Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-0733-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Detection of underground cavities by combining gravity,
magnetic and ground penetrating radar surveys: a case
study from the Zaragoza area, NE Spain
T. Mochales Æ A. M. Casas Æ E. L. Pueyo Æ O. Pueyo Æ
M. T. Román Æ A. Pocovı́ Æ M. A. Soriano Æ D. Ansón
Received: 20 May 2006 / Accepted: 6 March 2007 / Published online: 12 April 2007

Springer-Verlag 2007
Abstract A geophysical survey routine is proposed to
detect underground cavities and dolines; it is based on the
sequential application of magnetic, low-frequency ground
penetrating radar (GPR) and microgravity techniques. A
case study near Zaragoza (Ebro valley, Spain) demon-
strates the applicability of these methods. The strong
contrast of magnetic and electromagnetic properties (and to
a lesser scale, of density) between the doline filling and the
surrounding stratified Tertiary and Quaternary rocks allows
the shape of filled cavities to be clearly outlined by these
methods.
Keywords Geophysical survey
Gravimetry

Magnetometry
GPR
Introduction
Around Zaragoza there is a serious karstic hazard caused by
gypsum dissolution; this results in subsidence and the col-
lapse of Quaternary terraces and pediments producing do-
lines (Soriano 1990; Benito et al. 2000; Soriano and Simón
2002; Gutiérrez et al. 2005a, and references therein). This
T. Mochales (&)
A. M. Casas
O. Pueyo

