Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Geochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemer

Geochemical anomaly definition using multifractal modeling, validated by

geological field observations: Siah Jangal area, SE Iran
Zahra Mokhtari a, *, Behnam Sadeghi b, c
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of sciences, University of Neyshabur, Neyshabur, Iran
b
EarthByte Group, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
c
Earth and Sustainability Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Carita Augustsson Recognition of geochemical anomalies is a pivotal assignment in exploration projects. This study aims to
delineate different Au–Cu geochemical anomalies using number-size (N-S) and concentration-area (C-A) mul­
Keywords: tifractal models in the Siah Jangal area, SE Iran. In this research, lithogeochemical datasets were applied for the
Geochemical anomaly exploration of Au and Cu. A comparison between geochemical anomaly maps based on the N-S and C-A fractal
Number-size and concentration-area fractal
models shows the N-S fractal modeling is a powerful tool for separation of weak elemental geochemical
models
anomalies in all of sampling zones. Based on a comparison between the results of these two methods and field
Siah Jangal
Iran studies, the geochemical anomaly zones, defined by the N-S fractal model, are more accurate than those
recognized by the C-A fractal model. The obtained results of the N-S and C-A fractal models have been inter­
preted with the extensive set of information including structural interpretation, geological and alteration data.
Au and Cu mineralization in the Siah Jangal area are hosted mainly by Oligocene-Miocene sub-volcanic rocks,
especially strongly altered porphyric quartz diorite, hornblende diorite and diorite. Moreover, the positive
dependence between various alteration zones and high concentrations of Au and Cu proves that strongly
anomalous areas are correlated with these alteration zones. High grade Au (> 1000 ppb) and Cu (>150 ppm) are
associated with the altered sub-volcanic rocks in the northern, eastern, and SW parts of the study area. There­
with, the strong anomaly populations are mostly occurred within the fault and fracture systems in the study area.
This is a promising signal because quartz-sulfide veins and veinlets are associated with such structures.

