Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

Linking diagenetic history to depositional attributes in a high-frequency T

sequence stratigraphic framework: A case from upper Jurassic Arab
formation in the central Persian Gulf
Masoud Sharifi-Yazdia, Hossain Rahimpour-Bonaba,∗, Vahid Tavakolia, Maziyar Nazemia,
Mohammad Reza Kamalib
a
School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
b
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Curtin, Bentley, Australia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The carbonate Arab Formation (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian) is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon reservoirs in
Late Jurassic the world. Petrographic studies of this unit in the central Persian Gulf led to identification of eleven sedimentary
Depositional environments facies, and facies are grouped into 5 shore-parallel facies belts (supratidal, tidal flat, lagoon, shoal and mid-
Diagenetic history ramp). Evidences such as the absence of barrier reefs and the low diversity of facies reveals that these facies
Sequence stratigraphy
formed in a ramp-like platform. Postdepositional processes (diagenetic evolution) considerably influenced re-
Paleoclimate
servoir properties of sedimentary facies. Depositional and diagenetic features in this formation are strongly
controlled by the interplay of glacio-eustasy and climate leading to sea-level fluctuations during the Late
Jurassic. Based on the petrographic analyses and previous studies, four third-order sequences are recognized and
all sequence boundaries are capped by evaporites. The main diagenetic processes impacting the Arab Formation
occurred under marine and hypersaline conditions and burial realms. The hypersaline conditions correspond to
sea-level fall and development of brines and are characterized by dolomitization and moldic dissolution in the
Upper Arab Formation. Vuggy dissolution is another major reservoir improving factor. Generally, vuggy dis-
solution along with anhydrite cementation, occurred extensively in the Upper Arab Formation, while in the
Lower Arab Formation, these processes are limited to just beneath of the sequence boundary (nodular anhydrite
form). Diagenetic features (eogenetic and mesogenetic environments) appear to correlate to depositional en-
vironments in the Arab Formation and are controlled by sea-level changes. Consequently, diagenetic processes
and reservoir properties can be predicted within a sequence stratigraphic framework.

1. Introduction Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2012; Kordi et al., 2016). Consequently, it

Depositional and diagenetic processes are the main factors con-
trolling reservoir properties (Lucia, 2007; Ahr, 2008; Beigi et al., 2017).
Carbonate platform geometry dictates lateral arrangements of deposi-
tional facies and hence primary porosity (Lucia, 2007). While diage-
netic alterations modify limestone depositional properties and lead to
porosity redistribution. Successive modifications and pore rearrange-
ments of carbonate reservoirs can only be understood by studying the
diagenetic history of carbonates (Gaupp et al., 1993; Mazzullo, 1994;
Hiatt and Kyser, 2000; Janjuhah at al., 2017). Spatial trends of diag-
enesis and its impact on reservoir porosity-permeability patterns, have
been shown to relate, at least indirectly, to relative sea-level (RSL)
change and sequence stratigraphic framework (Taghavi et al., 2006;
should be possible to predict intra-formational reservoir quality using
sequence stratigraphy. In this study, we reconstruct the architecture of
the (carbonate) Arab Formation, in the Iranian Persian Gulf, and pro-
pose a sequence stratigraphic framework for these strata. We then de-
termine controls on reservoir properties, resolve the diagenetic history
of the Arab Formation and its impact on reservoir quality and evolu-
tion, as well as evaluating the linkage between depositional/diagenetic
processes and RSL changes. Finally, we consider how reservoir quality
can be predicted using the proposed sequence stratigraphic framework.
The Kimmeridgian-Tithonian (Late Jurassic) carbonate Arab
Formation is regarded as one of the most prolific hydrocarbon-bearing
units in the world (Beydoun, 1988; Alsharhan and Magara, 1995;
Lindsay, 2006). This formation hosts giant hydrocarbon reservoirs in

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rahimpor@ut.ac.ir (H. Rahimpour-Bonab).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.006
Received 2 August 2018; Received in revised form 3 February 2019; Accepted 5 February 2019
Available online 20 February 2019
1464-343X/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Generalized stratigraphy of Upper Jurassic lithostratigraphic rock units at the Ghawar Field in eastern Saudi Arabia (modified after Cantrell et al., 2001).
The Upper Arab Formation contains the members A to C and the Lower Arab Formation contains the member D member. (b) Location map of the studied area in the
central of the Persian Gulf. The studied oil field and the location of wells is seen.
many parts of the Arabian Plate, including the Persian Gulf, Abu Dhabi,
offshore UAE, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar (Alsharhan and
Kendall, 1986; Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). In the Iranian waters of the
Persian Gulf, several offshore fields such as Balal, Reshadat and Salman
fields produce from the Arab Formation (IOOC Unpublished Report)
(Fig. 1a and b).
Apparently, the frequent RSL fluctuations during the Late Jurassic
forced changes in the carbonate factory and diagenetic patterns both
spatially and temporally in the Arab Formation. As a result, RSL
changes indirectly controlled depositional and diagenetic features of
this carbonate evaporite succession (Clark et al., 2004; Al-Saad and
Sadooni, 2011; Morad et al., 2012; Al-Awwad and Collins, 2013; Nader
et al., 2013; Daraei et al., 2014; Beigi et al., 2017; Marchionda et al.,
2018). However, linking between various variables including facies
distribution, diagenetic history and sequence stratigraphy have been
less considered (Morad et al., 2012; Beigi et al., 2017). Herein, we
evaluate the Arab Formation with a focus on understanding RSL con-
trols on reservoir characteristics.
2. Geological setting and stratigraphy
During the Late Permian and, eastern Gondwana's disintegration,
the Neotethys Ocean opened (Al-Husseini, 2000; Sharland et al., 2001;
Ziegler, 2001). Following rifting, passive margin platforms developed
around the margins of Neotethys during the Early to Late Jurassic
(Fig. 2), along with the contemporaneous Gotnia, Arabia and Rub Al-
Khali intrashelf basins (Ayres et al., 1982a,b; Ziegler, 2001; Pollastro,
2003). This occurrence was concurrent with multiple RSL changes in
the Arabian Platform. During RSL rise in the Early to Late Jurassic,
source rock formed as a result of organic matter accumulations
(Powers, 1962, 1968; Alsharhan and Magara, 1995; Alsharhan and
Nairn, 1997; Ziegler, 2001; Handford et al., 2002). This was followed
by deposition of shallowing-upward carbonate cycles of the Arab For-
mation, and then under the influence of RSL fall, Hith Anhydrite was
precipitated during the Late Jurassic. The Hith Formation also acts as a
cap rock (Ziegler, 2001; Haq and Al-Ghahtani, 2005). During deposition
of the Arab Formation, periodic RSL fall coupled with an arid climate
related to the intertropical convergence zone (Sellwood et al., 2000)
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
during the Tithonian, led to evaporite deposition overlying the Arab
and the Hith platforms (Alsharhan and Magara, 1995).
The Arab Formation is equivalent to the upper Surmeh Formation
(Khami Group) in the stratigraphic nomenclature of Iran. This forma-
tion is subdivided into the four members A to D. Each member is cov-
ered by an anhydrite layer, and the uppermost member (A) is overlain
by the anhydrite of the Hith Formation (Powers, 1962, 1968; Al-
Husseini, 1997). Generally, the D member is known as the “Lower Arab
Formation” and the members A to C are called the “Upper Arab For-
mation” (Lapointe, 1991) (Fig. 1a).
The study area is located in the central Persian Gulf (Fig. 1b) in the
eastern part of the South Pars Field. This area is controlled by two kinds
of structural phenomena including the Qatar Arch and salt tectonics
(Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997) (Fig. 3). The Qatar Arch formed through
basement faulting in the Late Precambrian and was active during the
Late Jurassic (Murris, 1980; Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Pollastro,
2003). Regarding the deposition of the Arab Formation in the Rub Al-
Khali basin in the central Persian Gulf during the Late Jurassic
(Handford et al., 2002; Sfidari et al., 2018a), the Qatar Arch as a pa-
leohigh was a main syndepositional structure by establishment of Rub
Al-Khali basin. As well, postdepositional movement of the Qatar Arch
influenced the distribution and formation of hydrocarbon reservoirs in
the study area (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). The Late Precambrian/
Early Cambrian Hormuz Salt also played a major role in the formation
of hydrocarbon fields, mainly through salt migration (Stöcklin, 1968;
Edgell, 1996; Perotti et al., 2016; Beigi et al., 2017; Jafarian et al.,
2017). In general, the active salt movement was significant during the
Permian-Triassic, Cretaceous, Eocene-Oligocene and Neogene (Perroti
et al., 2016); however, more stable conditions dominated the Jurassic
in the Arabian Plate. In spite of this general salt tectonic limitation, the
salt dome in the studied area had important local impact on the de-
positional system of the Arab Formation (Fig. 3b). This formation is
considered to be the most important reservoir zone in the study area
and is capped by the impermeable evaporite of the Hith Formation
(Alsharhan and Magara, 1995; Clark et al., 2004; Assadi et al., 2018).
As shown, the studied exploration wells were drilled on the flank of the
salt structure (Ghazban, 2007) (Fig. 3b).
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 2. Paleofacies map of the Arab Formation during the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian (Compiled with some modification after Al-Hussaini, 1997).

