tropospheric phase delays (atmospheric phase). The output
is the displacement velocity parallel to the satellite Line Of Sight (LOS),
and the displacement time series for a few selected Persistent Scatters
(PS).
To obtain coherent interferograms, and consequently increase the PS
density, we only used SAR pairs with small vertical (i.e. <150 m) and
temporal (<31 days) baselines. However, because of the NNE orienta­
tion of the Tamegaret slope, SAR interferometry has little sensitivity to
slope displacement because of the near polar azimuth of all SAR satel­
lites (Notti et al., 2014). This geometric limitation of multi-temporal
InSAR techniques is more true for descending images (Azimuth =
193◦ N) whose LOS is perpendicular to the Tamegaret slope (Azimuth =
22◦ N). For this reason, only ascending images were used (Azimuth =
346.93◦ N) which allow to measure a fraction of the true displacement.
The VLOS values are subsequently corrected using the Colesanti and
Wasowski (2006) projection, according to which displacement rates in
the steepest slope direction (VSlope) depend on α, the angle between the
slope’s Azimuth and the satellite LOS, where VSlope = VLOS/cos (α)
(Bianchini et al., 2013; Greif and Vicko, 2012). However, since Vslope
values tend to be infinite when α approaches 90◦ , this projection could
only be used if cos α > 0.3 (α ≤ 72◦ ) (Herrera et al., 2013). In the study
area, LOS displacements were projected using the steepest slope direc­
tion of two hill-slopes. The first is the Tamegaret landslide slope (α =
56◦ ) and the second corresponds to an old relic landslide located directly
to the SE of the study area (α = 37◦ ). PSs located on slopes where α > 72◦
were consequently dropped.
3.5. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
ERT is often used for the characterization of the subsurface landslide
geometry (Jongmans and Garambois, 2007; Perrone et al., 2014). In
lithological conditions similar to those of the Tamegaret site (meta­
sedimentary rocks), this method can be used to estimate the thickness of
the surficial, altered and potentially unstable layers (Carpentier et al.,
2012; Godio et al., 2006). In total, six profiles were measured in May
2018, end of the wet season, using 32 electrodes. We used the maximal
inter-electrode spacing value for our device (5 m) in order to reach deep
strata. The data acquisition was performed using a Wenner configura­
tion due to the relatively small current magnitudes needed to produce
measurable potential differences, and the sensitivity of this configura­
tion to near surface inhomogeneities (Mooney and Wetzel, 1956),
Res2Dinv commercial software was chosen for data inversion, which
adopts the conventional smoothness constrained least square method:
L2-norm (Degroot-Hedlin and Constable, 1990; Loke et al., 2003; Sasaki,
1992).
After the inversion, the six geo-electrical profiles were arranged in
pairs to produce 3 concatenated profiles using the concatenate tool in
Res2dinv (Loke and Barker, 1996). The empty gap between each two
profiles was filled with the help of 11 electrodes overlap pre-set in the
acquisition step.
3.6. Shoreline evolution
Since coastal landslides are in interaction with marine dynamics, the
evolution of the shoreline could potentially be useful to monitor land­
slide displacement at the foot area. Hence, the 2003, 2011 and 2018
shorelines were delineated using historic Google Earth imagery, and
compared to one another. However, horizontal positioning inaccuracies
of 1–3 m are inevitable when dealing with Google Earth data, which
originate from the difference in acquisition geometry and/or orthor­
ectification errors. However, such inaccuracies can be partially
compensated for by secondary control points (Crowell et al., 1991). As
such, bedrock outcrops were chosen as tie points to georeference the
images, due to their stability in the face of marine storms. The second
5
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
type of errors in relation to shoreline delineation using airborne imagery
is caused by tidal variations which tend to confuse the exact location of
the shoreline. To overcome this, we chose the High-Water Line as in­
dicator of the shoreline position because of the fact that it can be easily
approximated from aerial photographs (Stafford and Langfelder, 1971).
It is also important to note that all the images used in this study were
captured around the summer solstices, which helps decreasing the ef­
fects of tidal variations on the accuracy of the results, and to avoid
mapping storm shorelines. The results were put together on a map,
which shows shoreline variations at the area.
4. Results
4.1. Field surveys and geotechnical investigations
The field investigations conducted on the study area and the inter­
pretation of aerial photographs and satellite images (Fig. 3), show that
no changes were made to the topography of the slide between 1955 and
2003. Despite some forest removal between 1955 and 1966 (Fig. 3),
most of the scarps uphill showed little to no perceptible or substantial
displacement in later photographs. Despite that, a constant subsidence
was reported during this period by the Ministry of Equipment and
Transport, which was accounted for by road filling of 0.5 m every two to
three years. From 2010 to 2012, major changes were made to the
topography at the landslide crown (backfill material deposited, steep
road cuts, gabion wall … etc). In the same period signs of more rapid
displacement are observed, manifested by fresh scarps (Fig. 3).
Accordingly, in these two years corresponding to the road widening
work, more displacement took place than that of the six previous de­
cades combined.
The orientation of geological fractures measured on the field suggest
a crucial importance of tectonic joints on the overall landscape evolution
Two major orthogonal directions are to be distinguished (Fig. 2). A NE-
SW direction parallel to the valleys and a NW-SE direction parallel to the
coastline. This joints network is of neotectonic origin since it affects the
bedrock and the consolidated Quaternary beach deposits.
From a geomorphological standpoint, landslide features are clear
both on aerial photographs and in the field. Many active and inactive
landslide scars (Figs. 2 and 4) are easily distinguishable. However, most
of the fresh (20–40 cm wide) tension cracks (Fig. 4-a) are located close to
the RN16 road. This demonstrates the effect of the road-widening work
(during the 2009–2012 period) on the stability of the landslide since old
aerial photographs show signs of slower displacement rates. The latter
are illustrated by the presence of tilted trees and a bumpy topography
uphill, as well as the over tilted wave cut platform (Fig. 4-c) and
consequently the uplifting of fresh un-weathered material (Fig. 4-d).
This deformation of structures downhill exposes the rotational nature of
this landslide, which is also highlighted by comparing the slope of the
bedding planes in the landslide’s foot area and outside of it (Fig. 5). The
stereoscopic pole projection of the plane poles indicates the presence of
steeper bedding planes in the foot area caused by compressional stress
which tends to over tilt and uplift material at this part of the landslide.
