Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Research paper

The impact of micro-to macro-scale geological attributes on Archie's T

exponents, an example from Permian–Triassic carbonate reservoirs of the
central Persian Gulf
Maziyar Nazemi, Vahid Tavakoli∗, Masoud Sharifi-Yazdi, Hossain Rahimpour-Bonab,
Mehdi Hosseini
School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Enormous and inherent heterogeneity of carbonate reservoirs causes problems in the estimation of their geo-
Archie's exponents logical and petrophysical attributes. The major part of this heterogeneity is due to the various pore types and
Rock type structures of these reservoirs. Water saturation is economically one of the most important characteristics of any
Sequence stratigraphy producing reservoir. Archie introduced practical exponents, which are fundamental parameters for saturation
Lucia plot
calculation. In this research, the effect of geological factors controlling Archie's exponents including depositional
Depositional features
Diagenetic processes
and diagenetic characteristics in a sequence stratigraphic framework in Permian–Triassic carbonates of Persian
Gulf Basin was carried out. Rock typing approach has been used for assigning reservoir characteristics to geo-
logical parameters. Five digenetic facies that were determined according to petrographic studies, wire line logs,
SEM and conventional core analysis as well as mercury injection tests, were grouped into four rock types using
Lucia diagram. Archie's exponents were calculated for different rock types. Results showed that porosity value
and pore type have an important effect on the exponents. This effect could be traced vertically in macro-scale
using sequence stratigraphic concept. Grainstone facies with high m values are located in early HST and late TST.
Tight grainstone or mud-dominated facies with low m values are located in early TST and late HST.

1. Introduction hydrocarbon reservoirs, accurate calculation of Sw and thus hydro-

In petroleum exploration and reservoir evaluation, accurate de-
termination of petrophysical parameters such as porosity, permeability,
and water saturation is essential. These parameters are mainly con-
trolled by reservoir geology (depositional conditions and diagenetic
processes). Considerable researches have been accomplished in carbo-
nate reservoirs, however, there are still major complications in identi-
fying the properties of these reservoirs (Mazzullo and Chilingarian,
1992; Shedid and Almehadiab, 2002; Asgari and Sobhi, 2006; Chenjei
et al., 2015; Hosseini et al., 2018; Nazemi et al., 2018). Unlike homo-
genous characteristics of siliciclastic reservoirs (uniform in nature),
distribution of petrophysical parameters is largely complex in carbonate
reservoirs (Lucia, 2007; Bust et al., 2009). The key point is under-
standing the relationship between geological properties and reservoir
characteristics (Chilingarian et al., 1992; Jodry, 1992; Wardlaw, 1996;
Serag et al., 2010; Hamada et al., 2013). Water saturation (Sw) as-
sessment is one of the most substantial tasks in formation evaluation. In
order to diminish uncertainty of financial forecasting in development of
carbon in place is necessary (Rezaee et al., 2007; Soleymanzadeh et al.,
2018). Accurate values of Archie's parameters (a, m, n) mainly control
the accurate calculation of water saturation and also play a significant
role in formation evaluation (Rezaee et al., 2007). Assuming constant
values for these coefficients, Formation Resistivity Factor (FRF) as well
as Sw calculations will have considerable errors (Hosseini-nia and
Rezaee, 2002; Rezaee et al., 2007). Archie's parameters vary wide-
spread in heterogeneous and complicated lithologies (particularly in
carbonate rocks). The occurrence of diverse diagenetic processes such
as dolomitization and dissolution and presence of fractures and mi-
croporosity in carbonate rocks result in various pore types; accordingly,
these contribute to a complex pore structure (Ramakrishnan et al.,
2001; Ara et al., 2001). Given the variation and complexity, it is not
reasonable to use fixed values of a, m and n to calculate water satura-
tion in various types of rock. Otherwise, calculated water saturation
would be either overestimated or underestimated in reservoirs (Mao
et al., 1995; Rezaee et al., 2007; Shi et al., 2008; Qin et al., 2016).
Hence, variable values of m and a are more appropriate to describe the