M. T. Román
A. Pocovı́
M. A. Soriano
Dpto. de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Zaragoza,
Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
e-mail: tania@unizar.es
E. L. Pueyo
Geologia y Geofı́sica Instituto Geológico y Minero de España,
F. el Católico 59, 4C, 50006 Zaragoza, Spain
D. Ansón
ARCOTECNOS S.A. Polı́gono Molino del Pilar, Cno. de los
Molinos S/N, c/ B, nave 68, 50015 Zaragoza, Spain
active process is a major source of property damage and a
potential cause of personal injuries. It is a growing problem
because of rapid urban development and changes over re-
cent decades in the way town planning has controlled the
area. While the population of Zaragoza has remained
approximately constant, the city has multiplied its urban
and industrial area by four times in four decades.
There are many important research and technical issues
related to the karst subsidence problem, but hazard map-
ping is of the highest priority. This is especially so in civil
engineering where it is of key importance for managing
safe urban and civil construction. Classic detection tech-
niques for dolines include the examination of aerial pho-
tographs and satellite images, geomorphologic field
inspection and data gathering by interviewing farmers and
local residents. Used together, these techniques have pro-
duced reasonably good maps over the past decade (Soriano
and Simón 1995; Gutiérrez et al. 2005b). However, these
datasets are spatially and temporally discontinuous repre-
senting only snapshots in time of the actual doline distri-
bution. Unfortunately, in many areas where rapid urban
development has concealed the surface features, the direct
application of geological and geomorphological methods is
not possible. Reliable hazard mapping, especially for de-
tailed studies such as civil engineering, cannot rely solely
on this information source and the gaps in the temporal and
spatial data need to be filled by other techniques.
In many cases, karstic structures, such as subsidence
features, voids and collapses represent disruptions to the
geometry of an originally near-horizontal layered system.
Geophysical techniques can be used to identify the feature
geometries by contrasts in the physical properties. These
properties, such as density, magnetic susceptibility, elec-
trical resistivity and conductivity, vary between the media
involved, and materials such as limestone, gypsum,
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siltstone, clay, sand, breccia, air and water all have dif-
ferent geophysical properties. Consequently, geophysical
surveys are commonly applied for the detection of different
types of subsoil anomalies. They allow large areas to be
covered in short times and represent an efficient way to
detect subsurface heterogeneities including voids, subsi-
dence areas or refilled cavities. Techniques used include
seismic reflection and refraction (Cook 1965, 1974), gra-
vimetry (Colley 1963; Butler 1984; Bishop et al. 1997;
Rybakov et al. 2001), ground penetrating radar (Ballard
1983; Annan et al. 1991) and electric resistivity tomogra-
phy (Zhou et al. 2002). More recently, surveying based on
magnetic susceptibility differences has also proved useful
for detecting and modeling cavities and soil heterogeneities
on the outskirts of urban areas (Rybakov et al. 2005; Mathé
et al. 2006; Mochales 2006; Mochales et al. 2006). Over
the last few years, multidisciplinary geophysical techniques
have proved to be very effective (Mathews et al. 2000;
Beres et al. 2001; McGrath et al. 2002; Thierry et al. 2005).
Geophysical surveying has proved to be a good tool for
improving and complementing classic hazard mapping.
Unfortunately it has not been extensively used in the cen-
tral Ebro Basin, despite demonstrations of its effectiveness.
Fig. 1 a Geological sketch of the Ebro basin; the star indicates the location of the study area. b Geomorphological map northwest Zaragoza
(from the study of aerial photographs taken in 1957); the square shows the studied area. c Satellite image of the El Caidero study area
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Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
In this paper we report on our multidisciplinary geo-
physical approach, that we used to investigate a well-
known doline near to the new high velocity railway track
near Zaragoza. Three geophysical methods were utilized in
the two hectare sites centered on the target doline, they
included magnetometry, gravimetry and ground penetrat-
ing radar. The goal of this study was to compare the dif-
ferent results and define a geophysical surveying
framework that was designed for the specific problem at
Zaragoza, and as an aid to the detection of dolines in other
locations.
Geological and geomorphological setting
The Ebro basin is located in north-east Spain bounded by
the Pyrenees to the north, the Iberian Range to the south
and the Catalonian Coastal Range to the east (Fig. 1a).
During the Tertiary, the basin was the southern foreland
basin of the Pyrenees, and its evolution was mainly
controlled by the structural development of that range. In
the Ebro basin, the thickness of the Tertiary sedimentary
fill is asymmetrical, being thicker in the northern margin
Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
(Riba et al. 1983). In the Late Eocene, the connection with
the ocean was closed and the sedimentary environments
were continental with alluvial fan, shallow evaporitic and
carbonate lacustrine systems. Consequently, the facies of
the exposed rocks include clastic, evaporite (mainly
gypsum and halite) and carbonate rock types (Pardo et al.
2004). Between 12.5 and 8.5 million years ago, the Ebro
basin started to drain towards the Mediterranean
Sea (Pérez-Rivarés et al. 2002; Garcı́a-Castellanos et al.
2003). The Neogene rocks show near horizontal bedding,
but gentle macrostructural deformation (folds and
faults) and fractures are also present (Arlegui and Simón
2001).
The transformation from the enclosed endorheic Ebro
basin into the open basin that drained towards the Medi-
terranean Sea, caused erosion that lasted from the Late
Miocene through to the present. The Quaternary and recent
sediments, comprise mainly fluvial terraces and mantled
pediment levels that partly cover the Tertiary rocks and
relate to the activity of the Ebro River and its tributaries
(Fig. 1b). In the central sector of the Ebro Basin, eight
stepped levels are recognized (Soriano 1990). The three
youngest terraces are the best represented of those in the