1. Introduction various geochemical anomalies and the relevant background areas

Precious to base metal ore deposits are economic accumulations that
are concentrated hundredths to thousands times higher than the average
crustal levels. These deposits develop either as a result of the ore-
forming elements transportation followed by their preferential deposi­
tion in a restricted volume, or by the selective dissolution of non-ore-
forming elements and their transportation away from the site of disso­
lution (Hobbs et al., 2000). Several factors control the transportation of
the dissolved material. According to the Cox et al. (1987), fluid
composition, fluid-rock ratio, temperature and pressure, redox condi­
tions, and permeability are amongst the most important of such factors.
Discrimination of geochemical anomalies from the barren terrains for
the determination and modeling of the different mineralized zones is a
fundamental issue in mineral exploration. Therefore, a variety of
mathematical and statistical methods have been developed to define
(Sadeghi, 2020).
The traditional statistical methods have been developed to identify
various threshold values for geochemical anomaly classifications (Car­
ranza, 2008, 2010; Zuo, 2011; Cheng, 2012). Such methods are mainly
applicable to cases with normal distributions of geochemical data;
however, various natural mineralization result in complicated, but not
normal patterns. Hence, these methods cannot be applied to identify the
frequency and spatial distributions of geochemical data (Razumovsky,
1940; Ahrens, 1954a, 1954b; Reimann and Filzmoser, 2000; Li et al.,
2003; Bai et al., 2010; He et al., 2013; Luz et al., 2014; Khalajmasoumi
et al., 2015, 2017; Daneshvar Saein and Afzal, 2017; Afzal et al., 2010,
2017; Ahmadfaraj et al., 2019; Sadeghi, 2020). Different observations
present power-law distributions in geochemical data that are modeled
more accurately using robust methods such as fractal models (Cheng
et al., 1994; Sanderson et al., 1994; Monecke et al., 2001; Zuo et al.,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Zahra.mokhtari@Neyshabur.ac.ir (Z. Mokhtari).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125774
Received 31 March 2021; Received in revised form 10 May 2021; Accepted 14 May 2021
Available online 27 May 2021
0009-2819/© 2021 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Zahra Mokhtari, Behnam Sadeghi, Geochemistry, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125774
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi
Fig. 1. Geo-Tectonic map of the Makran zone and Neogene Baluchistan volcanic arc (from Grando and McClay, 2007 and Ellouz-Zimmermann et al., 2007).
2009; Daneshvar Saein et al., 2013; Momeni et al., 2016; Khalajma­
soumi et al., 2015; Zuo and wang, 2016; Khalajmasoumi et al., 2017;
Daneshvar Saein and Afzal, 2017; Afzal et al., 2017; Ahmadfaraj et al.,
2019; Sadeghi et al., 2020).
Fractal/multifractal theory is a nonlinear mathematical branch
(Mandelbrot, 1983) that has been widely applied to various fields of
geosciences. Multiple geological factors such as alterations, host rocks
and diverse mineralization processes causing geochemical patterns of
different elements have fractal dimensions (Bølviken et al., 1992; Cheng
et al., 1994).
Several fractal classification models have been developed to define
and characterize background and various geochemical anomalies. Some
of the most important fractal/multifractal models are number-size (N-S)
(Mandelbrot, 1983), concentration-area (C-A) (Cheng et al., 1994),
spectrum-area (S-A) (Cheng, 1999), concentration-distance (C–D)
fractal model (Li et al., 2003), singularity model (Cheng, 2007),
concentration-volume (C–V) (Afzal et al., 2011), simulated size-
number (SS-N) fractal models (Sadeghi et al., 2015) as well as global
simulated size-number (GSS-N) (Madani and Sadeghi, 2019), co-
simulated size-number (CoSS-N) (Madani and Carranza, 2020) and
quite recently developed fractal models of concentration-concentration
(C–C) (Sadeghi, 2020, 2021), and category-based (Sadeghi and Cohen,
2021).
Porphyry ore deposits are extremely important resources of Cu and
Au typically occurring throughout the subduction-related subvolcanic
rocks, which consist mainly of quartz-diorite, diorite, granodiorite and
granite porphyry (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005;
Sillitoe, 2010). The Northern Makran magmatic arc, in which the Siah