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vtavakoli@ut.ac.ir (V. Tavakoli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2019.01.040
Received 11 July 2018; Received in revised form 24 January 2019; Accepted 29 January 2019
Available online 30 January 2019
0264-8172/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Nazemi et al.
cementation exponent and tortuosity factor specification and to calcu-
late water saturation in most of the reservoirs (Rasmus, 1983; Tabibi
and Emadi, 2003; Xiao et al., 2013). In general, the fixed value of m can
be estimated by using cross-plot of porosity against FRF that can be
achieved by core resistivity measurements (Borai, 1987; Deborah,
2002; Liu et al., 2011). Archie's exponents and their effect on water
saturation calculations and reservoir evaluation have been studied by
numerous researchers (e.g. Rasmus, 1983; Focke and Munn, 1987;
Tabibi and Emadi, 2003; Rezaee et al., 2007; Salazar et al., 2008;
Mahmood et al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014; Nabawy,
2015; Qin et al., 2016; Glover, 2017; Soleymanzadeh et al., 2018;
Nazemi et al., 2018). They have emphasized the role of depositional
facies and diagenetic modifications to identify true Archie's exponents.
Sequence stratigraphy also establishes a basic model to embody spatial
and temporal distribution of petrophysical attributes. Indeed, deposi-
tional sequences have a good relationship with depositional and di-
agenetic attributes (Enayati-Bidgoli and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2016) so
that could establish a link between Archie's parameters distribution in
different sequence positions.
The purpose of this study is the investigation of geological factors
controlling Archie's exponents including depositional and diagenetic
properties in a sequence stratigraphic framework in Permian–Triassic
carbonates of Persian Gulf Basin. Rock typing approach has been used
for assigning reservoir characteristics to geological parameters. This
approach assists to overcome heterogeneity within the reservoir that
complicate prediction of petrophysical properties.
2. Geological setting and stratigraphy
Persian Gulf sediments have been accumulated since Paleozoic
(Fig. 1a). Detrital sediments deposited from the middle Paleozoic in the
southwest of Iran, but in the late Paleozoic carbonates precipitated in
the basin, which has continued until the Late Cretaceous, the time for
the beginning of the Alpine orogeny (Kashfi, 1992). The main and old
structures of the Arabian Plate were under the influence of two tectonic
phases: 1) the first tectonic phase was related to the Amar Collision,
which occurred about 636–626 million years ago, along the northern-
southern stretch of the Bariik Amar area and 2) The next event is related
Fig. 1. Stratigraphy of Dalan and Kangan formations (a) (Nazemi et al., 2018). Geographical location of the central Persian Gulf Basin (studied area) (b). The main
hydrocarbon fields, Arabian plate, and main Zagros trust belt are obvious (b) (modified from Insalaco et al., 2006).
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
to the Najd Rift system, which occurred about 570–530 million years
ago with a general trend from northwest to southeast, along with the
Zagros Mountains (Fig. 1b) (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Al-Husseini,
2000; Sharland et al., 2001). The tectonic framework of the region
consists of a massive crater that includes the outcropped pinnacle in the
west and the sedimentation on the margin of the platform in the east
and northeast. The main bed rock had a great influence on the sedi-
mentary environment and, consequently, the stratigraphy of sedimen-
tary rocks that were later deposited on it (Al-Husseini, 2000; Ziegler,
2001). Other tectonic movements such as uplift occurred during
Middle-Late Cretaceous and, eventually, Zagros orogeny has had fewer
effects on the formation of the Persian Gulf and its central part (Insalaco
et al., 2006; Tavakoli et al., 2011). Upper Permian–Triassic succession
in the central Persian Gulf consists of Dalan (Late Permian) and Kangan
(Early–Middle Triassic) formations (equivalent to Khuff Formation in
Arabian nomenclature) (Fig. 1a). Kangan and upper Dalan formations
host the main amount of hydrocarbon in the studied area. Upper Dalan
member (with about 230 m thickness) consists of K4 and K3 reservoir
units from bottom to top, respectively. It overlies the Faraghan For-
mation with an erosional disconformity (Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009;
Tavakoli, 2016; Abdolmaleki and Tavakoli, 2016) (Fig. 1a). K4 is the
major gas reservoir with lime, dolomite and slight amounts of anhydrite
lithology. This unit is distinguished from the overlying member (K3) by
two anhydrite layers. Dolomitic limestone and dolomite are the main
lithologies in the K3 unit (Mehrabi et al., 2016). The Kangan Formation
encompasses K2 and K1 reservoir units. The unconformity between K2
and K3 succession is known as Permian–Triassic boundary in the central
Persian Gulf (Kashfi, 1992; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009; Tavakoli,
2015; Tavakoli and Jamalian, 2018). The Kangan Formation (with
about 193 m thickness) is composed principally of lime, dolomite and
anhydrite interlayers. Dashtak Formation with shale and anhydrite li-
thology is the cap rock of this reservoir (Aali et al., 2006; Rahimpour-
Bonab, 2007). K2 and K4 are more significant reservoir intervals than
other intervals in the studied succession due to the early dolomitization
and dissolution, both of them enhanced reservoir quality (Aali et al.,
2006; Ehrenberg, 2006; Moradpour et al., 2008; Rahimpour-Bonab
et al., 2009). Evaporation due to dry climate (Insalaco et al., 2006) and
saturated brine formation caused extensive dolomitization (Tavakoli
M. Nazemi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785