The landslide toe is also subject to easterly marine storms, which
erode the landslide deposits (Fig. 4-b). Wave-cut notch and fresh surfi­
cial slides are evidences for the activity of these marine erosion pro­
cesses. Consequently, the deposits are eroded away, exposing old buried
debris as shown in Fig. 4-b. This also causes a decrease in passive soil
pressure, which further promotes slope instability.
In the landslide body, a thick saprolite and colluvium material
(weathered layers in Fig. 2) is attributable to the slow deformation and
the dense network of tectonic joints, which facilitated the ground water
circulation, thus accelerating the weathering of the Phyllite bedrock. In
geotechnical terms, the SPT carried out on the boreholes shows that the
colluvium layer is stiff to very stiff (8<SPT-N<30) and that the saprolite
layer is hard (SPT-N>30) (Table 2). These layers are characterized by
cohesion values of 20 kN/m2 for colluvium and 33 kN/m2 for the
A. Bounab et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345

Fig. 3. Aerial photographs and satellite images showing the evolution of the Tamegaret landslide from 1955 to 2017.

Fig. 4. UAV derived ortho-image showing the Tamegaret landslide slope in 3D, the location the geotechnical boreholes and of the landslide features. a - tilted trees; b
- tension cracks; c - tilted wave-cut plateform; d - Wave-cut notch affecting the landslide deposits; e - Fresh non-weathered material uplifted.

Fig. 5. Bedding pole planes in the landslide toe and outside of it.

6
A. Bounab et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345

Table 2 saprolite material, and a friction angle of 32◦ and 28◦ (Table 2)
Geotechnical parameters. respectively. The man-made road fill deposits are also characterized by
Tests/Geotechnical parameters Saprolite Colluvium Backfill similar values (a cohesion of 23 kN/m2 and a friction angle of 34◦ )
material (Table 2). From Atterberg limit tests, it is shown that the plasticity in­
N-SPT (NF P94-105) 26–37 12–19 18–25 creases relatively, proportionally to the degree of weathering: a low
EM (NF P94-110-1) (MPa) 10-34,7 14,3–18,7 3.7–8,7 plastic saprolite level (IP = 4) compared to the medium plastic collu­
Atterberg’s limit (NFR:94- WL 24 28 30 vium material at the surface (IP = 8) (Table 2). In the pressuremeter
051) IP 4 8 10 results, the young’s modulus for the weathered layers is comprised be­
Shear Box test C’ (KN/ 23 33 32
(NM:13.1.021) m2)
tween 3.7 MPa and 34.7 Mpa, while that of the Silurian formation sur­
Ф (◦ ) 34 28 20 passes the 200 MPa value (Table 2).

Fig. 6. a- Longitudinal and transverse ERT profiles projected on the UAV DSM. b – Longitudinal 2D ERT profiles. c – Transverse ERT profiles.

7
A. Bounab et al.
4.2. The landslide’s geometry as imaged by the ERT profiles
ERT tomography profiles are well correlated with the morphological
trades and the subsoil layers of the landslide (Fig. 6). Using our field
observations with the Palacky (1988) typical ranges, we can correlate
the high resistivity values to the phyllite and greywackes bedrock ma­
terial (>800 Ω m), and the low and medium resistivity ones to the
weathered colluvium and saprolite layers and the backfill material
(<800 Ω m). In the longitudinal profile A-B-C (Fig. 6), the ERT results
show that the Tamegaret landslide is located on the hanging wall of a
neotectonic normal fault, hence the vertical displacement of the bedrock
at its crown. The secondary scarps on the UAV-DSM seem to be related to
an unstable road cut slope, mainly formed by the 20–30 m thick
weathered layers, while the main scarp is older, and affects both the
weathered layers and the bedrock. This shows that stretching is the
dominant deformation regime at the crown area. In fact, the extensional
stress originates from the past tectonics of the site (Benmakhlouf, 1990),
hence the spatial correlation between the landslide headscarp and the
old normal faulting affecting the Tamegaret hillslope. In the landslide’s
body, the low resistivity layers are thicker due to internal shear caused
by shortening, the advanced weathering processes related to deep creep
and reworking of the material (30–40 m) and the presence of backfill
deposits (15–20 m thick). Using the UAV derived DSM, the volume of the
latter was estimated to be 1,07*106 m3, which constitutes an additional
load on the landslide, thus compromising its stability. The 3 m high
scarps affecting this area also mobilize the bedrock and the weathered
layers. Over the foot area, weathered layers seem to be thinner because
of marine storms which remove landslide deposits, thus causing bedrock
to outcrop in the landslide toe (Fig. 6). This disposition is also due to
Fig. 7. a- VLOS projected on UAV digital elevation model b- VSlope projected on UAV digital elevation model. c- DSlope time series projected on daily precipita­
tion data.
8
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
internal shear which causes the over tilting of substratum layers. This
rock creep model is similar to that of the Longobardi sakung (Dramis and
Sorriso-Valvo, 1994) where a tight relationship between the tectonic
faulting and the gravitational deformation is concluded.
The E-F transverse section (Fig. 6) shows that the landslide’s body is
bounded to the SE (and by interpolation to NW) by a sub-vertical strike-
slip fault orientated parallel to the landsliding direction, hence the
abrupt resistivity increase in the eastern segment of the profile.
4.3. Landslide’s activity compared to shoreline evolution and seasonal
precipitation
In the Tamegaret hillslope, most PSs are located alongside the RN16
road (Fig. 7-a and b). This is due to the fact that the road surface, its
stabilization structures and the new road cuts constitute stable Persistent
Scatters (PS). The computed VLOS values range from − 20.4 to 6.22 mm/
year (Fig. 7-a), with the highest displacement rates being recorded at the
Tamegaret landslide foot area. In the accumulation zone no PSs were
obtained. Reasons for this are discussed below (see section 5).