Jangal area is located, is one of the important areas for mineral explo­
ration and prospecting for Cu–Au porphyry and other epithermal de­
posits in Iran. The Siah Jangal area has great potentials for Au ± Cu
porphyry and epithermal deposits (e.g., Ag, Mo, Pb and Zn). Geological
features such as ancient underground excavation represent that the
mining has a long history in the study area. Moreover, the recent
geological and geochemical studies emphasize the importance of Au and
Cu exploration in this area (Taghizadeh, 1996; Zarcan Company, 2003;
Kavoshgaran Company, 2003, 2006; Mehrpartou and Padiar, 2003;
2
Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx
Mokhtari et al., 2015a; Mokhtari et al., 2015b; Mokhtari, 2015).
In this research, based on the multifractal theory and the Cu–Au
lithogeochemical data collected from the study area, the N-S and C-A
fractal method were applied to define the various spatial geochemical
distributions (anomalies and background) in the Siah Jangal area. In
addition, the probable spatial correlations between the threshold values
of various geochemical anomalies and the related structural and alter­
ation data were also studied and recognized by remote sensing tech­
niques, field observations and geochemical analysis. This paper aims at
studying the geology of Au–Cu mineralization and comparing the re­
sults obtained from N-S and C-A fractal models that are applied to the
geochemical data of the Siah Jangal area. In continue, we explain the
geology of the study area, the classification models applied, and the
results obtained based on the available dataset. After that, the results
will be compared and validated by the geological field observations to
conclude if the models work efficiently.
2. Geology of the study area
2.1. Geological setting
The Siah Jangal area is an Au–Cu exploration marker, located in the
north of the Taftan volcanic field, SE Iran. The Taftan is the most active
volcanic center in Iran. Taftan (Bazman/Iran) and Kuh Sultan (Pakistan)
volcanos were generated as a result of the subduction of Oman oceanic
crust beneath the southern margin of the Makran zone (Farhoudi and
Karig, 1977; Berberian et al., 1982). This belt is called as Neogene
Baluchistan volcanic arc (NBVA) (Fig. 1). The NBVA surrounded by
various magmatic zone and fault systems has created a magmatic arc
parallel to the Makran zone. The most significant tectono-magmatic
structures are Sahand-Bazman magmatic belt, main Zagros thrust and
Minab fault in the west, and Ornach-Nal fault zone and the Himalaya
Mountains in the east of NBVA (Fig. 1; Grando and McClay, 2007;
Ellouz-Zimmermann et al., 2007).
Intrusive rocks, including Cretaceous Bazman granitoid, show E-W
trend having the same direction with the Neogene Baluchistan volcanic
arc. Moreover, the Mount Taftan is situated at the base of Eocene-
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi
Fig. 2. Three dimensional RGB (531) Landsat 7 ETM+ satellite image of the Siah Jangal area with rock chip sampling zones (white squares) and some field pictures
from the most important mineralized zones; a) unaltered sub-volcanic porphyritic diorite, quartz diorite rocks, b) and c) strongly altered sub-volcanic rocks.
Miocene stocks and dykes. These rocks were formed from young
magmatic products, which are related to the subduction of the Oman
Oceanic crust beneath the Makran zone (Berberian et al., 1982), whereas
the closuring of the Sistan ocean and syn-collision to post-collision
magmatism events have caused the formation of these sub-volcanic
stocks and dykes (Tirrul et al., 1983).
Various sections of the Neogen Baluchistan volcanic belt host Cu and
Au–Cu mineralization, particularly at Saindak and Reko Diq (Pak­
istanian) (Rowan et al., 2006; Perelló et al., 2008) and Au–Cu miner­
alization in the Siah Jangal area (Iran) (Mokhtari, 2015). Extensive and
various hydrothermal alterations and mineralized zones occur in the
Siah Jangal area (Fig. 2) due to extensive magmatic activities mentioned
above.
2.2. Lithology and mineralization
The oldest outcropped rocks in the Siah Jangal area are mainly the
Eocene siliciclastic deposits known as eastern Iran’s flysch zone (Fig. 3).
These rocks comprise a thick sequence of meta-pelitic shales with thin
lava flows of basalt and carbonate rocks; psammite sediments consisting
of medium-bedded sandstones; and minor scattering of fossiliferous
limestone, calcareous sediments and greywacke (Mehrpartou and
