Earth Materials and

Processes: Endogenic
Processes
 Magma
It is the mixture of molten rock, minerals and gases.
-mixture is usually made up of hot liquid base called
the melt, minerals crystallized by the melt, solid rocks
incorporated into the melt from the surrounding
confines and dissolved gases.
- It originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and
in the upper portion of the mantle known as
asthenosphere.
 How are Magmas Formed
• At about 30 to 65 km below the Earth’s
surface, the temperature is high
enough to melt rocks into magma. The
asthenosphere is so hot that most of
the rock is melted. The melt flows very
slowly because it is under intense
pressure. Magma reaches
temperatures between 6000C -1400C. It
behaves like a solid (plasticity)
because of the layers above it.
The formation of faults or breaks in
rocks decreases the pressure, thus
magma is changed into liquid form
and flows towards areas of lower
pressure. Magma is capable of
intrusion, extrusion and can be
expelled violently as tephra to form
pyroclastic rock. Environments of
magma formation and compositions
are correlated. These environments
include subduction zones, continental
rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and
hotspots.
 Gases in Magma
Deep in the Earth, nearly all magmas
contain gas dissolved in the liquid. As
magma rises at the surface of the
Earth, pressure is decreased and the
gas forms a separate vapor phase.
When the magma emerges on the
surface of the Earth, it is called lava.
Lava spilling over or erupting from
craters is usually bubbly, a sign that
gases are escaping.
The escape of gases immensely lowers
the temperature, decreases the volume
and changes the composition of lava as
compared to magma. Gas gives magma
its explosive character. When gases
cannot escape readily, eruption is more
explosive. The composition of the
gases in magma is mostly water vapor,
some carbon dioxide, minor amounts of
sulfur, chlorine and fluorine gases. The
amount of gas in magma is related to
the chemical composition of the
magma.
 Viscosity of Magma
• It is the resistance to flow (antonym:
fluidity)
-depends primarily on the composition and
temperature of the magma.
-higher silica content has higher viscosity.
Viscosity increases with increasing silica
concentration in the magma.
- Low temperature has higher viscosity than
those with high temperature. Decreases
with increasing temperature of magma.
- It is the significant property in determining
the eruptive behavior of magmas.
 Magma Escape Routes
Magma leaves the confines of
the asthenosphere and crust in
two major ways:
1.Intrusion- the action or
process of forcing a body of
igneous rock between or
through existing formations,
without reaching the surface.
Magma can intrude into low-
density area of another geologic
form such as sedimentary rock.
When it cools and hardens, this
intrusion develops into a pluton
commonly known as an igneous
intrusive rock.
Plutonism- is a process whereby a
pluton which is an intrusion of
magma rises from beneath the
surface.
2. Extrusion- refers to a magma reaching the
surface of the Earth through a volcano or
volcanic vent
-can extrude into the Earth’s atmosphere as
part of a violent volcanic eruption. This
magma when it solidifies in the air forms
volcanic rock called “tephra”. In the
atmosphere, tephra is more often referred to
as volcanic ash. This tephra as it falls to
earth forms a pyroclastic rock and that
includes pumice.
Magma rises towards the Earth’s surface
where there are less dense surrounding rocks
and when structural zone allows movement.
 Magma Chamber
Magma develops within the
upper mantle and crust where
the temperature and pressure
conditions favor the molten
state. Magma collects in areas
called magma chambers. Most
magma chambers are beneath
the surface of the Earth.
The pool of magma in a
chamber is layered. The least
dense magma rises to the top.
The densest magma sinks at
the bottom of the chamber. It
can remain in a chamber for
over millions of years, until it
cools and solidifies forming a
pluton or large igneous
intrusive rocks.
If a magma chamber
encounters an enormous
amount of pressure,
however, it may break the
rocks around it. The cracks
are called fissures or vents
—signs of volcanoes. Many
volcanoes are located over
magma chambers.
As a magma chamber experiences
greater pressure, often due to more
magma seeping into the chamber,
the volcano erupts. An eruption
minimizes the pressure inside the
magma chamber. Whenever more
magma is collected into a
volcano’s magma chamber, there is
always a possibility of an eruption
and the volcano remains active.
During an eruption, gases, ash and light
colored rocks are emitted from the least
dense top layer magma chamber. Dark,
dense volcanic rock from the lower part
of the chamber may be released later.
The smoke you see coming out is
actually a mixture of several gases given
off by the magma. Steam or water vapor
comprises 50%, the rest are carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid,
methane and ammonia chloride. Most of
these gases are poisonous.
When a volcano erupts, the
smoke is usually black because
the steam carries with it plenty
of dust particles. There are
extremely strong volcanic
eruptions, causing the volume
of magma to shrink so much
that the entire magma chamber
collapses and form a caldera.
 Different Ways to Generate
Magma
1. Decompression Melting- it involves the
upward movement of the Earth’s
mostly solid mantle. This hot material
rises to an area of lower pressure
through the process of convection.
Areas of lower pressure always have a
lower melting point than areas of
higher pressure. This reduction in the
pressure or decompression, enables
the mantle rock to melt and form
magma
-it often occurs at divergent
boundaries, where tectonic
plates move away from each
other. The rifting motion
causes the magma to be
buoyed up and fill the space
of lower pressure. The rock
then cools and becomes part
of the new crust
- It also occurs at mantle
plumes, columns of hot rocks
that rise from the Earth’s high
pressure core to a lower
pressure crust. Beneath the
ocean, these plumes, also
known as “hot spots,” push
magma onto the seafloor. With
time, these volcanic mounds
can grow into volcanic islands.
As the liquid rock solidifies, it loses
its heat andTransfer of Heat
transfer it to the
surrounding crust. Repeated
intrusions can transfer enough heat
to increase the local geothermal
gradient and cause melting of the
surrounding rock and this create a
new magma.
-it often happens at convergent
boundaries, where tectonic plates
collide with each other.
As the denser plate subducts,
the less dense plate, hot rock
from below can intrude into the
cooler plate above. This
process of heat transfer
creates magma. With time, the
magma in the subduction zones
can form a series of active
volcanoes known as volcanic
arcs.
 Flux Melting
• Occurs when solid rock melts into
magma through the addition of water
or other volatiles, such as carbon
dioxide, causing rocks to melt at
lower temperatures. It usually
happens around subduction zones.
Water above the subducting seafloor
lowers the melting temperature of the
solid rock and forms magma that rises
to the surface.
 Types of Magma
Oxygen and silicon(collectively called
“silica”)are the most abundant elements
in magma. Geologists identify magma
types on the basis of their silica content
(SiO2). This variance in chemical
composition is correlated to gas content,
temperature and viscosity. The initial
composition of the magma is dictated by
the composition of the source of rock
and the degree of partial melting.
 Felsic Magma