The VLOS values obtained fit well with the landslide morphological
features. In fact, the deformation recorded inside the Tamegaret land­
slide boundaries shows that the landslide is active with displacement
rates in the range of − 5 to − 20.4 mm/year (Fig. 7-a). This contrast is
made even clearer in Fig. 7 –b where VSlope values in the foot area reveal
significantly higher velocities compared to PSs located outside of the
landslide boundary (outside of Slope 1), with VSlope values ranging from
− 20 to − 35 mm/year. This shows that in spite of its apparent dormant
state, the Tamegaret SMDSL is still active. However, judging from the
displacement rates between September 2017 and May 2019, the
A. Bounab et al.
landslide activity at the study area could only be considered very slow to
extremely slow according to Cruden and Varnes (1996) scale. This low
displacement velocity is in fact characteristic of SMDSLs in the Alboran
Sea region. (e.g. Chacón et al., 2019; Notti et al., 2015).
The DSlope and precipitation time series for points 1 and 2 (Fig. 7-c),
expose seasonal trends which control ground displacement in the study
area. In general the activity at the site is characterized by a trend to­
wards subsidence during the surveyed period. The results also prove the
existence of a correlation between the wet season and displacement
rates measured during this period, where an acceleration of subsidence
is perceived 1–2 months after the peak rainfall value is reached in March
2018 (Fig. 7-c). This delay can be explained by the size, scale and nature
of the landslide which takes time to react to precipitation events. Similar
delays in landslide response to precipitation are reported by Prokešová
et al. (2013).
However, during the road widening work (a period for which the
InSAR data was not available), signs for much more important
displacement are seen in Fig. 3. This deformation can be indirectly
detected on the shoreline variations map (Fig. 8) which shows that from
2003 to 2018 a general recession is observed alongside the Moroccan
Mediterranean coast with the exception of the landslide foot which
protrudes from the adjacent toe slope by 5–10 m. This displacement is
associated with a landslide reactivation, and probably compensates for
the added backfill load and the vertical displacement seen on airborne
imagery between 2009 and 2012, and materialized by 2–3 m high scarps
photographed during field surveys (Fig. 4-a). This shoreline advance­
ment further exposes the landslide’s foot to the occasional rough to very
rough easterly marine storms as indicated by the wave rose (Fig. 8).
Despite this, no shoreline recession was observed until now. Besides, the
adjacent old landslide (S2 slope in Fig. 7-b) which was also reactivated
by the road work as shown in Fig. 3 may enter in permanent instability,
especially since there are shoreline recessions facilitating the direct
percussion of waves at its foot and evacuation of debris.
Fig. 8. Historic shoreline variations of the Tamegaret landslide.
9
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
5. Discussion
We used a combination of in situ geophysical instrumentation (ERT)
and field interpretation, high-resolution topographic models, multi-
temporal InSAR and photointerpretation to study the historic activity
of a slow-moving, deep-seated coastal landslide alongside road work
that led to major redistribution of mass over the landslide body (Fig. 3).
Booth et al. (2018) showed that undrained load on a slope can reactivate
and accelerate a slow moving landslide until a new state of static equi­
librium is reached. Such process is observed at the Tamegaret landslide
following road construction work. Analysis of aerial and satellite images
shows that the backfill load deposited on the scarp area of the landslide
in 2010, associated with road cuts and gabion wall load led to an ac­
celeration of the landslide (Fig. 3). After 2012, the landslide returned to
its previous state of activity, as suggested by the absence of major
shoreline advancement from that date onwards. However, it is still un­
clear if this additional load on the slope could trigger a rapid reac­
tivation in the future since no extreme rain event took place after the
modifications were made. In fact such a situation is common in the
Alboran shoreline, where little consideration of the landscape is typi­
cally the norm alongside infrastructure work. In many cases, random
changes to the topography, debuttressing, the absence of drainage
structures and/or the random redistribution of material destabilize
coastal hillslopes and causes great damage to resorts, infrastructures and
even heritage sites constructed on coastal SMDSLs (e.g. Chacón et al.,
2019; Mateos et al., 2017; Notti et al., 2015).
Similar to Brückl et al. (2006), high-resolution topographic models
coupled with field investigations allowed the precise mapping of the
landslide’s geomorphological features. They also helped the estimation
of topographic changes both above (road cuts height and angle) and
bellow (backfill volume) the road segment. In addition, the use of
high-resolution topography also facilitated the interpretation of the 2D
ERT profiles (Fig. 6), which establishes a clear correlation between the
landslide morphological trades, the tectonic structure and the
A. Bounab et al.
horizontal/vertical electrical resistivity variations. This geophysical
investigation technique, widely used in the field of landslide (e.g.
Jomard et al., 2010; Jongmans et al., 2009; Lebourg et al., 2005; Palis
et al., 2017; Prokešová et al., 2014; Zerathe et al., 2012), has proven to
be effective in the study of the Tamegaret landslide structure. The
obvious resistivity contrast between the surficial layers and the under­
lying resistive layers translates the contrast between the bedrock and the
weathered colluvium/saprolite material. The presence of a thick collu­
vium layer in a SMDSL is also reported in Southern Spain by (Notti et al.,
2015) which indicates that slope instability and material reworking
processes are old in the Alboran Sea region. Also the tectonic control of
the landslide’s geometry was clear in the ERT transverse section, which
showed that a system of old strike-slip faults acts as lateral boundaries of
the landslide. ERT also allows to characterize the deep gravitational
mechanics at the site, which correspond to a rock-creep style deforma­
tion similar to that of the Longobardi Sakung in Southern Italy ((Dramis
and Sorriso-Valvo, 1994). From a genetic point of view, slope instability
at the Tamegaret site is deeply related to the past and recent tectonics of
the Alboran Sea. The extensional stress which controls the evolution of
the Spanish and Moroccan Mediterranean shorelines owes its origin to
the collapse of the thickened continental lithosphere affecting the
Alboran Sea and the Arc of Gibraltar areas (Platt and Vissers, 1989).