3. Material and methods
In order to construct a depositional model and to decipher the di-
agenetic history of the Arab Formation more than 350 thin sections
were made from samples taken from two wells (B-01 and B-02) from an
oil field, located in the central Persian Gulf (Fig. 1). Thin section
samples were taken at 0.5 m intervals through the cored intervals. The
core from well B-01 intersects members A to D of the Arab Formation,
with a cored interval of 137 m. The core from well B-02 intersects
members A to C with a 100 m cored interval. Among the > 350 thin
sections, 150 were treated with Alizarin Red-S and potassium ferro-
cyanide, following Dickson's (1965) procedure, and 100 were
impregnated with blue-dyed epoxy resin. According to microscopic
examinations, thin section descriptions include texture, size and type of
allochems and diagenetic features. Rock were classified using the
limestone classifications of Dunham (1962) and Embry and Klovan
(1971). Facies interpretations are based on rock characteristics, com-
parison of successions with well-established models (Wilson, 1975;
Buxton and Pedley, 1989; Flügel, 2010). Special emphasis was put on
identifying standard ramp microfacies types (RMF) according to Flügel
(2010). For evaluation of the energy index of sedimentary facies,
Plumley et al. (1962) classification was used.
In addition to thin section evaluation, oxygen and carbon stable
isotope data (36 samples) were acquired from dolomites in well B-01.

Fig. 3. (a) A cross-section of Phanerozoic successions on the Arabian Plate (modified after Afifi, 2005). The situation of the study area is shown. Seemingly, this area
was geologically under influence of the Qatar-Fars Arch and the regional salt tectonic. (b) Two-dimensional seismic profile of the study area. The influence of the salt
dome on the Arab Formation of the study area and locations of the two drilled wells (B-01 and B-02) on the flank of the salt structure, are shown.

93
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

The porosity of sedimentary facies was determined using Helium por-

Porosity(%)
osity on 430 core plug samples. Finally, to identify and correlate sys-
tems tracts, maximum flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries,
16/2
17/3
20/2
18/4
18/6
17/1
20/5
23/5
18/1
2/5

20
petrographic analyses were correlated to gamma-ray (GR) and density
logs (RHOB).
Facies belt

Mid. ramp
Mid. ramp
Supratidal
Intertidal
Intertidal
Intertidal
Lagoon
Shoal
Shoal
Shoal
Shoal
4. Results and interpretation

4.1. Microfacies

High to medium
Energy level

Detailed paleoenvironmental reconstruction and lithostratigraphic

Medium

Medium

variations of the Arab Formation throughout the Middle East have been
High
High
High

Poor
Low
Low
Low

Low

described in detail in several studies including Alsharhan and Kendall

(1986), Alsharhan and Magara (1995), Alsharhan and Whittle (1995),
Al-Sharhan and Nairn (1997) and Daraei et al. (2014). In the study area,
Roundness

Medium

Medium

Medium
Medium

11 facies are defined in the Arab Formation (Table 1). While some of
Good

Good
Poor

Poor

Poor

them show analogous components, they mostly have different fabrics

_
_

and textural attributes, resulting in various petrophysical character-

istics. The 11 facies define five facies belts, including sabkha, tidal flat,
Moderately sorted

Moderately sorted

Moderately sorted
Moderately sorted
Very well sorted

lagoon, shoal and mid-ramp. The main allochems in the Upper Arab
Poorly sorted

Poorly sorted

Formation facies include ooids, peloids, oncoids, and mollusca. Im-

Well sorted

portant allochems in the Lower Arab Formation include benthic for-

Sorting

aminifera, green algae, mollusca, stromatoporoids and corals as well as

Fine
_
_

non-skeletal fragments (oncoids, peloids and intraclasts). Ooids are

rare.
Benthic foraminifera, oyster, coral, stromatoporoid, green algae, peloid, intraclast

4.1.1. Facies 1 (F1): Anhydrite

This is the most abundant facies in the Upper Arab Formation. It
Facies and facies belts of the Arab Formation in the studied wells. Texture and dominant components are also been shown.

consists mainly of ∼80% anhydrite associated with micrite and fine

crystalline dolomite (< 20 micron) (Fig. 4a). It appears as massive,
layered and nodular (chicken wire) in the core. The chicken wire
Benthic foraminifera, green algae, oyster, stromatoporoid

structure shows syndepositional, interstitial growth of displacive an-

hydrite that expanded in a sabkha (supratidal) setting (Kasprzyk, 2003;
Aleali et al., 2013). This facies corresponds to RMF 25 (peritidal)
Peloid, echinoderm, sponge spicules, ostracoda

(Flügel, 2010), 1 (Peritidal) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 9 (eva-

porative flats) Wilson (1975). It is equivalent with the Type І energy
Ooid, gastropod, oncoid, bivalve, peloid
Peloid, oncoid, gastropod, bivalve, ooid

index (Plumley et al., 1962).