Padiar, 2003). These flysch-type sedimentary rocks were intruded by
Oligocene-Miocene intermediate high-level porphyry intrusions and
dikes. Based on petrographical and geochemical studies, the Oligo-
3
Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx
Miocene magmatic rocks are comprised mainly of porphyric diorite,
quartz diorite, hornblende diorite and andesite in the study area
(Mokhtari, 2015). Flysch deposits and older igneous rocks are uncon­
formably overlain by dacite and andesite lava flows and volcanoclastics
belonging to the Pleistocene and Quaternary volcanic rocks. The youn­
gest exposures in the Siah Jangal area contain Quaternary alluvial sed­
iments and terraces that are locally retained along the waterway
(Mehrpartou and Padiar, 2003). Field observations, petrographic studies
and XRD analysis show that there are four major types of hydrothermal
alterations represented by silicification, phyllitization, argillization and
propylitization (Fig. 4a, b and c; Mokhtari, 2015). Intensely argillic and
phyllic-altered subvolcanic rocks are widespread in the north, east and
southwestern parts of the Siah Jangal area. Advanced argillic alteration
formed due to the interaction of host rocks with strong acidic fluids
(Pirajno, 2009). This type of alteration occurred mostly along the main
faults within the porphyry diorite rocks in the study area. Alteration
minerals in this zone are kaolinite, illite, Fe-oxide/hydroxide, gypsum,
calcite and quartz. The argillic alteration zone is represented by clay
minerals such as kaolinite replacing feldspars, illite, muscovite, quartz
and plagioclase phenocryst. Mineral assemblages in phyllic (sericite)
alteration zone consist of quartz, pyrite, sericite (as a replacement of
muscovite), muscovite and calcite. Moreover, pyrite has accumulated in
some parts of this alteration zone, by name pyritization event (Mokhtari,
2015).
Magmatic activities related to the Eocene in the east of Iran are
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi
Fig. 3. Simplified geology map of the Siah Jangal area (After Mehrpartou and Padiar, 2003).
characterized by Calc-alkaline nature that extends to the Oligo-Miocene
whereas a younger volcanic activity has an alkaline characteristic (Camp
and Griffis, 1982). These calc-alkaline igneous rocks are hosted
numerous mineralization such as various porphyry (Cu–Au, Au,
Au ± Cu ± Mo) and vein-type base metal deposits in Eastern Iran.
The Eocene volcanic lava and pyroclastic rocks consisting of flysch
units, andesite, dacite and pyroclastics were intruded by several sub-
volcanic stocks, including Oligo-Miocene porphyric diorite, quartz dio­
rite and hornblende diorite in the study area (Figs. 2 and 3). Au–Cu
mineralization in the area is hosted mainly by the Oligo-Miocene sub-
volcanic intrusions. Ore minerals are predominated by pyrite and lesser
chalcopyrite, malachite and azurite.
Identifying hydrothermal alterations, specifically potassic, phyllic
and argillic/advanced argillic, and their geochemical characteristics in
porphyry deposits is critical because they host major mineralization
zones (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Sillitoe and Perelló, 2005; Sillitoe,
2010). A thick mineralized silicic vein outcropping in the central part of
the Siah Jangal area, which is confined to various alteration zones
display sericitic (phyllic), argillic and propylitic alterations (Fig. 4a).
Propylitic alteration is an outermost zone from this vein, which is
characterized by chlorite, epidote and pyrite. Sericite, illite, quartz and
pyrite are the most important minerals in the sericitic zone, which is the
most extensive alteration zone in the study area. The widespread argillic
alteration in the eastern side of the quartz vein is characterized by
kaolinite and illite (Mokhtari, 2015).
4
Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx
The mineralization in the Siah Jangal can be classified as hypogene
and supergene types. Hypogene mineralization occurs as disseminated
and vein/veinlet types, with the former observed as the only sulfide
mineral in intrusive rocks. Vein and veinlet type of mineralization
contains pyrite and rare chalcopyrite. Supergene mineralization is
characterized by Fe and Mn oxides and oxy-hydroxides in the study area.
A large volume of the igneous and sedimentary rocks has strongly and
extensively altered (Mokhtari, 2015).
Moreover, the petrography of fluid inclusions in the silicic veins re­