Similar findings are reported by Notti et al. (2015) where the gravita­
tional deformation is associated with the same high-angle extensional
faults described in this study. However, not all SMDSLs affecting coastal
hillslopes of the Alboran Sea region are initiated by extensional tectonic
structures. Other slope instability cases are in fact related to lithological
contrast (Azzouz et al., 2002; Notti et al., 2015) or lateral spreading
phenomena (Mateos et al., 2018) occurring along thrust fault areas. This
relationship between structural geology and deep gravitational defor­
mation is not limited to the Alboran Sea region. In French Alps also,
similar processes are observed in SMDSLs such as the La Capière land­
slide (Jomard et al., 2010; Lebourg et al., 2005) and the La Marbière
landslide (Zerathe et al., 2012), where tectonic faults control landslides
geometry and deformation regimes.
Despite the effectiveness of ERT in studying SMDSLs, some diffi­
culties were encountered in our application which hampered our ability
to fully characterize the landslide’s geometry such as the limited depth
of investigation for our device (40 m), and the presence of an asphalt
surface (road) and sub vertical surfaces (gabion wall and marine cliff),
which were impossible to survey. This restricted our ability to determine
the exact thickness of the weathered layers in some areas of the slide.
Another difficulty was the determination of the exact position of the
rupture surface. In fact, one has to wonder if a net rupture surface exists
in this site since SMDSLs have in some cases, no clear rupture surface
(Dramis and Sorriso-Valvo, 1994) and deform only through micro­
fracturing (Radbruch-Hall, 1978) or through viscous flow with a con­
tractant behavior (Hutchinson, 1988). The only conclusion that could
drawn from these profiles was the relative depth of the shear plane,
which surpasses the thickness of the weathered layers. Thus, the slip
surface shown in Fig. 6 is a rough estimate of the landslide’s geometry,
based on the interpolation of field investigations and ERT results at the
scarp area.
As for the landslide’s kinematics, the NNE slope orientation limited
the displacement that could be directly detected using PSinSAR, because
of the near polar azimuths of Sentinel 1 satellites. As a result,
displacement rates shown in Fig. 7-a had to be projected on the steepest
slope azimuth in order to obtain more accurate measurement of the true
displacement rates in the study area. However, because the measure­
ments were only made in 1D due to the impossibility of measuring
displacement using descending images (satellite LOS perpendicular to
steepest slope direction), the values shown in Fig. 7-b may still be
underestimated. Nevertheless, they allow to better visualize the land­
slide displacement by comparing points inside the landslide’s area and
outside of it. Another technical difficulty was the lack of PSs in the
depletion zone. This can be explained by i) the presence of a 16 m high
10
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
gabbion wall, which induced a shadowing effect in the depletion area
(Colesanti and Wasowski, 2006), and/or ii) the displacement in those
areas is too great (centimetric/metric) and thus cannot be measured
using the PSinSAR technique. In either case, this constitutes a technical
challenge that needs to be overcome in future studies.
In the scarp and foot areas of the landslide where most PSs were
computed, displacement rates are similar to those measured in other
SMDSLs located at the northern part of the Alboran Sea, and computed
over longer periods of time (Chacón et al., 2019; Notti et al, 2014, 2015).
These authors among others concluded deformation rates of one to a few
centimeters at most, which highlights the similarities between the
shoreline of the Betico Rifean belt (Southern Spain and Northern
Morocco) in terms of hydrological cycles and morphological processes
controlling landslides on coastal hillslopes. Time-series results obtained
through the PSIinSAR approach also demonstrate the relationship be­
tween seasonal rainfall and the Tamegaret landslide acceleration
(Fig. 7-c). In reality, landslide deformation response to seasonal rainfall
have been demonstrated in many areas of the world (e.g. Bayer et al.,
2018; Iverson and Major, 1987; Peruccacci et al., 2012), where a certain
rainfall threshold is needed to trigger landslide motion.
For periods where InSAR data is not available (2003–2011), we
measured 5–10 m horizontal displacement at the foot of the landslide,
from mapping the evolution of the shoreline (Fig. 7). This rate of
displacement is higher than that measured using PSInSAR for the
2017–2019 period. However, from 2011 to 2018, slower displacement
rates are observed on the shoreline which corresponds to the results
obtained from PSInSAR. To explain the difference in displacement rates
measured between the two periods, we suggest that the manmade
topographic changes associated to the widening of the national road
crossing the landslide only induced transient landslide acceleration. The
work was in addition executed shortly after an exceptionally wet period
(2003–2010), which was responsible for triggering the acceleration of
many landslides in the region. An example of this situation in the
Alboran Sea is the Marina del Este landslide where an acceleration was
also reported during this period (Notti et al., 2015).
A further argument to support the association between landslide
acceleration periods and the shoreline advancement observed at the
study area is the fact that it concurred with a local (Fig. 8-a) and regional
trend towards recession (El Moutchou, 2014; El Moutchou and El
Kharim, 2013). From a technical point of view, these findings prove that
mapping shoreline variations can be very useful for studying coastal
landslide kinematics.
6. Conclusion
At the Tamegaret coastal hillslope, the tectonic setting and the ma­
rine erosion caused by easterly storms are the main factors controlling
the natural slope dynamics. The interaction between the two factors
creates a slow but permanent instability at the site, sensitive to seasonal
rainfall and multiannual rainy periods which could accelerate it.
Although the landslide is deep (slip surface if exists is deeper than 40 m)
and affects both the bedrock material and the weathered saprolite
layers, the latter are affected by shallower and more rapid slope insta­
bility processes. However, the most important triggering factor identi­
fied at the study area is the anthropogenic activity manifested in random
modifications to the topography and loading on the slope, which
significantly accelerated the landslide motion during the road work.
Indeed, the road segment of the coastal national road “RN16” and its
stabilization structures constitute an expensive economic asset that
needs to be constantly surveyed and reinforced (if needed), if multi-
annual rainy periods were to occur in the future. The installation of
cliff protection structures can also improve the stability of the slope on
the long term, by decreasing the erosive action of the sea.
On a regional scale, the results of this study show that the coasts of
Southern Spain and those of Northern Morocco are similar in terms of
displacement rates, geomorphic processes and the bad engineering that
A. Bounab et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345

takes place on dormant/relic SMDSLs. However, since most coastal Colesanti, C., Wasowski, J., 2006. Investigating landslides with space-borne synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) interferometry. Eng. Geol. 88 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
slopes in Northern Morocco are not economically developed yet, it is
enggeo.2006.09.013.
important that we limit development on those where this type of land­ Collins, B.D., Sitar, N., 2008. Processes of coastal bluff erosion in weakly lithified sands,
slides is identified in order to avoid unnecessary material damages in the Pacifica, California, USA. Geomorphology 97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
future. geomorph.2007.09.004.