Oncoid, gastropod, bivalve, intraclast
Gastropod, bivalve, peloid, oncoid

4.1.2. Facies 2 (F2): Fine crystalline dolomudstone

Peloid, ooid, gastropod, bivalve

This facies predominantly consists of dolomicrite that replaced the

lime mud (Fig. 4b). In some cases, anhydrite nodules appear in F2,
suggesting deposition during periods of sea-level fall in the arid climate.
Compared with similar facies, it could be ascribed to the intertidal zone
of hypersaline lagoon (Warren, 2006). This facies corresponds to RMF
Components

22 (peritidal) (Flügel, 2010) and 1 (peritidal) (Buxton and Pedley,

1989) and 8 (tidal flats) Wilson (1975). It corresponds to Type І energy
Peloid

index (Plumley et al., 1962).

_
_

Bioclast peloid intraclast packstone-wackestone

4.1.3. Facies 3 (F3): Peloidal stromatolite boundstone

This tidal flat facies includes microbial colonies, containing algal
filaments (∼40%), peloids (∼20%), fine intraclast (∼10%) and some
Peloidal bioclast wackestone-mudstone
Bioclast peloid wackestone-packstone

Oncoid bioclast intraclast grainstone

Peloidal ooid packstone-wackestone

Bioclast peloid intraclast grainstone

impurities such as organic matter (∼13%) (Fig. 4c). Mud cracks and
Peloidal oncoid bioclast packstone
Peloidal stromatolite boundstone

bird's-eyes textures are not present in this facies which could be as-
cribed to their deposition in the lower intertidal setting (Clark et al.,
2004). Seemingly, due to vuggy porosity development, some of the
Ooid oncoid grainstone

fenestral pores have been destroyed. This facies is similar to RMF 22

(peritidal) (Flügel, 2010), 1 (peritidal) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 8
Dolomudstone

(tidal flats) Wilson (1975). It shows Type І energy index (Plumley et al.,
Facies name

1962).
Anhydrite

4.1.4. Facies 4 (F4): Peloidal ooid packstone/wackestone

This facies consists of fine-grained peloids and ooids (∼40%) with
Facies code

1 mm in diameter associated by micrite (20–40%). Due to fabric in-

version it is difficult to distinguish peloids from ooids (Fig. 4d).
Table 1

F10
F11

Handford et al. (2002) and Clark et al. (2004) assigned this facies to an
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9