Fig. 2. Thin-section photomicrograph of various diagenetic facies in the studied interval. (a) MDST facies with low reservoir properties (b) MDST facies with birds-
eye porosity (c) WKST- PKST facies with low porosity and permeability (d) CEG facies with pervasive anhydrite cement (low porosity and permeability) (e) IPG facies
with high porosity and permeability (f) MOG facies with moldic porosity and low permeability (g) MOG facies with recrystallized dolomites (high porosity and
permeability).

et al., 2011). Dissolution also enhanced reservoir quality at low sea-
level situations at the upper K4 and lower K2 units (Tavakoli et al.,
2018).
3. Materials and methods
This research is based on a dataset from the pay zones of the
Permian–Triassic gas reservoirs in one of the gas fields in the central
Persian Gulf. In order to achieve determined goals, our dataset consists
of 1302 thin sections, SEM (Scanning Electronic Microscopy) analysis
by VEGA TESCAN, wire line log data in about 326 m, 400 core porosity
and permeability data, 29 mercury injection pressure tests, 58 core
plugs and 9 whole core samples (to obtain more accuracy) for FRF
parameters in about 300 m core, which were chosen from a single well
with K1 and K2 (Triassic), K3 and K4 (Permian) units. For petro-
graphical observations and recognizing calcite from dolomite, one-third
of each thin section stained with Alizarin Red-S (Dickson, 1965). To
indicate the presence of porosity, half of the samples were impregnated