Zaragoza area. In comparison, the oldest (upper) terraces
are partially eroded and, in most cases, preserved only as
small remnants on hilltops. The Quaternary terraces vary in
mean thickness from 10 to 25 m. They comprise mainly
gravel with some sandy and silty beds, showing a variety of
sedimentary structures; the tops of the deposits have widely
developed carbonate crusts. With a source at the base of the
structural landforms, alluvial activity generated extensive
pediments that spread towards the Ebro River contempo-
rary with terrace development. The thickness of these
deposits range from 1 to 6 m, and they include sands, silts
and angular to sub-angular gravels.
The Quaternary deposits of the central Ebro Basin show
deformation features that include tectonic, gravitational
and diapiric structures (Simón and Soriano 1986; Benito
and Casas 1987; Gutiérrez et al. 1994). Karst processes are
one of the most important factors affecting this area. The
karst is generated by the dissolution of evaporites and,
depending on its cohesive or non-cohesive behavior, the
subsequent collapse or dragging down of the overlying
Quaternary cover (Soriano and Simón 1995; Gutiérrez and
Gutiérrez 1998 and references therein). Seasonal oscilla-
tions in the water table are also an important factor in these
processes. A result of this dissolution and collapse is the
anomalous thickening of some terraces of the lower part of
the Gállego River, a tributary of the Ebro River (Benito
et al. 2000). Another result is the occurrence at outcrop of
palaeocollapse features that vary in size and morphology
(Guerrero et al 2004; Soriano et al. 2004). The recognised
karst processes are both syn-sedimentary and post-sedi-
1069
mentary with the Quaternary deposits. Currently extensive
doline fields with varied morphologies have been identified
on the terraces (mainly in the youngest levels T1, T2 and
T3), pediment levels and alluvial fans (Gutiérrez et al.
2005b and references therein). The doline studied for this
present work is located on the T3 terrace of the Ebro River
to the west of Zaragoza City (Fig. 1c).
Methodology
Geophysical prospecting methods have proved a very
useful tool for determining the location and size of cav-
ities below the surface (Mathews et al. 2000; Beres et al.
2001; McGrath et al. 2002; Thierry et al. 2005; Rybakov
et al. 2001, 2005). Methods based on potential fields are
mainly gravimetry and magnetometry. Gravity studies
have been widely and routinely used, but the time-con-
suming nature of this technique is an important drawback
when large areas need to be surveyed (Butler 1984; Hinze
1991; Benito et al. 1995; Buttrick and Schalkwyk 1998;
Matthews et al. 2000). Compared with gravity surveying,
the magnetometry method is much faster allowing large
areas to be covered in a short time. However, the method
is problematical in strongly urbanized areas, where
metallic items such as steel reinforcement, pipes and
electrical services prevent the technique from working.
Away from these problematical areas, the simplicity of
the method, its quick application and its relatively simple
assumptions make it a suitable method for cavity detec-
tion (Alastruey et al. 2002; Thierry et al. 2005; Rybakov
et al. 2005; Mochales et al. 2006 and references therein).
The potential character of both methods means there are
no limitations on the depth to which they can be applied,
though their ability to resolve features diminishes as depth
increases.
In many cases, seismic refraction and seismic reflection
studies have also been proved to be useful in cavity
detection. Electrical methods, especially electromagnetic
methods, have undergone a very strong development in
recent years (Cook 1965; Ballard 1983; Annan et al. 1991;
Neal et al. 2002; Reynolds 1997; Zhou et al. 2002). The
great advantage of electromagnetic methods, compared
with electrical resistivity, is that electrodes do not need to
be inserted into the ground, thus allowing their use in urban
areas. Of the electromagnetic methods, ground-penetrating
radar (GPR), based on electromagnetic wave propagation,
is probably the one that provides the most direct informa-
tion about the subsoil geometry. Its has been strongly
developed in recent years and applied to numerous differ-
ent geotechnical, hydrological and engineering problems
allowing the results from different situations to be com-
pared.
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Results: interpretations and modeling
Magnetic prospecting
Two models of proton gradiometer were used during the
study for measuring both the intensity and gradient of the
magnetic field. The PMG-1 model (GF Instruments Ltd.)
gives a 0.1 nT resolution and 1 nT accuracy and is able to
take a measurement every 4 s. The GSM-19 magnetometer
(GEM Systems, Inc.) with 0.01 nT in resolution and 0.2 nT
accuracy (and four measurements per second) simulta-
neously provides the corresponding GPS location. Using
the PMG-1 gradiometer, a detailed dense square 2–5 m
grid of data, with more than 5,000 measurements, was
collected in the collapse area (Fig. 2a), to define the
magnetic anomalies (for more information, see Mochales
et al. 2006). In order to verify and contrast the magnetic
Fig. 2 a Square grid (150 · 150 m) surveyed with the PMG-1
gradiometer. b Survey pattern collected using the GMS-19 gradiom-
eter. c Doline 1 produced an anomaly higher than 650 nT in intensity
and 150 nTm–1 in gradient. Doline 2, located 80 m to the south-west
of doline 1, was characterised by a 25 m wide dipolar anomaly
450 nT in intensity and 90 nTm–1 in gradient. Doline 3, 20 m north-
east from doline 1, showed a dipolar anomaly of 110 nT in intensity
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Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
signal of the selected doline, the GMS-19 equipment was
used to make another grid (Fig. 2b). In this case, the GPS
system allowed the positioning of more than 6,800 mea-
surements in 42 sections to within a 1 m resolution.
Measurements were taken during quiet solar periods,
and possible abrupt changes of the Earth’s Magnetic Field
were avoided by using information from the daily records
of the Ebro Magnetic Observatory located 150 km east-
wards of the study area. Despite the distance between this
observatory and the survey area the background variations
in magnetic field could be taken into account. Both the
intensity of the detected anomalies with respect to diurnal
variations, and the different amplitude of anomalies gath-