intertidal to supratidal environment. This facies is compatible with RMF

94
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
Fig. 4. Thin section photomicrographs, illustrating main facies from the Arab
Formation in the center of the Persian Gulf. (a) Facies 1: anhydrite with chicken
wire fabric, (b) Facies 2: dolomudstone, missing bioclast, (c) Facies 3: stro-
matolite boundstone, (d) Facies 4: ploid ooid packstone/wackestone, accom-
panied with anhydrite nodule, (e) Facies 5: bioclastic peloid wackestone/
packstone, (f) Facies 6: peloidal oncoid bioclastic packstone, (g) Facies 7: ooidal
oncoid grainstone, (h) Facies 8: oncoid bioclastic intraclast grainstone, (i)
Facies 9: bioclastic peloid intraclast grainstone. Stromatoporoids (cladocor-
opsis) are present in this facies. (j) Facies 10: bioclastic oncoid intraclast
packstone, (k) Facies 11: peloid bioclastic wackestone/mudstone.
24 (peritidal) (Flügel, 2010), 1 (peritidal) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989)
and 8 (tidal flats) Wilson (1975). It shows Type ІV energy index
(Plumley et al., 1962).
95
Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
4.1.5. Facies 5 (F5): Bioclastic peloid wackestone/packstone
This facies is characterized by wackestone/packstone and muddy
matrix (∼42%) associated with debris of peloids (∼20%), bivalves
(∼10%), gastropods (∼10%), ostracods (∼10%). This facies indicates
a low-energy setting in a restricted lagoon (back shoal) (Wanas and
Sallam, 2016) (Fig. 4e). This facies is similar to RMF 20 (lagoon)
(Flügel, 2010), 2 (inner restricted lagoon) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989)
and 7 (shelf lagoon) Wilson (1975). Type III of Plumley et al. (1962)
classification is equivalent to the energy level of this facies.
4.1.6. Facies 6 (F6): Peloidal oncoid bioclastic packstone
Its main allochems include peloids (∼30%), oncoids (∼20%),
bioclasts (gastropods and bivalves) and ooids (∼10%). Allochems are
moderately sorted and rounded along with some micrite (∼22%) that
indicate a leeward shoal environment located between shoal and la-
goon (Assadi et al., 2018; Sfidari et al., 2018b; Flügel, 2010). Peloids
might have reworked from a low-energy environment to leeward shoal.
This facies represents a transition from low-energy lagoon to high-en-
ergy shoal setting (Fig. 4f) (e.g., Al-Saad and Sadooni, 2011). This facies
is equivalent to RMF 27 (carbonate sand shoals and banks) (Flügel,
2010), 3 (beach facies) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 6 (winnowed
edge sands) Wilson (1975). Its energy index is Type ІV of Plumley et al.
(1962).
4.1.7. Facies 7 (F7): Ooidal oncoid grainstone
The significant components of this facies include micritized ooids
(∼50%), oncoids (∼15%) associated with some peloids (∼10%) and
gastropods (∼10%) (Fig. 4g). The grains are well sorted signifying
deposition in a high-energy central shoal environment (Schulze et al.,
2005; Blomeier et al., 2009; Cantrell, 2006). This facies corresponds to
RMF 30 (carbonate sand shoals and banks) (Flügel, 2010), 3 (beach
facies) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 6 (winnowed edge sands) Wilson
(1975). Its energy index is Type V of Plumley et al. (1962).
4.1.8. Facies 8 (F8): Oncoid bioclastic intraclast grainstone
This facies consists primarily of micritized allochems including
oncoids (∼40%), gastropods (∼20%), intraclasts (∼15%) and bivalves
(∼10%) (Fig. 4h). Moderately sorted and rounded grains intraclasts
represent seaward shoal environment (Blomeier et al., 2009). This fa-
cies corresponds to RMF 27 (carbonate sand shoals and banks) (Flügel,
2010), 3 (beach facies) Buxton and Pedley (1989) and 6 (winnowed
edge sands) Wilson (1975). Type V of Plumley et al. (1962) classifica-
tion of energy index could be correlatable to this facies.
4.1.9. Facies 9 (F9): Bioclastic peloid intraclast grainstone
Small benthic foraminifera (∼20%), oysters (∼10%), corals
(∼10%), stromatoporoids (∼10%), peloids (∼10%), intraclasts
(∼10%) and green algae (Clypeina, Salpingoporella and
Thaumatoporella) (∼5%) are components of this facies (Fig. 4i). It is
only developed in the Lower Arab Formation. The lack of micrite and
moderate sorting, accompanied with intraclasts suggest a high-energy,
seaward shoal environment. This facies corresponds to RMF 27 (car-
bonate sand shoals and banks) (Flügel, 2010), 3 (beach facies) (Buxton
and Pedley, 1989) and 6 (winnowed edge sands) Wilson (1975). Type V
of Plumley et al. (1962) classification of energy index corresponds to
this facies.
4.1.10. Facies 10 (F10): Bioclastic peloid intraclast packstone/wackestone
Facies 10 consists of micritized skeletal and non-skeletal grains in-
cluding small benthic foraminifera (∼20%), peloids (∼20%), intraclast
fragments (15%), echinoderms (∼10%) and green algae (∼10%). The
concurrent presence of high-energy fragments (intraclasts and peloids)
along with micrite (∼20%), indicates textural inversion (Fig. 4j) and a
depositional environment of a proximal mid-ramp near the fair-weather
wave base (Flügel, 2010). This facies is merely observed in the Lower
Arab Formation. This facies is equivalent to RMF 9 (mid-ramp) (Flügel,
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
2010), 4 (seagrass community) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 3 (deep
shelf margin) Wilson (1975). Type ІV of energy index is suggested for
this facies.
4.1.11. Facies 11 (F11): Peloidal bioclastic wackestone/mudstone
In this facies, peloids (∼20%) are associated with echinoderms
(∼10%), bivalves (∼10%) and green algae (∼10%) fragments and
calcareous sponge spicules in a dark muddy matrix (∼30%) re-
presenting a low-energy environment similar to a distal (outer) ramp to
proximal basin setting (Flügel, 2010) (Fig. 4k). This facies is, similar to
F10, but only present in the Lower Arab Formation. It is known to be
associated with sedimentary structures such as firm-ground and bur-
rows in the Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia (Handford et al., 2002; Swart
et al., 2005). This facies corresponds to RMF 3 (mid-ramp) (Flügel,
2010), 4 (seagrass community) (Buxton and Pedley, 1989) and 3 (deep
shelf margin) Wilson (1975). Its energy index is types III.
Detailed petrographic studies reveal several general trends from the
Lower Arab Formation to the Upper Arab Formation that represent, in
part, increasing climate aridity. At the beginning of the Upper Arab
Formation increasing aridity led to deposition of evaporite deposits and
alteration of depositional facies (Alsharhan and Magara, 1995). Re-
garding the nature of constituent particles of the Arab Formation,
faunal diversity (F8 and F9) decreases from the Lower Arab Formation
toward the Upper Arab Formation and non-skeletal fragments such as
ooids, oncoids and peloids (F6 and F10) increase in frequency (Fig. 5).
Absence of siliciclastic components in this formation suggests that the
depositional setting was relatively stable (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997)
during the Late Jurassic.
4.2. Field-scale conceptual depositional model
In this study, the lateral distribution of facies belts along the car-
bonate ramp is reconstructed (Fig. 5). Facies belts formed parallel to the
shoreline, and extended from peritidal to mid-ramp positions in an open
marine setting. A ramp-like platform supported for the Arab Formation
based in the absence of barrier reefs, the low variability of facies types
and the development of ooidal shoal close to the shoreline (Flügel,
1982; Burchette and Wright, 1992; Avrell et al., 1998; Wanas, 2008).
This interpretation is similar to that of other studies on the Arabian
Platform (Handford et al., 2002; Lindsay, 2006 and Morad et al., 2012;
Daraei et al., 2014; Beigi et al., 2017; Marchionda et al., 2018). Indeed,
arid climate at the time of construction of the Arab Platform inhibited
the biological success of the reef-building organisms and led to ex-
pansion of shoal grainstone along with evaporite deposits. In the Lower
Arab Formation, reef buildups are present as coral patch reefs and patch
reefs of organisms with stromatoporoid skeletal morphology.
4.3. Diagenetic processes
The diagenetic processes that overprinted the Arab Formation have
been previously discussed by several workers (Alsharhan and Magara,
1995; Alsharhan and Whittle, 1995; Al-Saad and Sadooni, 2011; Clark
et al., 2004; Morad et al., 2012; Daraei et al., 2014). Diagenetic events
had significant effects on the evolution of pores and final reservoir
characteristics (Hollis, 2011; Hosseini et al., 2018; Nazemi et al., 2018,
2019). The diagenetic history of the Arab Formation begins with the
stratigraphic architecture of depositional environments that shifted
position as relative sea-level rose and fell, and was followed by the
hypersaline realm and then burial stage (Fig. 6). The lack of evidence
for meteoric diagenesis in the Arab Formation, led to the suggestion
that this platform had no important subaerial exposure during its di-
agenetic history (Wilson, 1981; Mitchell et al., 1988; Cantrell and
Hagerty, 1999). Main diagenetic stages include:
4.3.1. Eogenesis
4.3.1.1. Micritization. During the Late Jurassic, intensive boring by
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
micro-organisms (Riding and Liang, 2005) had an important effect on
the Arab Formation (Fig. 7a and b). Micritic envelopes are observed in
facies F3 to F8. This feature has no direct effect on reservoir quality, but
may preserve allochems from further alteration by diagenetic processes.
4.3.1.2. Marine cementation. In the shallow marine high-energy setting
facies, marine calcite cement with LMC (low magnesium calcite)
mineralogy (Stanley and Hardie, 1998) formed as isopachous acicular
rim cements around various allochems (Fig. 7a and b). This cement is
only reported from the Lower Arab Formation and due to pervasive
dolomitization of the Upper Arab Formation, no traces of it are found.
This cement led to early lithification and prevented compaction during
later burial and may have helped partial preservation of the
interparticle porosity. Furthermore, this porosity may have been
partly preserved due to overpressure conditions, which in turn,
resulted from sealing by overlying evaporite (Daraei et al., 2014).
Marine cements are abundant in F9 but rarely seen in F10.
4.3.1.3. Early dolomitization. Early dolomite was identified by euhedral
to subhedral crystal dolomite that pervasively formed in the Arab
Formation. Dolomite crystals are ranging in size from 20 to 100 microns
in F1 to F5 and 100 to 400 microns in F6 to F8, both showing fabric
retentive and fabric destructive fabrics. (Fig. 7e, f, g). This dolomite
shows mesogenetic vuggy dissolution and anhydrite cementation
suggesting its formation in eogenetic realm.
4.3.1.4. Moldic dissolution. Moldic pores in the F4, F5 and occasionally
in F6 and F7 are seen, which are associated with evaporite facies and
evaporite nodules in the Upper Arab Formation (Fig. 7c and d).
Microcrystalline dolomite and anhydrite cement occluded moldic
pores. Petrographic evidence show that fabric selective dissolution
(moldic) led to increasing porosity in the Arab carbonates. Moldic
porosity dramatically improved of the reservoir in the Arab Platform
(Alsharhan and Magara, 1995; Morad et al., 2012; Daraei et al., 2014;
Beigi et al., 2017).
4.3.2. Mesogenesis
4.3.2.1. Compaction. Features of mechanical compaction are visible in
some grain-dominated facies (Fig. 7h), but apparently it partially
retarded in the Arab Formation due to the early marine cementation
and overpressure (Daraei et al., 2014) (Fig. 7i and j). In most cases,
stylolites cross-cut previous features such as dolomite and anhydrite
cements, suggesting their late diagenetic origin. Facies associations of
F1 to F5 and rarely F6 demonstrate pressure-solution features.
4.3.2.2. Dolomite cementation. Dolomite cement appears as euhedral
crystals which formed in shallow burial realms (Choquette and Hiatt,
2008). This type of cement is exclusively observed in the Upper Arab
Formation, growing over coarse crystalline dolomite (such as seen in
F6, F7 and F8), leading to occlusion of intercrystalline porosity and
pore throats (Clark et al., 2004) (Fig. 7k). In some cases, dolomite
crystal cores are dissolved (skeletal dolomite formation), but the
dolomite cement remained intact (Fig. 7l).
4.3.2.3. Vuggy dissolution. The non-fabric selective vuggy dissolution is
an important diagenetic process in the Upper Arab Formation. It plays a
major role in reservoir improvement in the dolostone units (Fig. 7m).
Vuggy pores occur in the early dolomites and dolomite cements. They
are frequently filled by poikilotopic and pervasive anhydrite cements in
the Upper Arab Formation. Vuggy dissolution took place in deep burial
settings.
4.3.2.4. Anhydrite cementation. Anhydrite cements occur commonly
with pore-filling, poikilotopic and pervasive textures in the Upper
Arab Formation (Fig. 7c, l and m). Dissolution of overlying anhydrite
resulted in development of this cement (Warren, 2006). The pore-filling
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 5. (a) Field-scale facies conceptual depositional model, reconstructed for the Jurassic Arab Formation of the study area. Eleven facies types are recognized in this
environment that deposited along the peritidal to mid-ramp settings. Within the shallower part of this carbonate ramp, eight main facies belts can be distinguished. b)
Also shown are the idealized shallowing-upward sequences for this environment.