777
M. Nazemi et al.
Fig. 3. Porosity vs. permeability cross plot (adopted from Lucia, 1995) for diverse rock types of the studied formation.
by blue-dyed epoxy. Petrographic studies used for facies description
(Dunham, 1962), diagnostic allochems, grain size, and mineral com-
position, as well as fabrics and diagenesis features. SEM technique was
utilized to determine and analyze the cement types and pore char-
acterization of several samples.
Determination of percentage of each pore type were carried out by
comparison charts in thin sections. By means of Boyle's and Darcy's
laws, total porosity and permeability values have been measured
through samples, which were cleaned with Soxhlet extraction method.
High-pressure mercury intrusion tests were accomplished up to a
maximum pressure of 60000 psi to achieve pore-throat size distribu-
tion, pore-throat sorting, and distribution. Wire line log data were used
to improve comprehensive interpretation through integrating both
geological (facies analysis, diagenetic and sequence stratigraphic in-
terpretations) and petrophysical data. To obtain FRF of the core plugs
samples at ambient conditions, samples were saturated by brine.
Measurement of electrical resistivity under ambient conditions was
carried out on sequential days till stabilized resistivity value for each
sample was observed. In meantime, samples were judged to ensure that
they have attained ionic equilibrium with synthetic formation brine.
The following relationship indicates the calculated FRF at ambient
conditions:
Ro
FRF =
Rw
Where Ro is the resistivity of the core plug with 100% saturation (Ω.m)
and Rw is the formation brine resistivity (Ω.m).
A log-log graph of FRF versus porosity was made for samples and
the best line fit determined using the least square method. The porosity
exponent “m” considered as the gradient of the fitted line in accordance
with Archie's formula:
a succession. Petrophysical characteristics in Dalan and Kangan carbo-
FRF =
Øm
In the Archie equation, Ø considered as porosity (fraction), FRF is
Formation Resistivity Factor, m as porosity exponent or cementation
exponent and a assumed as intercept with the Y-axis (a = 1 when the
line is fitted through (1, 1)).
4. Results
4.1. Geological framework
Facies analysis includes the study of depositional features such as
components (skeletal and non-skeletal), sedimentary textures, lithology
and composition in microscopic and macroscopic scales. Based on
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
petrographic studies, four microfacies were recognized that include
mudstone, wackestone, packstone, and grainstone. These facies could
be grouped into three facies belts (peritidal, lagoon and shoal). In terms
of depositional setting, the upper Dalan–Kangan succession was de-
posited in a homoclinal ramp on the Arabian Platform (Insalaco et al.,
2006; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2009; Jafarian et al.,
2017). Generally, grain-dominated facies belonging to shoal facies belt
improved reservoir attributes. Conversely, mud-dominated facies have
high matrix content and resulted in a reduction of porosity and per-
meability.
Diagenetic features in the studied succession contain cementation
(anhydrite cements), dissolution (moldic porosities), dolomitization
and compaction (both physical and chemical) (TaluAbu-Ghabin, 1989;
Alsharhan, 2006; Insalaco et al., 2006; Rahimpour-bonab et al., 2010;
Tavakoli et al., 2011; Abdolmaleki et al., 2016). Marine diagenetic
conditions resulted in marine calcite cementation and evaporite sedi-
ment deposition in hypersaline conditions (Insalaco et al., 2006). The
hypersaline diagenetic regime led to the development of dolomitization
(seepage-reflux) that improved pore-throats (Esrafili-Dizaji and
Rahimpour-Bonab, 2009; Rahimpour-bonab et al., 2010). Carbonate
intervals influenced by subaerial conditions has endured moldic dis-
solution. Dissolution mainly occurred in shoal facies and then had a
positive influence on the porosity. Anhydrite cementation process oc-
curred in shallow burial conditions continued to burial diagenetic en-
vironment (Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009). Other burial events in the
studied interval are compaction and cementation which had a negative
effect on reservoir evolution (Tavakoli et al., 2011). Compaction
(physical and chemical) plays a reservoir barrier role in this formation
(Khalifa, 2005; Ehrenberg, 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009, 2010).
Cementation process by occluding pore spaces and pore-throats per-
formed pervasive negative effect on the reservoir quality in the studied
nate formations are under the control of sedimentary and diagenetic
processes, which need to be considered in defining diagenetic facies. By
integration of depositional facies and diagenetic modifications, diage-
netic facies would be defined. Here, samples were classified into five
diagenetic facies which include mudstone (MDST), wackestone-pack-
stone (WKST-PKST), cemented grainstone (CEG), interparticle grain-
stone (IPG), and moldic grainstone (MOG) (Fig. 2). These facies in
addition to the depositional description defined based on diagenetic
modifications and pore types present at facies.
4.2. Depositional sequences
Sequence stratigraphy establishes a chronostratigraphic framework
to the distribution of reservoir characterization. Based on T-R method,
M. Nazemi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785

vertical distribution of facies and wireline logs (GR and RHOB), the

Interparticle-Moldic-Intercrystalline
upper Dalan-Kangan formations are composed of four third-order se-
Intercrystalline-Microporosity quences (KS1, KS2, UDS1 and UDS2) that is correlatable with other
studies (Insalaco et al., 2006; Maurer et al., 2009; Koehrer et al., 2010;

Moldic-Intercrystalline
Moldic-Interparticle Aleali et al., 2013; Abdolmaleki et al., 2016; Tavakoli, 2017). Sequence
boundaries were recognized by anhydrite layers as the shallowest facies
as well as increased RHOB which were developed in sea level fall. These
sequence boundaries do not represent erosional evidence and were
Pore Type

considered as SBІ (Catuneanu, 2006) in this succession. The maximum

flooding surfaces (MFS) highlighted by open marine facies and GR also
was elevated in this succession. The end-Permian regression in the re-
gion have been confirmed before (Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009;
Marine cementation-Dissolution-Anhydrite cementation

Tavakoli, 2015; Tavakoli et al., 2018).