Crowell, M., Leatherman, S.P., Buckley, M.K., 1991. Historical shoreline change: error
analysis and mapping accuracy. J. Coast Res. 7.
Cruden, D.M., Varnes, D.J., 1996. Landslide Types and Processes , Special Report ,
Declaration of competing interest Transportation Research Board, 247. National Academy of Sciences, pp. 36–75.
United States Geol. Surv. 36–75.
Degroot-Hedlin, C., Constable, S., 1990. Occam’s inversion to generate smooth, two-
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
dimensional models from magnetotelluric data. Geophysics 55. https://doi.org/
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence 10.1190/1.1442813.
the work reported in this paper. Devoto, S., Macovaz, V., Mantovani, M., Soldati, M., Furlani, S., 2020. Advantages of
using uav digital photogrammetry in the study of slow-moving coastal landslides.
Remote Sens. 12 (1).
Acknowledgement Didon, J., Durand-Delga, M., Kornprobst, J., 1973. Homologies geologiques entre les
deux rives du detroit de Gibraltar. Bull. la Société Géologique Fr. S7-XV https://doi.
org/10.2113/gssgfbull.s7-xv.2.77.
Funding for this research was provided by the CNRST “Centre Na­
Dille, A., Kervyn, F., Bibentyo, T.M., Delvaux, D., Ganza, G.B., Mawe, G.I., Buzera, C.K.,
tional de Recherche Scientifique et Technique” as part of the PPR2/205/ Nakito, E.S., Moeyersons, J., Monsieurs, E., Nzolang, C., Smets, B., Kervyn, M.,
65 project. The authors of this paper wish to express their sincere Dewitte, O., 2019. Causes and triggers of deep-seated hillslope instability in the
tropics – insights from a 60-year record of Ikoma landslide (DR Congo).
appreciation for the financial support received from this organization.
Geomorphology 345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.106835.
Dramis, F., Sorriso-Valvo, M., 1994. Deep-seated gravitational slope deformations,
References related landslides and tectonics. Eng. Geol. 38 https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952
(94)90040-X.
Durand-Delga, M., Hottinger, L., Marcais, J., Mattauer, M., Milliard, Y., Suter, G., 1960.
Andriani, G.F., Walsh, N., 2007. The effects of wetting and drying, and marine salt
Données actuelles sur la structure du Rif. In: Livre à La Mémoire Du Professeur
crystallization on calcarenite rocks used as building material in historic monuments.
Fallot, vol. 1. Mém h sér Soc géol Fr, pp. 399–422.
Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 271 https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2007.271.01.18.
Durand-Delga, M., Kornprobst, J., 1963. Esquisse geologique de la region de Ceuta
Azzouz, O., Fellah, B.E.L., Chalouan, A., 2002. Processus de glissement dans le Massif de
(Maroc). Bull. la Société Géologique Fr. S7-V https://doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.s7-
Bokoya (Rif interne, Maroc): exemple de Cala Bonita. Bull. l’Institut Sci. Rabat.
v.7.1049.
Bayer, B., Simoni, A., Mulas, M., Corsini, A., Schmidt, D., 2018. Deformation responses of
Edil, T.B., 2013. Erosion of coastal slopes and landslides. https://doi.org/10.106
slow moving landslides to seasonal rainfall in the Northern Apennines, measured by
1/9780784412787.133.
InSAR. Geomorphology 308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.02.020.
Edil, T.B., Vallejo, L.E., 1980. Mechanics of coastal landslides and the influence of slope
Bekaert, D.P.S., Walters, R.J., Wright, T.J., Hooper, A.J., Parker, D.J., 2015. Statistical
parameters. Eng. Geol. 16 https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-7952(80)90009-5.
comparison of InSAR tropospheric correction techniques. Remote Sens. Environ. 170
El Fellah, B., Azzouz, O., Asebriy, L., 1996. Sikha Asfalou; exemple de glissement sur la
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.08.035.
côte méditerranéenne des Bokoya entre Torrès et Badis,(Rif septentrional, Maroc).
Benmakhlouf, M., 1990. Genèse et évolution de l’accident de Tétouan et son rôle
Bull. Eros. 16.
transformant au niveau du Rif septentrional ( Maroc ) ( Depuis l’oligocène jusqu’à
El Fellah, B., Mastere, M., 2015. Les côtiers méditerranéens du Rif central: facteurs
l’actuel ). Université Mohammed V, Faculté des Sciences.
induisant l’instabilité des versants. Bull. l’Institut Sci. Rabat 37, 35–43.
Bianchini, S., Herrera, G., Mateos, R.M., Notti, D., Garcia, I., Mora, O., Moretti, S., 2013.
El Gharbaoui, A., 1981. La terre et l’homme dans la péninsule tingitane: étude sur
Landslide activity maps generation by means of persistent scatterer interferometry.
l’homme et le milieu naturel dans le Rif Occidental. Institut scientifique.
Rem. Sens. 5 https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5126198.
El Kadiri, K., Linares, A., Oloriz, F., 2012. La Dorsale calcaire rifaine (Maroc
Bisci, C., Burattini, F., Dramis, F., Leoperdi, S., Pontoni, Fabrizio, Pontoni, Franco, 1996.
septentrional): évolution stratigraphique et géodynamique durant le Jurassique
The Sant’Agata Feltria landslide (Marche Region, central Italy): a case of recurrent
Crétacé. Notes Mém Serv géol Maroc 336, 217–265.
earthflow evolving from a deep-seated gravitational slope deformation.
El Kharim, Y., 2002. Etude des mouvements de versants dans la région de Tétouan (Rif
Geomorphology 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-555x(95)00080-o.
Occidental): inventaire analyse et cartographie. Abdelmaalek Essaadi.
Booth, A.M., McCarley, J., Hinkle, J., Shaw, S., Ampuero, J.P., Lamb, M.P., 2018.