ered on the ground and on the regional magnetic field,
allow the observed local anomalies to be interpreted. From
the observatory measurements it can be assessed that
background intensity differences during the measurement
and 40 nT in gradient, with a diameter of 1–2 m. d For doline 1 the
GMS-19 gradiometer defined a total intensity anomaly of 900 nT
with a 150 nTm–1 gradient. e Modeling of observed anomalies
suggest a funnel morphology for doline 1 which fits with the observed
anomaly. f Modeling of a vertical cave and cemented terrace near the
subsidence doline 2 give a fit that approaches that of the observed
anomaly
Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
time were never higher than 10 nT while problems of
micropulsation activity were averaged by limiting the
measurement velocity to 1 m per several seconds.
Magnetic susceptibility and remanence of the involved
materials respectively control the induced and remanent
magnetizations; these are the first-order parameters for
modeling magnetic anomalies. Magnetic susceptibility was
monitored in several situations: (i) in the surface of the
doline area and in the soils and rocks of the Zaragoza area,
(more than 1,000 average measurements); (ii) in the rubble
filling of the doline and (iii) from five continuous borehole
cores from the vicinity of Zaragoza (100 m in total length).
The values of susceptibility were taken with a KLY-3
(Agico Ltd.) and a SM-20 (GF Instruments) susceptibility
meters. Some remanence measurements were taken using a
three axis 760 SQUID magnetometer (2G Ltd.) in order to
control the effect of a possible remanent magnetization on
the magnetic intensity measurement. The results obtained
for volumetric susceptibility are: 2,000–3,000 · 10–6 SI for
the agricultural soils; Quaternary alluvium varies between
100 · 10–6 SI (alluvial gravels) and 350 · 10–6 SI (silts);
Miocene marls show values of 100 · 10–6 SI, reaching
30 · 10–6 SI where there is an important volumetric ratio
of gypsum within marls; the underlying diamagnetic Ter-
tiary gypsum varies between –10 and –50 · 10–6 SI. Urban
debris gives values between two to three orders of mag-
nitude higher, reaching 40,000 · 10–6 SI. Remanence was
found to be non-significant since the Krönisberger ratio
(Q = Remanent Magnetization/Induced Magnetization)
was usually below 0.5 (except for Tertiary marls), allowing
for remanence not to be considered in magnetic modeling.
A minority of samples with higher values were also re-
jected due to the chaotic ordering (self-balance effect) of
the materials involved in the terrace, agricultural soil and
doline filling.
Prospecting made by means of PMG-1 (see also Moc-
hales et al. 2006) showed noticeable anomalies across the
doline, more than 650 nT in intensity (dipolar anomaly)
and 150 nT m–1 in gradiometer. In addition, two other
large anomalies were detected, caused by two other unseen
dolines that have no surface expression. Interviews with
local farmers confirmed the existence of these dolines in
the study area (Fig. 2c). A 3-D projection of the magnetic
anomalies indicates that the three anomalies are aligned
parallel to the local groundwater flow trend (NE, Bielza
et al. 1993).
A second survey was performed over the present study
using the gradiometer GMS-19. In this survey, the presence
of dolines 1 and 3 were verified, but the site of doline 2
could not be surveyed due to the presence of cereal crops.
The anomaly recorded for the main doline in the spring of
2006 appears larger than it was when it was first surveyed
in the autumn of 2004. At present the anomaly reaches
1071
900 nT in intensity and 190 nTm–1 in gradient; this is
interpreted to be due to continuous filling of the cavity with
urban debris the principal cause of the anomaly (Fig. 2d).
Modeling of the anomaly obtained was done by means
of Gravmag program (British Geological Survey, Pedley
et al. 1993) that allows 2.5 D modeling (the third dimen-
sion is regarded as half-strike length of bodies in the per-
pendicular direction to the cross-section). Combining the
parameters of susceptibility and geometry of different
bodies allow models to be constructed and their curves
fitted to the real curve. Modeled profiles have a N–S
direction and to fit them to the real anomalies of the main
collapse, the components of the bodies were simplified.
The background area was modeled as a cover of agricul-
tural soil (more than 1 m thick) over the Quaternary ter-
race. The causative body of the anomaly was modeled as
urban debris, with a susceptibility two orders of magnitude
higher than natural materials (Fig. 2e). Introducing the
above susceptibility values, the main doline models in
depth as a funnel shape. For doline 2, the susceptibility
values used are similar with the layer of agricultural soil
more than 1 m thick in the subsidence area which is 35 m
in diameter. The filling of the doline produces the required
contrast with a small amount of urban debris. To fit the
modeled to the real anomaly it was necessary to invoke two
new bodies into the model, these are a vertical cavity 6 m
deep and 1 m wide, filled with high susceptibility materials
and a small layer of cemented terrace (Fig. 2f). However,
this model does not fit exactly to the observed curve and
the suggestion is that other undetected bodies with different
susceptibility values are present below the surface.
GPR prospecting
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-destructive
geophysical method that produces a cross-sectional image
of the shallow sub-surface profile, the resulting image
(radargram) is very similar in style to a seismic profile.
This is to be expected as GPR acquisition is based on the
propagation reflection and scattering of high frequency
electromagnetic waves in the soil (generally from 10 to
1,000 MHz). Reflections are produced by boundaries be-
tween items with contrasting electrical properties, such as
grain size distribution (sorting, clay content), porosity,
water content and the electrical properties of the particles
themselves (Knight and Nur 1987; Davis and Annan 1989;
Annan et al. 1991). Consequently, subsurface features such
as sedimentary structures, lithological changes and the
water table can all generate primary reflections (Neal et al.
2002).
A Ramac unshielded GPR system with central antenna
frequency of 50 MHz was used. The wave propagation
velocity in the ground has been estimated by hyperbolae
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1072 Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077