• Has the highest silica content of

all.
• Highest gas content and viscosity
• Has lowest average temperature
• Low iron, magnesium and calcium
and is high in potassium and
sodium
• Commonly found at convergent
plate boundaries where transfer of
heat and flux melting could create
large volcanoes
--thick viscous felsic magma
can trap gas bubbles in a
volcano’s magma chamber.
These trap bubbles can
cause explosive and
destructive eruptions where
lava is expelled violently.
When cooled, it formed
granite rock.
 Intermediate Magma
• Have higher silica content than mafic magma.
• Higher gas content and higher viscosity.
• Builds up pressure beneath the Earth’s surface
before it can be released as lava.
• More gaseous and sticky lava tends to explode
violently and cools as andesite rock
• Commonly converted into andesite due to the
transfer of heat at convergent plate boundaries.
-andesite rocks are often found at continental
volcanic arcs, such as Andes Mountain in South
America, from which rock is named after.
 Mafic Magma
• Relatively low silica content
• High in iron and magnesium
• Low gas content and low viscosity
• High average temperature which contribute to
its low viscosity
• Most fluid of all magma types
• Expelled in a non-violent way and moves
rapidly when it reaches the earth’s surface as
lava.
-The Hawaiian Islands are a direct result of
mafic eruptions. Steady and relatively calm
“lava fountains” continue to change and expand
the Island of Hawaii.
 Ultramafic Magma
• Hottest and fastest
flowing magma.
-Our planet is too cool for
ultramafic magma to
form.
 Rock Deformation

Are Rocks Stressed???