4.3. Reservoir rock typing

Dissolution-Neomorphism-Marin cementation

Rock typing is an approach to find out analogs in heterogenetic

Compaction-Anhydrite cementation

reservoirs which contains both geological parameters and petrophysical

features (Ebanks, 1987; Porras and Campos, 2001). Lucia classification
Dissolution-Marin cementation

emphasizes particle size, pore type and geometry of pores (Lucia, 1995,
1999, 2007). This classification is based on the carbonate rocks fabrics,
which is divided into three groups formed under the influence of the
Diagenetic Features

same diagenetic and depositional sedimentary characteristics. Ac-

cording to the integration of petrophysical (porosity and permeability)
and geological features, this category includes 1) grainstone and dolo-
mite with particle/crystal size larger than 100 μm 2) packstone and
dolomite with particle/crystal size between 100 and 20 μm 3) wack-
estone and mudstone and dolomite with particles size less than 20 μm.
Petrophysical characteristics in Dalan and Kangan carbonate forma-
Sedimentary Features

tions are under the control of sedimentary and diagenetic processes,

Rock types and petrophysical attributes associated with sedimentary and diagenetic features of the studied succession.

which is why the diagenetic facies have already been introduced. These
MDST-CEG

diagenetic facies were plotted on the Lucia diagram (Fig. 3). Based on
the integration of petrophysical (porosity, permeability, m (cementa-
MOG
MOG
IPG

tion exponent), and pore type) and geological processes, 4 rock types
were determined through diagenetic facies frequency on this diagram.
The porosity and FRF values were depicted against each other for each
1.27
6.82

5.81
0.4

rock type. For each rock type, petrophysical attributes including m, a

K

(tortuosity factor), Archie equations, PTS (pore-throat-sorting in 16, 50

and 86 percent of mercury saturation), permeability, porosity, FRF and
69.56

11.41
PTSD

1.84

2.93

R2 (correlation of determination) values as well as geological features

(sedimentary and diagenetic properties) are demonstrated in Table 1.
Also, the plotted graphs of FRF versus porosity, PTSD and pressure
0.07
0.12
0.14
0.19
PHI

against saturation are displayed for each rock type, similarly (Figs. 4
and 5).
176.33

74.68
57.48
86.3
FRF

5. Discussion

Geological features such as fabric, size, mineralogy, lithology, and

F = 16.99Ø−1.83
F = 11.32Ø−2.10
F = 9.54Ø−2.26
F = 3.98Ø−2.43

diagenesis are the main factors control the Archie parameters. The
change of these features cause drastic heterogeneity in the horizontal
Equations

and vertical dimensions of carbonate rocks and also cause difficulties in

the calculation of petrophysical characteristics such as cementation and
tortuosity exponents. Basically, these problems arise from the compli-
cated structure of pore space and the presence of various pore types in
0.86
0.47
0.57
0.62

carbonate rocks. The most effective procedure to overcome the het-

R2

erogeneity of the reservoir is to apply a method involving compre-

hensive integrating of petrophysical and geological features (sedimen-
16.99
11.32
9.54
3.98