fitting with a mean value of 7.5 cm/ns. This propagation
velocity is a typical value for agricultural soil (Reynolds
1997). The survey was focused in three different grids. In
total 55 GPR-profiles were made comprising more than
2,700 m of linear survey. The profile separation, in each
grid was 5 m with the survey made in two perpendicular
directions giving a twofold characterization of the subsoil.
This method allows for the lateral continuity of the
anomalous sectors to be defined. Profile processing in-
cluded sequential zero-time corrections, running average
filter, exponential gain function, band-pass filter and
plotting. The grid-maps were drawn by the lateral inter-
polation of the same direction profiles in each grid. These
maps can be drawn either with the total vertical profile or
by making different grid-maps of different time intervals;
both types of maps were used.
The penetration differences observed in the grid-maps
represent a qualitative indicator of the variations in the
underground electromagnetic behavior that define anom-
alous sectors. These anomalous sectors could be related
to wave penetration variations or wave propagation
velocity changes, but they must be compared with the
GPR-profiles.
In grid 1, located on the main collapse, GPR-profiles
show homogeneous wave behavior, except in the northern
part of the grid (Fig. 3). This anomalous zone is charac-
terized by the presence of high conductivity elements
(multiple reflection anomalies in the GPR-profiles). The
geometry map of this anomalous sector is a low-eccen-
tricity ellipse (12 m per 13 m), along the N–S and E–W
directions, respectively. The grid-map shows an abrupt
positive anomaly related to the filling of a karstic col-
lapse. The filling of the doline has an important reflec-
tivity and defines a zone with multiple reflection
anomalies.
Grid 2 indicates an anomalous sector characterized by
clustering of hyperbolae anomalies, which surround a
sector with different wave propagation behaviors (Fig. 3c).
The depth to the top of this anomalous sector is 5 m and it
reaches 9 m in depth. Hyperbolic anomalies are generated
by abrupt permittivity variations. The interpretation of this
anomalous zone could be controversial, it could be related