type formed during hypersaline diagenesis that resulted in decreasing Arab Formation is widely developed, while this diagenetic process only
porosity. The presence of dolomite inclusions, filling of vuggy and developed in the uppermost dolomite of the Lower Arab Formation. In
intracrystalline voids by anhydrite cement reflects its late burial origin, comparison, the presence of anhydrite cement in the uppermost of the
just before pressure-solution initiation. Anhydrite cements in the Upper Lower Arab Formation conforms to observations in the Arab Formation

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 6. Diagram showing the general paragenetic sequence of diagenetic events in the studied section of the Arab Formation. Diagenesis occurred in three diagenetic
environments including marine, hypersaline and burial. Influences of each diagenetic events on reservoir properties are illustrated as well. Generally, marine
cementation, dolomitization and dissolution resulted in improving reservoir quality.

of the United Arab Emirates (Kawaguchi, 1991) and Saudi Arabia
(Swart et al., 2005). Generally, anhydrite cements acted as a negative
factor in reservoir quality in the Arab Formation of the Arabian
Platform (Alsharhan and Magara, 1995; Morad et al., 2012; Nader
et al., 2013).
burial diagenetic realm in the Arab Formation (Alsharhan and Magara,
1995; Alsharhan and Whittle, 1995; Morad et al., 2012). This type of
dolomite is observed in two populations with varying sizes including
medium crystal size (100 microns) and mainly in form of coarse crystal
size (300–250 microns) (Fig. 7n).

4.3.2.5. Burial dolomitization. This type of dolomite appears as sucrosic
crystals with euhedral shapes in the limestone interval (F9 and F10) of
the Lower Arab Formation (Fig. 7n and o). This dolomite postdates
compactional (mechanical and chemical) features and created
intercrystalline porosity in the mud-dominated facies of the mid-ramp
in form of partial dolomitization. Seemingly, it has developed in the
4.4. Sequence stratigraphy. While the vertical stacking patterns of the
sedimentary facies are controlled by sea-level fluctuations, their lateral
distribution is affiliated with the depositional environment (Schlager,
2005). Sequence stratigraphy displays the position of sedimentary
bodies in fluctuating settings between major stratigraphic boundaries.
In the present study, the common transgressive systems tract (TST)-