tary and diagenesis) to achieve higher accuracy results in obtaining

a

Archie coefficients. In this study, Lucia diagram approach for de-

termination of distinct rock types was conducted.
1.83

2.26
2.43
2.1
m

5.1. Rock type 1

Rock type

This rock type is mainly composed of MDST, WKST-PKST and CEG

Table 1

facies. The remarkable diagenetic attributes of MDST and WKST-PKST

1
2
3
4

facies are compaction (mechanical and chemical) and dolomitization

779
M. Nazemi et al.
Fig. 4. FRF versus porosity plots for rock type 1 (a) and rock type 2 (d). PC plots for rock type 1(b) and rock type 2 (e). PTSD plots for rock type 1 (c) and rock type 2
(f).
(Fig. 6a and b). The compaction process has caused the deposited
particles being degraded and greatly reduce porosity. Due to the do-
lomitization process, microcrystalline dolomites are formed which
containing low porosity and also a low connection between the pore-
throats. However, due to the process of neomorphism, the size of do-
lomite crystals has increased. Microporous dolomudstone facies contain
microporosity which increases the total porosity of the samples. CEG
facies are heavily cemented in this category (Fig. 6c). Anhydrite cement
has been barricaded in a way that clogs the pores and pore-throats,
pervasively. Fracturing occasionally enhance permeability in this fa-
cies. A review of petrophysical characteristics also exhibits that this
type rock has low porosity and permeability. Low porosity and lack of
pore-throat connection in this facies have increased the FRF values
compare to other groups. This feature has a great impact on the tor-
tuosity factor, which is controlled by the relationship of pore space in
the facies. According to the mercury injection capillary pressure data,
one of the main characteristics of this rock type is very high dispersion
of the pore-throat size and pores. Despite the low slope of the injection
curves and the presence of the flat part at the middle, the pressure of
780
Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
the mercury entering in the permeable network is at its highest level
compared to other rock types, except rock type 3. The pore-throat size
distribution diagram exhibits a high expansion and tendency towards
smaller radius. Consequently, the heterogeneity of pores is high and the
connections between pores tend to be weak, which causes to increase
tortuosity exponent. Moreover, the lower porosity and smaller pore
types highly influence cementation exponent (Kazemzadeh et al., 2007;
Nazemi et al., 2018). The low cementation exponent in this rock type is
affected by low porosity, which is due to compaction and cementation
processes. Compaction and cementation are two diagenetic features
which have negative effect on the fluid flow through rocks (Moore,
2001; Lucia, 2007). Since this class is mainly composed of MDST and
WKST-PKST facies, they are less affected by diagenetic fluids and have
less heterogeneity. Therefore, depicted porosity and FRF values against
each other represent a slight dispersion and high correlation of de-
termination (see Fig. 7).
M. Nazemi et al.
Fig. 5. FRF versus porosity plots for rock type 3 (a) and rock type 4 (d). PC plots for rock type 3 (b) and rock type 4 (e). PTSD plots for rock type 3 (c) and rock type 4
(f).
5.2. Rock type 2
IPG facies has the greatest frequency and MOG facies are less fre-
quent than most of the facies forming this class. Most of the grainstone
facies in this rock type have intergranular and somewhat moldic por-
osity, and also have a relatively high permeability. Isopachous marine
cementation in the grainstone facies has prevented compaction and
maintains porosity and initial permeability (Fig. 6d) (Moradpour et al.,
2008; Tavakoli et al., 2011). Anhydrite cementation has been restricted
in this group. Petrophysically, this rock type has higher porosity and
relatively greater permeability than previous ones. With increasing
porosity and permeability, the value of a decreases, indicating the
connection of the pore-throats. MICP studies represented that compared
to the introduced rock types (1), the curves of this category are char-
acterized by a much lower pressure at the mercury entering point and in
contrast higher saturation levels at similar pressures. These features
indicate greater connectivity, larger grain size, more sorting and gen-
erally higher quality pore-throat network than other rock types. The
middle part of the mercury injection curves in the rock type 2 shows a
slight slope. By examining the pore-throat size distribution curve, the
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
increase in sorting and the decrease in the pore-throat radius distribu-
tion in this rock type can be inferred. The values of m or cementation
factor increases because of the higher porosity and somewhat perme-
ability in this rock type. The attendance of pore spaces and diagenetic
factors, such as cementation, have augmented the heterogeneity of the
rock type and reduced FRF values. The FRF versus phi plot represents
the large dispersion of samples compared to the previous rock types,
which is due to the diagenesis effects.
5.3. Rock type 3
The MOG facies has the greatest frequency in this rock type. The
most considerable diagenetic process in this class is moldic dissolution,
which has increased the porosity of the facies by dissolving the allo-
chems (Fig. 6e). Intergranular is less frequent than moldic porosity,
which only occurs in grainstone facies. The primary framework is
preserved by isopachous marine cementation in some cases, leading to
primary intergranular porosity (IPG facies) preservation into the depth
of burial. The cementation and compaction processes have had little
effect in these facies. From a petrophysical point of view, this rock type
M. Nazemi et al.
Fig. 6. SEM photomicrograph. (a) MDST facies (b) WKST-PKST facies (c) CEG facies (d) IP facies (e) MOG facies.
has higher porosity compared to previous one, albeit its permeability
does not look too much. The mercury injection curves of rock type 3
indicate a higher pressure than other rock types at the entrance point of
mercury into the porous network. In other parts of the capillary pres-
sure-saturation curves, the gradient reflects a pore-throat connection
with low conjunction, radius, and poor sorting. Based on the pore-
throat size distribution curve, the pore-throat radius more than 1 μm is
rare in this class and pore-throats are more likely to have a lower ra-
dius. In comparison with the other rock types, the pore-throat radius is
smaller. Increasing porosity diminish the tortuosity factor and also has
a positive effect on the values of m or cementation factor, which is
affected by high porosity in this class. As the heterogeneity increases in
this type of rock, like the previous rock type, FRF values are reduced,
and the samples in the FRF plot show a large dispersion over phi, which
is due to porosity increase as the result of diagenetic interactions.
5.4. Rock type 4
The major facies forming this rock type is MOG and then IPG facies.
Like the previous rock type, they contain moldic dissolution, but the
intensity of this diagenetic process has significantly increased porosity
compared to the previous one. The factor of permeability enhancement
in this facies comprises processes such as fracturing and neomorphism
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
of dolomite in the form of euhedral and permeable crystals.
Cementation and compaction are negligible in this facies and have no
effect on its reservoir properties. In fact, low rate of cementation due to
the effect of meteoric diagenesis, did not occlude pore spaces and pore-
throats. As well, low degree of compaction due to the grain-dominated
nature, did not play negative role in decreasing primary porosity and
also permeability. Petrophysically, this rock type has the highest por-
osity and somewhat good permeability. Increase in porosity and per-
meability leads to a proper connection between the pores, which results
in a decrement of the tortuosity factor of the facies so that it has the
lowest value. Generally, in this group, the mercury-injection curves il-
lustrate lower pressure at the entrance point of mercury into the porous
network and at different points of saturation, compared with other rock
types. These features represent a higher porous network quality, greater
continuity, larger radius of pore-throats and better sorting. According to
the examination of the pore-throat size distribution diagram, increasing
the sorting and decreasing the pore-throat radius distribution in the
facies of this category are inferred. The maximum porosity in this facies
has increased the cementation coefficient and, the permeability values
have been effective in increasing the cementation factor. By increasing
the amount of empty space in the facies of this class, the values of FRF
are reduced. Different diagenesis processes such as selective dissolu-
tion, neomorphism, and fracture have led to an increase in
M. Nazemi et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785