veals that the main type of them are poly-phase and vapor-rich. Ac­
cording to the micro-thermometric measurements, maximum
homogenization temperatures and salinity of the poly-phase of fluid
inclusions are 500 ◦ C and 80 wt% NaCl equiv. respectively. The fluid
inclusions studies of the gold mineralization in the Siah Jangal area have
shown the typical characteristics of the porphyry ore deposits (Mokh­
tari, 2015).
2.3. Regional structures
Closure of the Sistan Ocean has resulted in the formation of large
folds with NW trend in Eocene turbidities and remaining of the ophio­
litic rocks of upper Cretaceous within the Sistan suture zone (Fig. 5a).
Moreover, the formation and development of conjugate fracture zones
with various trends (NE and NW) are related to progressive convergence
of the Lut Block and Afghan Block on the both sides of the Sistan Ocean.
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi
Fig. 4. Various hydrothermal alteration zones in the Siah Jangal area: a) Phyllic, argillic and propylitic alteration zones in porphyry diorite around the central quartz
vein; b and c) occurrence of phyllic, argillic and propylitic alterations in subvolcanic rocks.
Taftan magmatism products have been formed due to subduction of
oceanic lithosphere of Oman under the continental lithosphere of
Makarn zone that has interrupted these folded and faulted sequences
(Fig. 5b). On the other hand, Arabian-Eurasian collision has caused
significant shortening in Eastern Iran. These compressional movements
extended the Jun Abad (with NW left-lateral strike-slip) and Saravan
(with NE right-lateral strike-slip) fault systems in the Sistan suture zone
(Figs. 5c and 6). The main geologic structures of the Siah Jangal area are
NE-SW and NW-SE trending fault systems (Figs. 7 and 12). The above­
mentioned fault systems act as conduits promoting fluid-flow and
thereby hydrothermal alterations and mineralization. These tectonic
and magmatic activities played an important role in various type of
mineralization in the study area. Moreover, different rock sequences and
all mineralized zones have been affected by the various fault system such
as left-lateral strike-slip Jun Abad fault in the northern part of the Siah
Jangal area.
3. Methodology
3.1. Number-size (N-S) fractal model
The N-S fractal model is used for describing the relationship between
the elemental concentration values (e.g., Au and Cu concentrations in
this paper) and their cumulative numbers of samples. This model is
introduced by Mandelbrot (1983) and its equation is as follows.
N( ≥ ρ) = Fρ− D
(1)
5
Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx
In this equation, ρ is element concentration, N(≥ρ) is the cumulative
number of samples that concentration values are greater than or equal to
ρ, F is a constant, and scaling exponent fractal dimension of the distri­
bution of element concentrations is show with D. Based on the frequency
distribution of element concentrations and their cumulative number of
samples, a power-law frequency model has been proposed to explain the
N-S relationship (Turcotte, 1996; Sanderson and Zhang, 1999; Zuo et al.,
2009; Sadeghi et al., 2012b).
On the basis of the N-S model, a concentration-size multifractal
method proposed for separation of geochemical populations by Agter­
berg (1995). Moreover, the N-S fractal model can be applied to delineate
different geochemical anomalies without pre-processing of data (Sade­
ghi et al., 2012b). Log-log diagrams in the N-S model, has been con­
structed based on an inverse relation between each concentration and its
cumulative frequency that N(≥ρ) plotted versus ρ. Breakpoints of the
straight-line segments, fitted based on the least-square regression
(Agterberg et al., 1996; Spalla et al., 2010), are applied as the desired
thresholds to disassemble various mineralized zones from background
(Mandelbrot, 1983; Deng et al., 2010).
3.2. Concentration-area (C-A) fractal model
The C-A method was introduced by Cheng et al. (1994) that has been
used for identifying various geochemical anomalies (cf. Cheng et al.,
1994, 1996; Goncalves et al., 2001; Deng et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2010;
Carranza, 2010, 2011; Sadeghi et al., 2012a; Zuo et al., 2013). This
model has a general form as follows (Cheng et al., 1994, 1996):
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 5. Summary of the tectonic evolution in the Sistan suture zone, SE Iran (Modified after Mokhtari et al., 2015b).