El Moutchou, B., 2014. Caractérisation morphosédimentaire, morphodynamique,
Transient reactivation of a deep-seated landslide by undrained loading captured with
géomorphologique et dynamique des versants du littoral méditerranéen marocain
repeat airborne and terrestrial lidar. Geophys. Res. Lett. 45 https://doi.org/
entre Fnideq et Kaa Asresse (Provinces de Tétouan et Chefchaouen, Maroc Nord
10.1029/2018GL077812.
Occidental). Abdelmalek Essaadi-Fac. Sc. Tétouan.
Bracken, L.J., Cox, N.J., Shannon, J., 2008. The relationship between rainfall inputs and
El Moutchou, B., El Kharim, Y., 2013. Evolution spatio-temporelle et occupation du sol
flood generation in south-east Spain. Hydrol. Process. 22 https://doi.org/10.1002/
du littoral méditerranéen entre Martil et Azla (Tétouan, Maroc). Cah. UAE,
hyp.6641.
pp. 23–30, 8–9.
Brückl, E., Brunner, F.K., Kraus, K., 2006. Kinematics of a deep-seated landslide derived
Eltner, A., Kaiser, A., Castillo, C., Rock, G., Neugirg, F., Abellán, A., 2016. Image-based
from photogrammetric, GPS and geophysical data. Eng. Geol. 88 https://doi.org/
surface reconstruction in geomorphometry-merits, limits and developments. Earth
10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.09.004.
Surf. Dyn. 4, 359–389. https://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-359-2016.
Budetta, P., Santo, A., Vivenzio, F., 2008. Landslide hazard mapping along the coastline
Ferretti, A., Prati, C., Rocca, F., 2001. Analysis of permanent scatterers in SAR
of the Cilento region (Italy) by means of a GIS-based parameter rating approach.
interferometry. In: International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium
Geomorphology 94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.10.034.
(IGARSS). https://doi.org/10.1109/igarss.2000.861695.
Carpentier, S., Konz, M., Fischer, R., Anagnostopoulos, G., Meusburger, K., Schoeck, K.,
Fiorillo, F., Esposito, L., Grelle, G., Revellino, P., Guadagno, F.M., 2013. Further
2012. Geophysical imaging of shallow subsurface topography and its implication for
hydrological analyses on landslide initiation in the sarno area (Italy). Ital. J. Geosci.
shallow landslide susceptibility in the Urseren Valley, Switzerland. J. Appl. Geophys.
132 https://doi.org/10.3301/IJG.2012.43.
83 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2012.05.001.
Fonseca, A.F., 2014. Large Deep-Seated Landslides in the Northern Rif Mountains
Cebulski, J., Pasierb, B., Wieczorek, D., Zieliński, A., 2020. Reconstruction of landslide
(Northern Morocco): Inventory and Analysis. Request PDF.
movements using digital elevation model and electrical resistivity tomography
Foumelis, M., Blasco, J.M.D., Desnos, Y.L., Engdahl, M., Fernández, D., Veci, L., Lu, J.,
analysis in the polish outer Carpathians. Catena 195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Wong, C., 2018. ESA SNAP - stamps integrated processing for Sentinel-1 persistent
catena.2020.104758.
scatterer interferometry. In: International Geoscience and Remote Sensing
Cevasco, A., Brandolini, P., Scopesi, C., Rellini, I., 2013. Relationships between geo-
Symposium (IGARSS). https://doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8519545.
hydrological processes induced by heavy rainfall and land-use: the case of 25
Godio, A., Strobbia, C., Bacco, G., 2006. Geophysical characterisation of a rockslide in an
October 2011 in the Vernazza catchment (Cinque Terre, NW Italy). J. Maps 9.
alpine region. Eng. Geol. 83 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.034.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2013.780188.
Greif, V., Vicko, J., 2012. Monitoring of post-failure landslide deformation by the PS-
Chacón, J., Alameda-Hernández, P., Chacón, E., Delgado, J., Hamdouni, R.,
InSAR technique at Lubietova in Central Slovakia. Environ. Earth Sci., 66 https://
Fernández, P., Fernández, T., Gómez-López, J.M., Irigaray, C., Jiménez-
doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-0951-x.
Perálvarez, J., Llopis, L., Moya, J., Olóriz, F., Palenzuela, J.A., 2019. The Calaiza
Gutiérrez, F., Gutiérrez, M., 2016. Tectonic Landforms. In: Landforms of the Earth.
landslide on the coast of Granada (Andalusia, Spain). Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 78
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26947-4_3.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-018-1246-1.
Haque, U., Blum, P., da Silva, P.F., Andersen, P., Pilz, J., Chalov, S.R., Malet, J.P.,
Chalouan, A., Michard, A., 1990. The Ghomarides nappes, Rif coastal range, Morocco: a
Auflič, M.J., Andres, N., Poyiadji, E., Lamas, P.C., Zhang, W., Peshevski, I.,
variscan chip in the alpine belt. Tectonics 9. https://doi.org/10.1029/
Pétursson, H.G., Kurt, T., Dobrev, N., García-Davalillo, J.C., Halkia, M., Ferri, S.,
TC009i006p01565.
Gaprindashvili, G., Engström, J., Keellings, D., 2016. Fatal landslides in Europe.
Chalupa, V., Pánek, T., Tábořík, P., Klimeš, J., Hartvich, F., Grygar, R., 2018. Deep-
Landslides 13, 1545–1554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0689-3.
seated gravitational slope deformations controlled by the structure of flysch nappe
Herrera, G., Gutiérrez, F., García-Davalillo, J.C., Guerrero, J., Notti, D., Galve, J.P.,
outliers: insights from large-scale electrical resistivity tomography survey and LiDAR
Fernández-Merodo, J.A., Cooksley, G., 2013. Multi-sensor advanced DInSAR
mapping. Geomorphology 321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2018.08.029.

11
A. Bounab et al.
monitoring of very slow landslides: the Tena Valley case study (Central Spanish
Pyrenees). Remote Sens. Environ. 128 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.09.020.
Highland, L.M., Bobrowsky, P., 2008. The landslide Handbook - a guide to understanding
landslides. US Geol. Surv. Circular. https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1325.
Hooper, A., Bekaert, D., Spaans, K., Arikan, M., 2012. Recent advances in SAR
interferometry time series analysis for measuring crustal deformation.