(A) (B)
N

GRID 1

GRID 3

GRID 2

Anomalous sector
GRID 1 0 5 10 15
Track Building
Boundary Doline filling
0 20 m (D)
N
Irrigation ditch GPR profile

(C) N
Pro file A
GRID 2
N
A
Profile

B
Profile

Pro file B

GRID 3 Onlap geometry

Anomalous sector Anomalous sector

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15

Fig. 3 Maps summarizing the ground penetrating radar (GPR) profile from Grid 1. c Same for Grid 3 (145 < t < 260 ns) with two
survey. a Location of the GPR survey grids 1–3 and the component example profiles. d Same for Grid 2 (230 < t < 260 ns) with an
GPR profiles. b Anomaly correlation map of Grid 1 (0 < t < 260 ns) example profile. The locations of the example profiles are also shown
with the location of the anomalous sector (gray color) and an example in their respective grids

123
Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
to a paleo-collapse, a cavity with irregular roof shape or an
intermediate case. Cavities detected on GPR-profiles else-
where show similar behavior to those presented here (for
example Beres et al. 2001).
Grid 3 shows an anomalous sector where EM waves
have a different penetration defining a zone with a nearly
circular geometry. The borders of this anomalous sector are
characterized by onlap reflection geometries and its
dimensions are 24 m and 28 m along the N–S and E–W
directions respectively (Fig. 3d). The presence of onlap
geometries in the marginal area of the penetration variation
zone can be used as an indicator of active subsidence, and
the different electromagnetic behavior of this zone could be
explained by the differential filling of the subsidence zone.
In this case, the filling may be interpreted to consist of
natural materials, but with different electromagnetic
behavior and structure.
Gravity measurements
For gravity prospecting, a Burris Gravity meter (ZLS
corp.), with a precision of 0.001 mGal, and a repeat-
ability of 0.003 mGal was used. The topographic elevation
of the stations was determined using a laser level with a
precision higher than 1 mm (LEICA Sprinter). Gravity data
comes from five E–W gravity cross-sections over the re-
gion in and around the doline 1, based on 120 gravity
measurements. Measurements were taken homogeneously
distributed along each section, with one measurement ev-
ery 2 m in the five sections near doline 1, and a section
with measurements every 4 m in doline 2. In doline 1 the
sections are separated 5–10 m from each other (Fig. 4a)
and orientated east–west. This procedure enables us to
estimate error margins during the gravimetric exploration
of at least ±0.005 mGal. Latitude, elevation and Bouguer
corrections (with a reduction density of 1,800 kg m–3)
were applied to all gravity values. Since the topography of
the study area is flat, no topographic correction was ap-
plied.
After figuring the Bouguer anomaly cross-sections
(Fig. 4b) the densities of the natural rocks (Tertiary and
Quaternary) of the doline were determined from direct
measurements of 36 samples (dry and saturated) obtained
from boreholes in the surroundings of the doline (Fig. 4c).
For the doline filling, the densities could not be calculated
because of its heterogeneity with individual objects varying
in density from iron (about 5,000 kg m–3) to uncompacted
gypsiferous silts (1,500 kg m–3).
The section of the Bouguer anomaly for the central part
of the doline (Fig. 4b) shows a well-defined low in the
central part of the doline with slightly increasing values
toward its borders. The doline contour shape is well defined
by the anomaly gradient. However, in the profiles located
1073
5 m to the north and south of the main doline this negative
anomaly is not so well defined, confirming the funnel shape
of the cavity. In addition, positive anomalies, probably due
to high-density, shallow bodies in the filling are also
present. Doline 2 is also defined by a negative anomaly, but
a regional trend can also be defined and this is probably
related to changes in the thickness of the different sedi-
mentary levels.
Gravimetric modeling of the gravity anomalies on the
cross sections also allow the geometry of doline 1 to be
defined at depth (Fig. 4d). This modeling of the doline
indicates a funnel-shaped geometry with an average
depth of 20 m. Two kinds of filling can be predicted
separated by their densities: a low-density filling, prob-
ably resulting from the non-compacted urban debris, and
a high-density filling at greater depths, creating the rel-
ative gravity highs towards the borders of the negative
anomaly.
Scope and limitations of the proposed routine
The routine described here has proved the use of three
geophysical techniques to detect a known cavity filled with
urban debris. For this study, the conditions for detecting the
cavity by the three methods were good as there were strong
contrasts of density, magnetic susceptibility and dielectric
constant between the filling and the country rocks. We
foresee that the use of the three techniques combined could
help to detect other cavity-filling types including:
– Air or water-filled cavities. For these, depending on the
void size and the host rock susceptibility, magnetic
anomalies may probably be of very weak intensity.
However, the density contrast will be strong and it is
likely that these cavities could be detected by means of
gravity prospecting (Butler 1984); if they are shallow,
they may also be imaged by GPR.
– For subsidence dolines with natural filling, both the
density and magnetic susceptibility contrasts may be
small, but the geometries associated with progressive
subsidence at shallow depths should be detected by
means of GPR (Knez et al. 2005). Subsidence dolines
with a filling of debris will probably show similar
anomalies to those obtained by this current study.
Interpretations based on physical properties, can be
made according to the assumptions presented above, but
the applicability to each particular situation must be con-
sidered. The doline typology must be carefully tested be-
fore reliable conclusions are proposed for a particular site.
Work in progress by our team is trying to define the
boundary conditions for individual case studies within the
gypsum karst of the Zaragoza area.
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1074 Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077