Fig. 6. Landsat 7 ETM+ (RGB: 741) image and major structural features in the Sistan suture zone, SE Iran (from Mokhtari et al., 2015b).

A(ρ ≤ μ)∞ρ− a1
; A(ρ > μ)∞ρ− a2
(2) point. Concentration–area relations were estimated by summing all A(ρ)
s, and finally, log-log diagrams for target elements are produced based
In this equation, μ indicates the threshold, A (ρ) shows the cumula­ on decreasing grades.
tive areas with concentration values less than or equal to μ, and α1 and α2
represents the fractal dimensions (Cheng et al., 1994, 1996). The C-A
model is applied to delineate the thresholds of anomalous concentra­
tions. In this model, an area of influence is devoted to each sampled

6
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 7. Location map of lithogeochemical sampling zones on the geological map of the Siah Jangal area (The legend is based on that of Fig. 3).

4. Data processing and results
During systematic sampling within four zones gridded of
20 m × 20 m (in zone A) and 50 m × 50 m (in zones B, C and D), a
collection of 669 lithogeochemical samples were taken from the major
rock types constituting geologically favorable hosts for Au–Cu miner­
alization in the Siah Jangal area (Fig. 7). The sampling sites were not
directly influenced by external pollution. Bulk samples (8–10 kg) were
powdered (200–250 mesh) and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) method for Cu and Au mineralization.
Location map of lithogeochemical sampling zones in the study area is
represented in Fig. 7.
In this study, because the Au and Cu were target commodities in
altered sub-volcanic rocks and therefore, they were selected for multi­
fractal modeling. Decomposition pretreatment method for Au was NiS
fire assay, including Te co-precipitation for better Au recovery. The Cu
and Au detection limits are 0.2 ppm and 1 ppb, respectively. As a result
of varying geological characteristics such as host rocks, alterations,
faults/ fractures and mineralogy, raw geochemical dataset shows highly
spatially variable distribution (Ford and Blenkinsop, 2008;

Table 1
Statistical parameters of the raw data based on lithogeochemical sample analysis in the Siah Jangal area.
Max Min Median Mean St.dev Skewness Kurtosis

Zone A Au (ppb) 11,300 <1 20.00 254.10 1185.033 7.552 59.559

Cu (ppm) 133 5 21.00 25.72 17.913 2.814 11.478
Zone B Au (ppb) 13,900 <1 10.00 196.20 1069.70 11.233 139.299
Cu (ppm) 229 5 28.00 42.07 39.08 2.233 5.554
Zone C Au (ppb) 1070 4 40.00 79.35 129.101 5.154 32.295
Cu (ppm) 499 6 81.00 93.61 64.922 2.604 10.899
Zone D Au (ppb) 2220 <1 36.00 175.10 401.144 4.706 23.307
Cu (ppm) 350 11 74.00 87.57 64.951 1.350 2.414

7
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2 Khalajmasoumi et al., 2015; Khalajmasoumi et al., 2017; Daneshvar

Shapiro-Wilk test applied to lithogeochemical data of the Siah Jangal area. Saein and Afzal, 2017; Afzal et al., 2017; Ahmadfaraj et al., 2019). The
Statistic df (degrees of freedom) Significance main statistical properties of the lithogeochemical data in the study area
are demonstrated in Table 1, which shows a wide range of differences
Zone A Au 0.191 200 0.000
Cu 0.750 200 0.000 between the maximum and minimum values as well as the highest mean
Zone B Au 0.155 199 0.000 values for Au and Cu in the zones A and C, respectively.
Cu 0.745 199 0.000 The most common methods to define the normal distribution in
Zone C Au 0.508 161 0.000 geochemical data are Shapiro-Wilk test (Shapiro and Wilk, 1965), box
Cu 0.798 161 0.000
Zone D Au 0.431 109 0.000
plots, quantile-quantile (Q-Q) probability plots and histograms. In
Cu 0.876 109 0.000 Shapiro-Wilk test, if the significance of value is greater than 0.05, data
distribution is normal and if it is below 0.05, the data distribution

Fig. 8. Q-Q plots of Au and Cu lithogeochemical data collected from the Siah Jangal. area.

8
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 9. Histograms of Au and Cu lithogeochemical data from various sampling zones in the Siah Jangal area.

significantly deviates from a normal distribution (Shapiro and Wilk,
1965). According to the Shapiro-Wilk test (Table 2), (Q-Q) plots (Fig. 8)
and histograms (Fig. 9), Au and Cu concentrations demonstrated non-
normal distribution in the Siah Jangal area.
Moreover, the Q-Q plots of the Au and Cu concentrations (Fig. 8)
implies the presence of several populations in the individual datasets;
additionally, their histograms have no normal distribution as depicted in
Fig. 9. The skewness values of Au and Cu show that the original data are
not normally distributed (Table 1). Non-normal distribution of
geochemical data indicates that different geological events occurred