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
regressive systems tract (RST) or highstand systems tract (HST) model
(Embry, 1993) is used to define the sequences. Integration of petro-
graphic data and petrophysical logs (gamma-ray and density) led to
identification of various systems tracts and sequence surfaces (max-
imum flooding surfaces (MFS) and sequence boundaries). Generally,
early HST and late TST are composed of low-energy facies deposited
during sea-level fall. Whereas high-energy facies generally occur in the
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
Fig. 7. Diagenetic processes in the Arab Formation. a
and b) micritization of allochems and marine cement
around allochems, c and d) dissolution of aragonite
components and creation of moldic porosity, e)
sabkha dolomitization caused dolomite crystals less
than 20 micron, f) Reflux dolomites. Proximity of
hypersaline brines created fine crystalline dolomite.
(g) Coarse crystalline dolomite caused by seepage-
reflux mechanism. These dolomites formed due to
distance of hypersaline brines in high-energy facies.
(h) Mechanical compaction precluded precipitation
of marine cement and abnormal pressure (i and j)
stylolitization in dolomudstone facies. Notice open
stylolite and sill stylolite. (k) Dolomite cement in
form of overgrowth. (l) Skeletal dolomite, filled by
anhydrite cement. (m) Vuggy pores and filling with
anhydrite cement. Notice dissolution occurred in two
stages before and after anhydrite cementation (n)
stylolite-related dolomite in medium crystalline size
along with recrystallized coarse crystalline dolomite
(o) coarse crystalline dolomite which formed by re-
crystallization. (p) A core sample of moldic dissolu-
tion belonging to B-02 well. (q) A core sample of
vugs, belonging to B-01 well. (r) Core sample with
vugs, filled by anhydrite cement belonging to B-01
well. (s) Core sample with stylolite, belonging to B-01
well.
late TST and early HST and were formed during seal-level rise. Dee-
pening-upward facies has a retrogradational to aggradational stacking
pattern in TST, and shallowing-upward facies has an aggradational to
progradational stacking pattern in the HST. Sequence boundaries
characterized by evaporite sediments (anhydrite layers) which devel-
oped in the sabkha environment, caused by sea-level fall. Some of the
studies (McGuire et al., 1993; Handford et al., 2002) reported sequence
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 8. Sedimentological log of the Arab Formation in the studied Field (B-01 well). The main stratigraphic subdivisions of the Arab Formation are also depicted along
with the lithology, petrophysical logs, microfacies, facies belts, important diagenetic alterations, depositional sequences, anhydrite content and main pore types
(color legend as Fig. 5). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

boundaries are placed at the below the evaporite deposits while the the top of the thick anhydrite layers were considered as sequence
other studies (Le Nindre et al., 1990; Al-Husseini, 1997; Daraei et al., boundaries that were deposited during the late HST. Due to continuous
2014; Beigi et al., 2017; Sfidari et al., 2018a) indicated that sequence depositional conditions of the Arab formation during the Late Jurassic
boundaries are placed at the top of the evaporite deposits. In this study, evidence of subaerial exposure and erosion are absent. On the other

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

hand, arid climate conditions prevented widespread freshwater features

along the sequence boundaries. Based on this study, glacio-eustasy
(Emery and Meyers, 1996; Catuneanu, 2006) has played a significant
role in the development of depositional sequences (Le Nindre et al.,
1990; Sharland et al., 2001; Haq and Al-Qahtani, 2005). Moreover, arid
climate domination influenced the regional Late Jurassic carbonate
factory (Alsharhan and Magara, 1995). Generally, the Arab Formation
consists of four shallowing-upward cycles, and each cycle includes a
third-order sequence (Figs. 7 and 8). Due to influence of the eustasy as
the main control over sea-level changes, the number of third-order se-
quences are correlated with the other researches in the Arabian Plat-
form (Fig. 10) (Le Nindre et al., 1990; McGuire et al., 1993; Azer and
Peebles, 1995, 1998; Daraei et al., 2014; Beigi et al., 2017). Each se-
quence contains multiple fourth-order sequences, known as high-fre-
quency sequences (HFS) (Catuneanu, 2006). In general, HFS's are
control by glacio-eustasy accompanied by local tectonic deformation
(syndepositional structures) (Miall, 2000). Determination of HFS can
help the precise identification of reservoir heterogeneity in exploration
strategy. This illustrates detailed variations of reservoir characteristics
(sedimentological and diagenetic features) in basin scale influenced by
sea-level fluctuations (Awwad and Pomar, 2015).

4.4.1. Sequence D
This sequence is about 60 m thick. It is only drilled in the well B-01
with 34 m of available core. It consists of a HST and contains two
fourth-order sequences (Fig. 8). Because of the lack of core data, TST
and MFS are not recognized in this sequence. The sequence D is mainly
composed of offshore facies (such as seaward shoal and mid-ramp) with
an aggradational stacking pattern that is sharply capped by the supra-
tidal facies. Diverse allochems including oncoids, intraclasts, mollusca,
algae, foraminifera, stromatoporoids and coral debris constitute the
major components of this sequence. The sequence boundary is char-
acterized by nodular anhydrite (Handford et al., 2002; Meyer and Price,
1993) representing the thinnest observed boundary. Meanwhile, RHOB
logs show an increase and the GR logs display a decreasing trend at the
upper sequence boundary (Fig. 8). Two fourth-order sequence bound-
aries were identified in this sequence. The lower sequence boundary
was highlighted by grainstone facies (F9) as the shallowest facies. Fa-
cies from F9 to F11 with gradual alteration are observed beneath this
boundary. At the top of it, nodular anhydrite is known as the shallowest
facies throughout sequence D (Handford et al., 2002; Swart et al.,
2005). A gradual facies transition from facies F9 to F11 is evident near
the lower boundary while an abrupt facies change occurs from facies F1
to F11 is seen at near the upper boundary.
Eogenetic alterations in this sequence include micritization, marine
cementation and dolomitization. The interparticle porosity, as a char-
acteristic feature, contributes to the distinction of this sequence from
the other sequences. The dolomitic units are observed in the limestone
successions in this sequence and are composed of coarse crystalline
dolomite with intercrystalline porosity, and unlike other sequences of
the Arab Formation, the vuggy dissolution has not been observed. Other
mesogenetic diagenetic features, including stylolitization and burial Fig. 9. Sedimentological log of the Arab Formation in the studied Field (B-02
well). The main stratigraphic subdivisions of the Arab Formation are also de-
dolomitization, are recorded in the mid-ramp facies. Vuggy porosity is
picted along with the lithology, petrophysical logs, microfacies, facies belts,
seen in the uppermost interval of the HST in dolomite lithology of this
important diagenetic alterations, depositional sequences, anhydrite content and
sequence which is occluded by poikilotopic anhydrite cement. main pore types (color legend as Fig. 5). (For interpretation of the references to
color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this
4.4.2. Sequence C article.)
This sequence is placed at the base of the Upper Arab Formation
with a total thickness of 33–36 m (Figs. 8 and 9). This sequence is
rise in RHOB and decreasing GR values (Figs. 8 and 9). This sequence is
subdivided into three fourth-order sequences (Figs. 8 and 9). Sequence
bounded by two sequence boundaries marked by nodular anhydrite
C begins with a TST, represented by high-energy shoal facies. High rate
(lower boundary) and an anhydrite layer (upper boundary). In contrast
of dolomitization led to destruction of primary fabrics. Most sedimen-
to sequence D, sedimentary facies (peritidal to shoal facies) gradually
tary facies are assigned to the late TST and early HST. The MFS is
shift to the upper sequence boundary. In the early TST, intertidal facies
characterized by seaward shoal facies, equivalent to the J80 according
(F2) (the shallowest facies) is considered as fourth-order sequence
to Sharland et al. (2001). The late HST is associated with the deposition
boundary. In the late HST, evaporite deposits are known as fourth-
of evaporites, and the sequence boundary is identified by a remarkable

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Fig. 10. Sequence stratigraphic correlation between wells (B-01 and B-02) (color legend as Fig. 5). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

sequence boundary. sequence.