Rocks are subjected to several
kinds of stress somehow
similar to stress that people
feel on a bad day.
Stress- force that could create
deformation on rocks in their
shape and volume.
Great forces from several
directions may act on the
lithospheric plates causing
them to move. Although
these crustal plates are
elastic solid, they are
subjected to great forces
such as pulling, pushing or
squeezing.
 Kinds of Stress That Rock
Experiences
1. Lithostatic stress- rock beneath the
Earth’s surface experiences equal
pressure exerted on it from all
directions because of the weight of
the overlying rock. It is like the
hydrostatic stress(water pressure)
that a person feels pressing all over
his body when diving deep down the
water.
2. Differential stress- rock may
experience an additional unequal stress
due to tectonic forces. There are
three(3) basic kinds:
a. Tensional stress (stretching)- this is
when rock is stretched apart or pulled
apart. Where crustal plates diverge,
rocks are pulled apart.
b. Compressional stress (squeezing)-
this is when rock is pressed, squeezed
or pushed together. Where crustal
plates collide, rocks are compressed or
pushed.
c. Shear stress- results in slippage and
translation. The rock is being pulled in
opposite directions.
-Unequal pulls and pushes on the rocks
from different directions may become
greater than the elastic limit of the
rocks, hence rock may be deformed.
-When rocks are deformed, they say
that rock is under strain. A strain is a
change in size, shape or volume of a
material rock. Deformation includes
faulting of rigid rocks and folding of
rocks that can be bent.
 How Are Rocks Deformed?

Strain- rock deformation in response to

stress
Rocks responds to stress differently
depending on the pressure,
temperature, and mineralogical
composition of the rock. The ability of a
rock material to handle stress depends
on the elasticity of the rock.
 Types of Deformation of Rocks:

1. Elastic Deformation- for small

differential stresses, less than the
yield strength, rock deforms like a
spring. It changes in shape by a very
small amount in response to the
stress. The deformation is not
permanent. This deformation is
reversible. The rock can return to its
original shape.
2. Brittle Deformation or Fracture- near
the Earth’s surface rocks behaves in its
familiar brittle fashion. If a differential
stress is applied that is greater than
the rock’s yield strength, the rock
fractures. Fracture is an irreversible
strain wherein the rock breaks.
It should be noted that the part of the
rock that did not break springs back to
its original shape. This termed elastic
rebound. Elastic rebound is what
causes earthquakes
Brittle rocks tend to fracture
when rock is subjected to
compressional or tensional
stress( differential stress). The
breaking of rock is due to low
pressure and temperature that
are experienced near the
Earth’s surface. Such irregular
cracks can produce fractures
such as joints and faults.
Joints- are fractures in rocks that
show little or no movement at all. The
orientation can be describe as strike
and dip. They form as result of
tensional stress acting perpendicular
to the orientation of the produced
joint on a brittle rock. Such stress is
induced by cooling rock (the fact that
volume decreases as temperature
decreases) or by relief of pressure as
rock is eroded above thus reducing
weight.
- Provide pathways for water and thus
promote the chemical weathering on
rocks. If new minerals are precipitated
from water flowing in the joints, it
forms vein. Many veins observed in
rocks are mostly quartz or calcite but
sometimes may contain rare minerals
like silver and gold. Joints provide
access of water in rocks. This aspect
makes rate of weathering and erosion
higher and can even lead to differential
erosion.
From the engineering point of view,
joints are essential structures to
be considered. Since they are
areas of weakness, their presence
is crucial in construction—from
building dams to high ways. In
dams, the water may leak out
through the joints and will lead to
dam failure. In highways, the joints
may separate and cause rock fall
and landslide.
Faults- are extremely
long and deep break
or large crack in the
rock. It is the result
of continuous pulling
and pushing.
 Types of Faults
1. Dip-Slip Fault (Normal Fault)- occurs when
brittle rocks are stretched-tectonic tensional
forces are involved and the movement of the
blocks of rock is mainly in a vertical
direction(sinking and rising). The block lying
on the top of the fault surface is referred to
as hanging wall while the one below is
referred to as the footwall. The hanging wall
has moved downward relative to the footwall.
Normal faults are the chief structural
components of many sedimentary rift basins
like the North Sea where they have a major
significance for hydrocarbon exploration.
2. Strike-slip fault-occurs when brittle
rocks are sheared (the opposing
tectonic forces are at right angles to
compression and tension directions)
and the movement of blocks of rock is
chiefly in horizontal direction. If the far
side of the fault moves to the left
relative to an observer it is called
“sinistral strike-slip fault” (left lateral).
If the far side of the fault moves to the
right relative to an observer it is called
“ dextral strike-slip fault” (right lateral)
3. Reverse (or thrust) faults
occur when brittle rocks are
pushed(the tectonic forces are
compressional)
The Philippines has many
faults. One of these is the
Marikina Valley Fault System
that contains two major
segments: West Valley Fault
and the East Valley Fault
The West Valley Fault which is believed to
impact as the BIG ONE is a dominantly dextral
strike-slip fault that extends from Dingalan,
Aurora in the North and runs through the
provinces of Nueva Ecija,Bulacan (Doña
Rosario Trinidad, Norzagaray, San Jose Del
Monte), Rodriguez, Rizal and the cities of
Metro Manila which include Quezon City,
Marikina, Pasig, Makati, Parañaque, Taguig
and Muntinlupa and the provinces of Laguna
(Biñan, San Pedro, Sta. Rosa, Cabuyao,
Calamba) and Cavite (Carmona, Gen. Mariano
Alvarez, Silang) that ends in Tagaytay. The
eastern segment known as East Valley Fault
moves in an oblique dextral motion. It affects
the area of Rodriguez and San Mateo Rizal.
3. Ductile Deformation- rocks buried
deep within the Earth’s crust behave
differently when subjected to
differential stress. It is impossible to
produce fracture in rocks the way it is
at the Earth’s surface. Rocks becomes
thicker under compressional stress and
thinner under tensional stress. Rock
layers tend to bend and go out of the
shape. The high temperature condition
makes a rock softer, less brittle and
more ductile.
Rocks therefore is said to undergo ductile
deformation when a differential stress
applied is stronger than its yield strength.
Ductile deformation is an irreversible
strain which means that the rock cannot
go back to its original condition; instead it
is changed into a new shape. This occurs
in the lower continental crust and in the
mantle. It’s like a copper wire which is
described as ductile, meaning it can be
drawn into long and thin wires, but once
you have done this, you cannot undo the
change anymore. The same is true for
rocks that undergo ductile deformation.
When rocks deform in a
ductile manner, instead of
fracturing to form faults or
joints they may bend or fold
and the resulting structures
are called folds. Folds are
promoted by high
temperature and pressure at
great depth.
 Kinds of Folds
1. Monoclines- are the simplest type of
folds. It occur when the horizontal
layers are bent upward so that the
two limbs of the fold are still
horizontal.
2. Synclines-are fold structures when
the original rock layers have been
folded downward and the two limbs
of the fold dip inward toward the
hinge of the fold.
3. Anticlines- are fold
structures formed when
the originally rock layers
have been folded upward
and the two limbs of the
fold dip away from the
hinge of the fold.