9
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 3 on the N-S and C-A fractal models shows that the N-S fractal modeling is
Various Au concentration zones classified based on the N-S fractal model in the a powerful method to recognize weak elemental geochemical anomalies
Siah Jangal area (Fig. 11a, c and e). in all of the sampling zones (Fig. 11 and Supplementary Fig. 2). In terms
Zones Au range (ppb) of locations, there are similarities between the two fractal models in
Zone AB Zone C Zone D
specifying high anomaly zones. Both the N-S and C-A fractal models
reveal high Au anomaly zones in the central part of the zone AB, the
Background <77.62 <20.89 <13.18
northern part of the zone C, and the north, east and south parts of zone D
Weak intensity anomaly 77.62–501.19 20.89–95.50 13.18–100
Moderate intensity 501.19–1202.26 95.50–141.25 100–239.88 (Fig. 11a, c, e and Supplementary Fig. 2a, c, e). According to these
anomaly models, strong Cu anomalies occur in the NE part of the zone AB, as well
High intensity anomaly 1202.26–7943.26 141.25–371.54 239.88–501.19 as the north and south parts in the zone D (Fig. 11 b, f and Supple­
Very high intensity >7943.26 >371.54 >501.19 mentary Fig. 2b, f). The Cu geochemical anomaly map based on the N-S
anomaly
and C-A fractal models shows different results in zone C (Fig. 11d and
Supplementary Fig. 2d). The strongly anomalous zones of Cu based on
the N-S model are defined more accurately than those of the C-A model
Table 4 in zone C. The Cu strongly anomalous zones are located in the northern,
Various Cu concentration zones classified based on the N-S fractal model in the eastern and southern parts of the zone C (Fig. 11d). In other words,
Siah Jangal area (Fig. 11b, d and f).
based on Fig. 11 and Supplementary Fig. 2, those strongly anomalous
Zones Cu range (ppm) zones defined by the N-S model are more extensive than those of the C-A
Zone AB Zone C Zone D model.
Background <12.88 <39.81 <30.20
There is not any known gold occurrence in the study area. Therefore,
Weak intensity anomaly 12.89–23.44 39.82–75.86 30.21–81.28 in order to validate the results of the N-S and C-A fractal models, the Au
Moderate intensity anomaly 23.45–83.18 75.87–112.20 81.29–141.25 and Cu geochemical anomalies have been spatially correlated with the
High intensity anomaly 83.19–173.78 112.21–190.55 141.26–204.17 specific geological features including the various alteration zones and
Very high intensity anomaly
faults. Hydrothermal alteration in the Siah Jangal area pervasively oc­
>173.78 >190.25 >204.17