Diagenetic processes such as reflux dolomitization, vuggy dissolu-
tion and anhydrite cementation in several systems tracts are visible. 4.4.3. Sequence B
Stylolites and solution seams are seen in early TST and late HST. The thickness of this sequence measures 31–45 m. This sequence is
Dolomite cementation abundantly occurred in different positions of this composed of two fourth-order sequences (Figs. 8 and 9). The TST is

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
composed of tidal flat and lagoon facies. The MFS is distinguished by
seaward shoal facies, containing bioclasts, oncoids and intraclasts. The
maximum flooding surface can be correlated with the J90 of Sharland
et al. (2001) in other areas in the Arabian Platform. The HST interval is
recognized by the central shoal facies which displays an aggradational
stacking patterns. Close to the sequence boundary, the pattern trans-
forms into a lagoonal and intertidal facies with a progradational geo-
metry. The sequence boundary is characterized by an anhydrite layer
belonging to a sabkha environment which is associated with reduced
GR and increased RHOB logs (Figs. 8 and 9). This sequence is bounded
by two anhydrite layers at the top and bottom. Two fourth-order se-
quence boundaries were recognized in the early TST and late HST in
which facies (F1 to F8) changed together gradually.
The main diagenetic alterations affecting this sequence include:
micritic envelopes in shoal and lagoon facies, reflux dolomitization
with various crystal sizes, moldic pores in the tidal flat and leeward
shoal facies, dolomite cementation in the grain-dominated facies, sty-
lolitization in the mud-dominated facies, vuggy dissolution and anhy-
drite cementation in various facies.
4.4.4. Sequence A
The thickness of this sequence ranges from 20 to 29 m and contains
two fourth-order sequences (Figs. 8 and 9). The TST begins with an
anhydrite facies, followed by stromatolite boundstone, lagoon and
shoal facies in a retrogradational geometry. The MFS is characterized
by seaward shoal facies which corresponds to the J100 of Sharland
et al. (2001) in other parts of the Arabian Platform. The early HST facies
are dominated by central shoal facies, which accumulated with ag-
gradational geometry, passing upward into supratidal facies that in-
cludes the Hith anhydrite (as known sequence boundary). By ap-
proaching to this boundary, RHOB increases but GR shows a decreasing
trend (Figs. 8 and 9). Alternative evaporite deposits formed two fourth-
order sequence boundaries (in the early TST and the late HST) that
include F1 to F8 facies. Gradual alteration among these facies is similar
to that of the other sequences.
Micritization is frequently seen in the shallow facies of this se-
quence. Early dolomitization and moldic dissolution are prevalent in
this sequence. Vugs and anhydrite cement similar to that of sequence C
and B cross-cuts different facies. Solution seams postdate previous
features (early dolomite, dolomite cement, dissolution and anhydrite
cement) in the mud-dominated facies. The dolomite cement similar to
that of the sequence C, is found in the early TST.
5. Discussion
5.1. Sequence model
Our proposed conceptual dynamic depositional model for the Arab
Formation in the studied sections represents facies variations from A to
D members as a response to sea-level fluctuations (Fig. 11). In the
Lower Arab Formation (Member D), the facies sharply transformed
from mid-ramp to peritidal, but in the Upper Arab Formation (members
A, B and C) facies are transitionally transformed from peritidal to shoal
facies. As previously mentioned, two parameters including sea-level fall
and arid climate during late HST controlled the development of eva-
porite deposits at the top of the Lower Arab Formation and within the
Upper Arab Formation (in form of inter-layers). According to the
Burchette and Wright (1992) model, supratidal environments sur-
rounded the intrashelf basin. This suggests that regression occurred
rapidly between the Lower Arab Formation and the Upper Arab For-
mation while this transformation is gradually within the sequences of
the Upper Arab Formation (A to C members).
5.2. Linking facies distribution, diagenetic history and sequence stratigraphy
By an integration of sedimentary facies distribution, digenetic
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
history and sequence stratigraphy, a model is suggested to predict re-
servoir properties controlling factors in a temporal and spatial frame-
work. Various depositional and postdepositional processes occurred in
the studied unit as successive phases (marine, hypersaline and shallow
to deep burial) and some of them were controlled by the sea-level
fluctuations. Generally, marine and hypersaline diagenetic processes
(calcite marine cementation, early dolomitization and moldic dissolu-
tion) are syndepositional, sensitive to sea-level changes, and follow
depositional patterns (e.g. grain size, fabric, composition). But burial
diagenetic modifications, that occurred during the late postdepositional
conditions, are not directly connected to sea-level fluctuations.
However, among diagenetic events, mesogenetic alterations follow fa-
cies geometry and so show some relationship with the sequence dis-
tributions.
5.2.1. Linking facies distribution, diagenetic history and sequence
stratigraphy in normal marine conditions
In marine conditions, the sedimentary facies assigned to various
sub-environments dynamically accumulated in response to sea-level
changes (Fig. 12). In the syndepositional diagenetic realm, early di-
agenetic processes influenced by sea-level fluctuations, developed in
the Arab carbonate platform. The transgressive systems tract (TST) is
accompanied by retrogradational geometry. Owing to the increase of
the accommodation space, facies aggradationally repeated in the late
TST and early HST. It is composed of grain-dominated facies (F9) along
with marine calcite cement which is only found in the Lower Arab
Formation. Periods of low sedimentation rate resulted in marine calcite
cementation under the arid climate. High-energy shoal complexes (F9)
are associated with circumgranular isopachous calcite cement as the
first generation of cement, suggesting that high-energy conditions were
dominant in the Arab Formation (Handford et al., 2002; Daraei et al.,
2014). This cement shows a decreasing trend in volume toward below
the fair-weather wave base (FWWB) in the mid-ramp facies (F10 and
F1) because of a reducing hydrodynamic energy level. Poor early ce-
mentation allowed for further compaction in the mud-dominated facies.
This cement has partially preserved interparticle porosity and notice-
ably enhanced the reservoir quality in the grain-dominated facies (F9)
in the limestone intervals of the Lower Arab Formation. At the same
time, low sedimentation rate had different effects on the mud-domi-
nated facies and resulted in development of bioturbation in suboxic
conditions of the lagoon (F5) and distal mid-ramp (F11) settings. Mi-
critic envelopes frequently occur in the shallow facies such as intertidal
(F4) and lagoon (F5) environments at the early TST and late HST
(Fig. 12a 12d,). These environments have high a potential for activity of
micro-organisms. In comparison, high-energy environments such as
shoal were less subjected to micritization.
5.2.2. Linking facies distribution, diagenetic history and sequence
stratigraphy in hypersaline conditions
Increasing aridity during the late Jurassic led to prevalence of hy-
persaline diagenesis. The relative sea-level fall (late HST) resulted in
development of hypersaline diagenesis, involving evaporite precipita-
tion, dolomitization and fabric selective dissolution. Overlying eva-
porite deposits represent sequence boundaries with variable thickness.
Percolation of Mg-rich hypersaline fluids through underlying succes-
sions caused seepage-reflux dolomitization. The main mechanisms
suggested for dolomitization in the Arab Formation are sabkha and
seepage-reflux (Alsharhan and Whittle, 1995; Cantrell et al., 2001;
Swart et al., 2005; Lu and Cantrell, 2016). These two mechanisms are
hydrologically and hydrochemically linked (Machel, 2004). Reflux
dolomitization is observed throughout the Upper Arab Formation and
shows pure dolostone (Swart et al., 2005) in the Lower Arab Formation
through lime successions.
To estimate dolomitization temperatures, stable oxygen isotope data
are employed using Land's (1985) equation:
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 11. A conceptual dynamic depositional model for the Arab Formation in the studied section. This model represents facies variations from A to D members as
response to sea-level fluctuations (color legend as Fig. 5). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
of this article.)