3652.900

Bouguer anomaly (mGal)

3652.880
N

0 10 20 m 3652.860
profile 1

3652.840
doline 1
3652.820

40 m
40 m 1 3652.800
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
2 0
38 m 0 profile distance (m)
40 m 3
4 0 3652.900

Bouguer anomaly (mGal)

3652.880
profile 2
3652.860

3652.840
doline 2
0 84 m
5 3652.820

3652.800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
profile distance (m)

Track Boundary Doline filling 3652.900

Building Irrigation ditch

5
Gravimetric profile A 3652.880

Bouguer anomaly (mGal)

3652.860
profile 3

Gravity survey 3652.840

3652.820

3652.800

3652.900 3652.780
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
profile 5 profile distance (m)
3652.880
Bouguer anomaly (mGal)

3652.900
3652.860
Bouguer anomaly (mGal)

profile 4
3652.880
3652.840

3652.860
3652.820

3652.840
3652.800

3652.820
3652.780
0 10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
profile distance (m)
profile distance (m)

dry density 2.5D Gravity modelling 3652.900

(m) saturated density
1
3
3652.850
5
7 calculated gravity anomaly mGal
profile 1
9 observed gravity anomaly
11 3652.800
13 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
15 profile distance (m)
17 0
19
21 -4
23
25 -8
27 elevation
29 (m)
-12
31 agricultural soil 2.1 g/cm3
33 alluvial terrace 2.3 g/cm3 -16
35
urban debris 1.74 g/cm3
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2. 3 -20
urban debris 2.05 g/cm3
density (g/cm 3 ) C -24 D

Fig. 4 a Sketch map with the location of gravity profiles (numbered of 36 samples (dry and saturated). d Cross-section obtained from 2.5D
1–5). b Bouguer anomaly for the five gravity profiles. c Densities of gravimetric modeling for the doline 1 (profile 1). Density values used
the natural rocks (Tertiary and Quaternary) from a borehole located in are indicated in the legend. Gravity modeling of the doline indicates a
the surroundings of the doline determined from direct measurements funnel-shaped geometry with average depth of 20 m