Tectonophysics. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2011.10.013.
Hutchinson, J.N., 1988. General report: morphological and geotechnical parameters of
landslides in relation to geology and hydrogeology. In: Landslides. Proc. 5th Symp.
Lausanne, 1988, 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-9062(89)90310-0.
Iadanza, C., Trigila, A., Vittori, E., Serva, L., 2009. Landslides in coastal areas of Italy.
Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ. 322 https://doi.org/10.1144/SP322.5.
Iverson, R.M., Major, J.J., 1987. Rainfall, ground-water flow, and seasonal movement at
Minor Creek landslide, northwestern California: physical interpretation of empirical
relations. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 99 https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1987)
99<579:RGFASM>2.0.CO;2.
Jomard, H., Lebourg, T., Guglielmi, Y., Tric, E., 2010. Electrical imaging of sliding
geometry and fluids associated with a deep seated landslide (La Clapière, France).
Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 35. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1941.
Jongmans, D., Bièvre, G., Renalier, F., Schwartz, S., Beaurez, N., Orengo, Y., 2009.
Geophysical investigation of a large landslide in glaciolacustrine clays in the Trièves
area (French Alps). Eng. Geol. 109 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.10.005.
Jongmans, D., Garambois, S., 2007. Geophysical investigation of landslides: a review.
Bull. la Soc. Geol. Fr. https://doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.178.2.101.
Lacroix, P., Handwerger, A.L., Bièvre, G., 2020. Life and death of slow-moving
landslides. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 1 https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0072-8.
Lebourg, T., Binet, S., Tric, E., Jomard, H., Bedoui, S., 2005. Geophysical survey to
estimate the 3D sliding surface and the 4D evolution of the water pressure on part of
a deep seated landslide. Terra. Nova 17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
3121.2005.00623.x.
Lebourg, T., Zerathe, S., Fabre, R., Giuliano, J., Vidal, M., 2014. A Late Holocene deep-
seated landslide in the northern French Pyrenees. Geomorphology 208. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.11.008.
Leroy, S.A.G., Roiron, P., 1996. Latest pliocene pollen and leaf floras from Bernasso
palaeolake (Escandorgue Massif, Herault, France). Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 94
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-6667(96)00016-4.
Loke, M.H., Acworth, I., Dahlin, T., 2003. A comparison of smooth and blocky inversion
methods in 2D electrical imaging surveys. Explor. Geophys. 34 https://doi.org/
10.1071/EG03182.
Loke, M.H., Barker, R.D., 1996. Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity
pseudosections by a quasi-Newton method. Geophys. Prospect. 44, 131–152.
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2478.1996.TB00142.X.
Luque-Espinar, J.A., Mateos, R.M., García-Moreno, I., Pardo-Igúzquiza, E., Herrera, G.,
2017. Spectral analysis of climate cycles to predict rainfall induced landslides in the
western Mediterranean (Majorca, Spain). Nat. Hazards 89. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11069-017-3003-3.
Macklin, M.G., Fuller, I.C., Lewin, J., Maas, G.S., Passmore, D.G., Rose, J., Woodward, J.
C., Black, S., Hamlin, R.H.B., Rowan, J.S., 2002. Correlation of fluvial sequences in
the Mediterranean basin over the last 200 ka and their relationship to climate
change. Quat. Sci. Rev. 21 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00147-0.
Mantovani, M., Devoto, S., Piacentini, D., Prampolini, M., Soldati, M., Pasuto, A., 2016.
Advanced SAR interferometric analysis to support geomorphological interpretation
of slow-moving coastal landslides (Malta, Mediterranean Sea). Rem. Sens. 8 https://
doi.org/10.3390/rs8060443.
Mateos, R.M., Azañón, J.M., Roldán, F.J., Notti, D., Pérez-Peña, V., Galve, J.P., Pérez-
García, J.L., Colomo, C.M., Gómez-López, J.M., Montserrat, O., Devantèry, N.,
Lamas-Fernández, F., Fernández-Chacón, F., 2017. The combined use of PSInSAR
and UAV photogrammetry techniques for the analysis of the kinematics of a coastal
landslide affecting an urban area (SE Spain). Landslides 14. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10346-016-0723-5.
Mateos, R.M., Ezquerro, P., Azañón, J.M., Gelabert, B., Herrera, G., Fernández-
Merodo, J.A., Spizzichino, D., Sarro, R., García-Moreno, I., Béjar-Pizarro, M., 2018.
The Bàlitx area is located on the steep coastal side of the Tramuntana Range
(Majorca), a mountainous region which was declared a World Heritage Site by
UNESCO in 2011 in the cultural landscape category. In: The Bàlitx site was occupied
by farming areas with. Landslides. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0949-5.
Maurer, G., 1968. Les montagnes du Rif central: Etude géomorphologique. Université de
Paris.
Michard, A., Negro, F., Saddiqi, O., Bouybaouene, M.L., Chalouan, A., Montigny, R.,
Goffé, B., 2006. Pressure-temperature-time constraints on the Maghrebide mountain
building: evidence from the Rif-Betic transect (Morocco, Spain), Algerian
correlations, and geodynamic implications. Compt. Rendus Geosci. 338 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.crte.2005.11.011.
Mooney, H., Wetzel, W.W., 1956. The Potentials about A Point Electrode and Apparent
Resistivity Curves for a Two- Three- and Four-Layer Earth. University of Minnesota
Press. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-195702000-00021. Soil Science.
Mrini, A., Anthony, E.J., Maanan, M., Taaouati, M., Nachite, D., 2012. Beach-dune
degradation in a Mediterranean context of strong development pressures, and the
missing integrated management perspective. Ocean Coast Manag. 69 https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.08.004.
Negro, F., Beyssac, O., Goffé, B., Saddiqi, O., Bouybaouène, M.L., 2006. Thermal
structure of the Alboran Domain in the Rif (northern Morocco) and the Western
Betics (southern Spain). Constraints from Raman spectroscopy of carbonaceous
material. J. Metamorph. Geol. 24 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-
1314.2006.00639.x.