Fig. 7. A sedimentological log of the studied succession. In this log, factors controlling Archie's parameters (diagenetic facies, pore type, cementation) along with
petrophysical attributes in a sequence stratigraphic framework are observed. BP: interparticle, MOL: moldic, BC: intercrystalline.

heterogeneity in the facies of the rock type. As the result, plotting FRF
against phi witnesses a large dispersion among the samples.
5.5. Sequence interpretation
In the KS1 sequence near the sequence boundary, moldic dissolution
along with evaporite deposits developed and influenced by sea level fall
(Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab, 2009; Tavakoli et al., 2011).
These pores were plugged in middle TST with pore-filling anhydrite
cement (CEG facies). In this facies, we observe porosity, permeability,
and m diminution values and in other hand increasing tortuosity factor
(rock type 1 is more abundant in middle TST). In early HST and late
TST, the mold pore spaces remain empty and, by creating the MOG
facies, increase porosity, permeability, and consequently, m values are
obvious (rock types 3 and 4 are more frequent in early HST and late
TST). In early TST, porosity, permeability and m increase as a result of
sea level fall and the moldic pores are observed (rock type 4 is more
abundant in early TST).
The KS2 sequence is mainly composed of MDST and less frequent
CEG facies. In this sequence, the anhydrite interlayers are frequent and