123
Environ Geol (2008) 53:1067–1077
Conclusions
The application of three different geophysical methods
(magnetometry, gravimetry and GPR) to a doline filled
with urban debris near Zaragoza gives the following con-
clusions about each of the methods:
(a) Magnetic: The results obtained allowed the shape of
the doline and the properties of its filling material to
be accurately defined. Modeling showed that the re-
sults are consistent with a filling material of high
magnetic susceptibility in a funnel-shaped doline.
This method allowed anomalies to be mapped and
previously unknown filled dolines to be detected,
even where they contained only small amounts of
anthropogenic materials.
(b) GPR: The application of GPR along perpendicular
profiles allowed for some of the subsurface geomet-
rical features to be characterized. This method im-
aged fill material geometries that were characteristic
of onlap and sag associated with subsidence. The
filling of the main doline was clearly shown (doline 1)
because of its higher conductivity/permittivity.
(c) Gravimetry: this technique proved effective for
locating well-defined targets such as the areas of do-
line 1 and doline 3. The results confirmed that the
doline filling could be modeled as two bodies with
different densities, although in reality the properties
Fig. 5 Comparison of the
magnitude, using a semi-
quantitative approach, of the
geophysical anomalies obtained
by means of the different
techniques related to doline 1,
which is filled with urban debris
GPR Penetration Depth
Magnetic field
Gravimetric Field
Quaternary Terrace
Doline 1
Magnetic anomaly influence
1075
most likely involve a gradual increase in density of
the filling from the upper to the lower part of the
section. No additional negative anomalies linked to
unfilled cavities were found by this method.
(d) Comparison of the results obtained by the different
methods showed that in map view the dimensions of
the anomalies varied from 25 to 35 m when measured
using gravimetric methods compared with 14 to 15 m
using GPR. The radar method gives more conserva-
tive measurements than the magnetic method. This is
because of the dipolar character of magnetic anoma-
lies in which the margins of the anomaly are inferred
from the center of the inflection point between the
positive and negative anomalies and both these
anomalies are 30 m wide (see Fig. 5).
In this work we propose the sequential use of magne-
tometry, GPR and gravimetry for the detection of cavities
and dolines. Although, some other combination of methods
may be a fitting solution of this problem, the arrangements
proposed here have been shown to work. The procedure
using magnetometry first allows the areas with probable
dolines or other anomalies to be defined by a close network
of readings that can be taken over a large area in a rela-
tively short time. Subsequently, GPR profiles are taken
next to define the character of the anomalies found and
their subsoil geometry. Finally, gravimetry is used, either
along profiles or as a 2-D grid of coverage. The advantage
N
Approximative
vertical escale
Gravimetry
30 µGal
Magnetometry
200 nT
GPR
30%
penetration
0 20 m
Urban Quaternary Terrace
Debris
GPR anomaly influence
Gravimetric anomaly influence
123
1076
of combining these three methods is that they are each
based upon very different properties. The combination al-
lows the detection of cavities and dolines with different
fillings such as voids, water, urban debris and collapsed
materials which might not be resolved with just one or two
techniques alone.
Acknowledgements The authors are very grateful to J. Busby, P.
Williamson, A.H. Cooper and F. Gutiérrez for their careful revision of
the manuscript; J.J. Curto from the ‘‘Observatori magnètic de l’Ebre’’
for providing diurnal variation data and J.J. Villalaı́n from the
Paleomagnetic Laboratory (Burgos University) for the remanence
measurements. This work was supported by projects from the Spanish
Ministry of Sciences and Technology (PROFIT: FIT-310200-2004-
181). E.L.P. was supported by a ‘‘Ramon y Cajal’’ research position
(MEC). Research granted by equipment projects funded by the Uni-
versidad of Zaragoza, project DGES BTE2002-04168-C03-01,
Spanish Ministry of Education, Aragón Government support to
Geotransfer research group, funds from the Instituto Geológico y
Minero de España and Elf-exploration-production, and project PM045
from the Aragón Government.
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