during ore-forming processes in the study area.
4.1. Number-Size (N-S) fractal modeling
Based on the Au and Cu N-S log–log plots, several geochemical
populations were classified as background value and weakly, moder­
ately, highly and very highly anomalous zones. The strongest Au
anomaly zones are considered to have concentrations more than
7943 ppb, located in zone AB, SW Siah Jangal area (Table 3).
Moreover, the geochemical populations obtained from N-S multi­
fractal modeling in zone AB reveals Au background values <77 ppb
whereas the highest grade (zone D) Cu anomaly zones have concentra­
tions more than 204 ppm north of the study area (Table 4).
Copper geochemical background population in this zone is less than
72 ppm. Based on the results of the N-S model, distribution maps of Au
and Cu grade were illustrated in Fig. 11. The thresholds, obtained by the
N-S model, were applied to the IDW interpolated maps of the elements to
generate the classified maps (Fig. 10).
4.2. Concentration-Area (C-A) fractal modeling
According to the thresholds obtained from the C-A model (see Sup­
plementary Fig. 1), five Au geochemical populations were identified.
Moreover, the Au strongest anomalies have concentrations more than
7286 ppb, located in zones A-B, SW Siah Jangal area (see Supplementary
Table 1) (Mokhtari, 2015).
The C-A fractal model in this zone reveals background values
<281 ppb. In addition, based on the thresholds of Cu contents deter­
mined by the C-A fractal model, there are four different populations in
the Cu data (see Supplementary Table 2).
The strongest Cu anomalous zones have concentrations >281 ppm,
in zone C, east of the study area (see Supplementary Table 2). The
background value is less than 20 ppm in this zone. Au and Cu grade
distribution maps defined by the C-A plot are presented in Supplemen­
tary Fig. 2 (Mokhtari, 2015).
5. Comparison between fractal models results and geological
features
A comparison between Au and Cu geochemical anomaly maps based
curs covering an area greater than 18 km2. The Argillic and phyllic al­
terations, especially advanced argillic alternations, are indicative of Au
and Cu mineralization. In general, the most parts with high concentra­
tions of Au and Cu in both models are underlain by strongly altered sub-
volcanic rocks and advanced argillic alterations (Figs. 12, 13 and Sup­
plementary Fig. 3). The high intensity of Au (over 1000 ppb) and Cu
(over 150 ppm) anomalies are correlated with these alteration zones in
the N, E and SW parts of the study area.
The Au strong anomalies coincide with strong alterations in the
center of the zone AB (Fig. 13a and Supplementary Fig. 3a). However,
the strong alterations in some parts of this zone represent the correlation
with moderate or weak Au and Cu concentrations. The majority of the
highest Cu concentrations are correlated with weakly altered rocks, and
only a small part coincides with strongly altered units (Fig. 13b).
Therefore, Au and Cu anomalies in the zone AB are more related to the
NE trending faults.
The most parts of the C and D zones are underlain by strongly altered
sub-volcanic rocks with advanced argillic alterations (Figs. 12, 13 c, d, e,
f and Supplementary Fig. 3c, d, e, f) that have positive spatial correlation
with Au and Cu anomalies. Also, the high concentrations of Cu are
coincided with these alteration zones.
Fig. 12 shows the location of faults and their rose diagram. In this
study, faults have been detected by remote sensing techniques and
checked by field studies. Rose diagram of this structure showing the
main stress has a NE-SW trend relevant to the left-lateral strike-slip fault
system of Jun Abad (see Section 2.3 for more information). Considering
Figs. 12, 13 and Supplementary Fig. 3, the fault locations and elemental
distribution maps clearly indicates the positive relationships, and the
most parts of the strongly anomalous areas overlap these structures.
These anomalous zones are associated with the fault zones. The high
concentrations of Au (especially in the zones AB and D) have a close
relationship with these structures (Figs. 12, 13a, e and Supplementary
Fig. 3a, e). This is a good sign because the silicified structures and
quartz-sulfide veins and veinlets have occurred along these faults.
6. Conclusions
Based on the correlation between outcomes driven by fractal
modeling and geological evidences from satellite image processing,
geological map and field studies, highly anomalous zones derived from
fractal models (especially the N–S model) have close relationships with
faults and various alteration zones in the study area.

10
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 10. N-S log-log plots of Au and Cu lithogeochemical data collected from the Siah Jangal area.

11
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 11. Au and Cu geochemical population maps generated based on the N-S method in all sampling zones in the Siah Jangal area.

12
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 11. (continued).

13
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 11. (continued).

14
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 12. Simplified alteration map of the Siah Jangal area based on the remote sensing and field studies with sampling zones (Mokhtari, 2015).

15
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. The relationship between Au and Cu concentrations based on the N-S method, faults (red lines), and strongly altered rocks (bold polygons), weakly altered
rocks (soft polygons) and advanced argillic alteration zone (enclosed by dashed-lines) in the Siah Jangal area. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

16
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. (continued).

17
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi Geochemistry xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. (continued).

18
Z. Mokhtari and B. Sadeghi
Positive correlation between various alteration zones including
phyllic, argillic/ advanced argillic alterations and high concentration of
Au and Cu suggests that high grade concentrations of these elements are
controlled by the aforementioned features.
Moreover, strong Au and Cu anomalies in the SW, N and E parts of
the study area are located mostly within the fault zones. The correlation
between different alteration zones, structural geology and host rock
indicates that the geological events have played a significant role in
leaching and concentration of these elements as ore deposits in the Siah
Jangal area.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
As corresponding author, hereby confirm on behalf of all authors
that:
• This manuscript has not been published before and is not currently
being considered for publication elsewhere
• All text and graphics, except for those marked with sources, are
original works of the authors, and all necessary permissions for
publication were secured prior to submission of the manuscript.
• All authors each made a significant contribution to the research re­
ported and have read and approved the submitted manuscript.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the reviewers (Huseyin Yilmaz and the
other anonymous reviewer) for their helpful and constructive
comments.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.chemer.2021.125774.
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