783
M. Nazemi et al.
their presence has led to the development of anhydrite cements in pore
spaces in the shoal grainstone facies and reduced the porosity, perme-
ability and m values (rock type 1 is more visible). The only part of the
pore spaces that is immune to cementation is the IPG, which is located
in early HST (rock type 2 is more abundant in early HST). Open frac-
tures in this sequence cause increased permeability in tight facies
(Abdolmaleki et al., 2016).
The UDS1 has influenced by sea level fall (late HST) and shallow
intertidal and lagoon facies (MDST, WKST-PKST) have developed. This
class of facies has porosity, permeability, and m with low values (rock
type 1 is more frequent in late HST). In early HST and TST, the porosity,
permeability, and m increase due to the expansion of the shoal facies
(IPG and MOG) (rock types 3 and 4 are more abundant in early HST and
TST). The reason for the increase in permeability is the presence of
connected moldic pores in the base of this sequence.
The UDS2 is largely formed of MOG facies with less IPG frequency.
In the late HST, due to the presence of shallow lagoon facies (MDST),
porosity and permeability values, as well as m, is decreased (rock type 1
has a high frequency in late HST). However, in early HST and late TST,
initially, the pervasive presence of interparticle and moldic porosity in
the grainstone facies resulted in a significant increase in porosity,
permeability, and m (rock types 4 and 3 are more abundant in early
HST and late TST). The low abundance of anhydrite deposits in this
sequence prevents the expansion of anhydrite cements in pore spaces,
therefore it has no effect on reservoir properties. Some of the mud-
dominated facies has high porosity and permeability due to the re-
crystallization process (Tavakoli et al., 2011).
Kazemzadeh et al. (2007) stated in their research that cementation
exponent in the Archie equation is firmly dependent on pore type. They
concluded that by classification of carbonate rocks into the texture-
porosity types, the acquired R2 from FRF versus porosity is significantly
increased. Nabawy (2015) concluded in his study that the major var-
iation of both a and m was due to their dependence on several factors,
such as porosity, permeability, and formation factor. He stated that the
m is often dependent on the pore volume and elongation pore fabric,
while the a is dependent on the porosity, lithology, and permeability.
Nazemi et al. (2018) calculated Archie's exponents for seven de-
termined rock types in the central Persian Gulf. Their research clarified
that pore typing has a great impact on classifying Archie's exponents.
This study confirms the results of these researches while integrates the
effects of facies type and diagenetic processes on the exponents.
6. Conclusions
The following conclusions were obtained through application and
consideration of facies studies, diagenesis, reservoir properties (por-
osity, permeability), Archie exponents and MICP assessments.
1. Five diagenetic facies including MDST, PKST-WKST, CEG, IP, and
MOG were identified.
2. With the using of facies information and their stacking pattern, 4
third-order sequences were recognized which are compatible with
other studies in the Arabian plate.
3. According to the integration of the diagenetic facies, the petrophy-
sical parameters (porosity, permeability) and Archie exponents, four
rock types were distinguished in the framework of the Lucia dia-
gram.
4. Since Archie's exponents are more pore space controlled, their
changes depend on the porosity variation rather than permeability
changes. So that the values demonstrate a direct relationship with
the increase of porosity and some degree of permeability, and there
is an inverse relationship between the values of a or the tortuosity
factor. In addition, by using the MICP data to investigate the dis-
tribution of the pore-throat radius, it was concluded that in high-
porosity facies, permeability enhancement can also be effective on
Archie exponents.
784
Marine and Petroleum Geology 102 (2019) 775–785
5. Based on the sequence position of different rock types, in general,
high-energy grain dominated facies (IP, MOG) in the rock types 3
and 4 are located in late TST and early HST stages. On the contrary,
the mud dominated low-energy facies (MDST, WKST-PKST), in the
rock type 1 is located in late HST and early TST. The diagenetic
processes, such as anhydrite cementation, which blocked the pore
spaces and put CEG facies in the rock type 1 class.
6. With the integration of Archie parameters, porosity–permeability
and geology features in the context of the sequence stratigraphy, the
heterogeneity and uncertainties in the reservoir can be reduced to a
large extent.
Acknowledgments
The first author would like to thank his parents and his fiancé (Sh.
Lund. Shahedi), who gave him so much morale to write this paper and
they have always supported him. The authors also would like to thank
Prof. Rezaee, associate editor of Marine and Petroleum Geology and one
anonymous reviewer which improved the first version.
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