12
Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104345
Niethammer, U., James, M.R., Rothmund, S., Travelletti, J., Joswig, M., 2012. UAV-
based remote sensing of the Super-Sauze landslide: Evaluation and results. Eng.
Geol. 128 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.03.012.
Noller, J., Sowers, J., Lettis, W., 2000. Quaternary geochronology. Methods and
applications. Am. Geophys. Union 4, 582.
Notti, D., Galve, J.P., Mateos, R.M., Monserrat, O., Lamas-Fernández, F., Fernández-
Chacón, F., Roldán-García, F.J., Pérez-Peña, J.V., Crosetto, M., Azañón, J.M., 2015.
Human-induced coastal landslide reactivation. In: Monitoring by PSInSAR
techniques and urban damage survey (SE Spain). Landslides, 12. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10346-015-0612-3.
Notti, D., Herrera, G., Bianchini, S., Meisina, C., García-Davalillo, J.C., Zucca, F., 2014.
A methodology for improving landslide PSI data analysis. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 35
https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2014.889864.
Ouazani-Touhami, A., Chalouan, A., 1995. La distension de l’Oligocène-early Burdigalian
extensional stages in the Ghomarides nappes (internal Rif), Maroc. Geogaceta 17,
113–116.
Palacky, G.J., 1988. 3. Resistivity characteristics of geologic targets. Electromagn.
Methods Appl. Geophys. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.9781560802631.ch3.
Palis, E., Lebourg, T., Tric, E., Malet, J.P., Vidal, M., 2017. Long-term monitoring of a
large deep-seated landslide (La Clapiere, South-East French Alps): initial study.
Landslides 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-016-0705-7.
Pasuto, A., Soldati, M., 1996. Rock spreading. In: Dikau, R., Brunsden, D., Schrott, I.,
Ibsen, M. (Eds.), Landslide Recognition: Identification, Movement and Causes.
Wiley, Chichester, pp. 122–136.
Perrone, A., Lapenna, V., Piscitelli, S., 2014. Electrical resistivity tomography technique
for landslide investigation: a review. Earth Sci. Rev. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
earscirev.2014.04.002.
Peruccacci, S., Brunetti, M.T., Luciani, S., Vennari, C., Guzzetti, F., 2012. Lithological
and seasonal control on rainfall thresholds for the possible initiation of landslides in
central Italy. Geomorphology 139–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geomorph.2011.10.005.
Petley, D., 2012. Global patterns of loss of life from landslides. Geology 40. https://doi.
org/10.1130/G33217.1.
Piacentini, D., Ercolessi, G., Pizziolo, M., Troiani, F., 2015. Rockfall runout, mount
Cimone area, Emilia-romagna region. Italy J. Maps 11. https://doi.org/10.1080/
17445647.2014.956154.
Platt, J.P., Vissers, R.L.M., 1989. Extensional collapse of thickened continental
lithosphere : a working hypothesis for the Alboran Sea and Gibraltar arc. Geology 17,
540–543.
Prokešová, R., Kardoš, M., Tábořík, P., Medveďová, A., Stacke, V., Chudý, F., 2014.
Kinematic behaviour of a large earthflow defined by surface displacement
monitoring, DEM differencing, and ERT imaging. Geomorphology 224, 86–101.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.06.029.
Prokešová, R., Medveďová, A., Tábořík, P., Snopková, Z., 2013. Towards hydrological
triggering mechanisms of large deep-seated landslides. Landslides 10. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10346-012-0330-z.
Radbruch-Hall, D.H., 1978. Gravitational creep of rock masses on slopes. Dev. Geotech.
Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-41507-3.50025-8.
Rossi, G., Tanteri, L., Tofani, V., Vannocci, P., Moretti, S., Casagli, N., 2018.
Multitemporal UAV surveys for landslide mapping and characterization. Landslides
15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0978-0.
Salhi, A., Martin-Vide, J., Benhamrouche, A., Benabdelouahab, S., Himi, M.,
Benabdelouahab, T., Ponsati, A.C., 2019. Rainfall distribution and trends of the daily
precipitation concentration index in northern Morocco: a need for an adaptive
environmental policy. SN Appl. Sci. 1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0290-1.
Sasaki, Y., 1992. Resolution OF resistivity tomography inferred from numerical
simulation. Geophys. Prospect. 40 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1992.
tb00536.x.
Sepúlveda, S.A., Petley, D.N., 2015. Regional trends and controlling factors of fatal
landslides in Latin America and the Caribbean. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 15
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-1821-2015.
Soldati, M., Devoto, S., Prampolini, M., Pasuto, A., 2019. The spectacular landslide-
controlled landscape of the Northwestern Coast of Malta. World Geomorphol.
Landscapes. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15456-1_14.
Stafford, D., Langfelder, J., 1971. Air photo survey of coastal erosion. Photogramm. Eng.
37.
Turner, D., Lucieer, A., de Jong, S.M., 2015. Time series analysis of landslide dynamics
using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Rem. Sens. 7 https://doi.org/10.3390/
rs70201736.
Vesica, P.L., Tuccimei, P., Turi, B., Fornós, J.J., Ginés, A., Ginés, J., 2000. Late
Pleistocene Paleoclimates and sea-level change in the Mediterranean as inferred
from stable isotope and U-series studies of overgrowths on speleothems, Mallorca,
Spain. Quat. Sci. Rev. 19 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00026-8.
Young, A.P., 2015. Recent deep-seated coastal landsliding at San Onofre state beach,
California. Geomorphology 228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.08.005.
Zazo, C., Goy, J.L., Dabrio, C.J., Bardají, T., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Ghaleb, B., González-
Delgado, J.Á., Soler, V., 2003. Pleistocene raised marine terraces of the Spanish
Mediterranean and Atlantic Coasts: records of coastal uplift, sea-level highstands and
climate changes. In: Marine Geology. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-3227(02)
00701-6.
Zerathe, S., Lebourg, T., Braucher, R., Bourlès, D., 2012. Middle Holocene landslide
cluster in the south-western Alps: results from cosmic ray exposure dating of
numerous large-scale gravitational failures. Geophys. Res. Abstr.
Zhang, F., Huang, X., 2018. Trend and spatiotemporal distribution of fatal landslides
triggered by non-seismic effects in China. Landslides 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10346-018-1007-z.