T °C = 16.4 – 4.3 ([δ18Odolomite − 3.8] − δ water ) seawater (SMOW). Accordingly, low temperature of dolomite succes-
sions of the Upper Arab Formation (35 °C–41 °C) revealed that these
+ 0.14 ([δ18Odolomite − 3.8] − δ water )2
dolomites formed near the surface (considering −1.2 SMOW of Jurassic
Where: T: temperature (°C); δ18Odolomite (PDB); δwater of Jurassic seawater (Sellwood et al., 2000)) by evaporative fluids, as well as

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 12. Model for carbonate ramp in response to sea-level fluctuation, (a) normal marine conditions during deposition of the Lower Arab Formation led to
widespread growth of coral and stromatoporoid patch reefs, micritization, marine cementation and bioturbation (in lagoon and basin settings). (b) Hypersaline
diagenetic realm in the Lower Arab Formation. Hypersaline fluids circulated through permeable deposits and created dolostones in the limestone successions. (c)
Burial diagenetic realm in the Lower Arab Formation led to formation of stylolite, burial dolomite and vugs. (d) Normal marine conditions during deposition of the
Upper Arab Formation are similar to the Lower Arab Formation. (e) Hypersaline diagenetic realm caused sabkha and reflux dolomitization in the Upper Arab
Formation. Fine crystalline dolomite formed in vicinity of hypersaline brines, and coarse crystalline dolomite formed farther away from the source of the hypersaline
brines. Moldic porosity was also formed by undersaturated hypersaline brines in proximity of hypersaline brines. (f) Burial diagenetic realm in the Upper Arab
Formation. Vuggy dissolution, anhydrite cementation, dolomite cementation and stylolitization formed in the burial diagenetic stage.

elevating salinity. These can result in a slight enrichment of oxygen isolated this zone from the Upper Arab Formation. Recrystallization in
isotopes (Swart et al., 2005) (Fig. 13a). the burial realm led to δ18O depletion (−4.5 to −4.9) in dolomite
Depleted δ18O of dolomite in the Lower Arab Formation could be (Cantrell et al., 2001; Swart et al., 2005). Heavy carbon isotopes
the result of recrystallization during burial when evaporite deposits (1.2–3.1 δ13C) throughout the dolomites of the Arab Formation also

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M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
Fig. 13. (a) δ18O values of the Arab succession. This figure depicts heavy δ18O
values of the Lower Arab Formation and lighter δ18O values of the Upper Arab
Formation.(b) Cross-plot of δ18O andδ13C values of samples from the Arab
Formation. Based on geochemical data, dolomites of the Upper Arab Formation
formed as early dolomite near the surface from the Jurassic seawater but the
Lower Arab dolomites recrystallized in higher temperatures. Red points are
burial dolomites of the Lower Arab Formation that show negative δ18O values.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
indicate a lack of meteoric diagenesis (Swart et al., 2005) (Fig. 13b).
Along with evaporation, as a main factor for reflux dolomite formation,
anaerobic bacteria also facilitated dolomitization by sulfate ion elim-
ination (by sulfate reduction mechanism) in greenhouse periods. Burns
et al. (2000) demonstrated that the activity of anaerobic microbes could
result in development of dolomites in periods of decreased oxygen le-
vels such as the Late Jurassic. Apparently, during the Late Jurassic,
integration of micro-organism activity (Riding and Liang, 2005) and
evaporative pumping led to early dolomitization in the Arab Formation.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
In fourth-order depositional sequences, fine crystalline dolomite (mud
dominated facies including F1 to F5) formed in a peritidal area at the
vicinity of the sequence boundary due to abundant nucleation, whereas
in grain-dominated facies (F6, F7 and F8) (late TST and early HST)
coarse crystalline dolomite was formed. It can be concluded that the
size of dolomite crystal is related to the distance from the source of
hypersaline fluids, as well as sedimentary texture. In other words, the
saturation of magnesium decreases as a result of downward percolation
of hypersaline brines into the underlying deposits which led to the
formation of coarse crystalline dolomite in the grain-dominated facies
(Lucia, 1999; Warren, 2000). Increasing size of dolomite plays a sig-
nificant role in the improving reservoir quality of the Arab Formation
(Fig. 12b and e).
Moldic pores occur below the evaporite facies that are known as
sequence boundaries of fourth-order and third-order sequences.
Commonly, the interplay of freshwater and mineralogically metastable
components (aragonite) leads to development of moldic porosity
(Tucker and Wright, 1990; Moore, 2001). Although the Arab carbonate
formed in the Calcite Sea (Husinec and Read, 2007) aragonitic frag-
ments such as ooids and mollusca were abundant in the Upper Arab
Formation (Alsharhan and Whittle, 1995; Cantrell and Hagerty, 1999;
Cantrell, 2006; Hollis et al., 2017). This may have been caused by in-
creasing salinity during the late Jurassic. Domination of the arid cli-
mate during deposition of the Upper Arab Formation is reflected by the
presence of evaporite layers and absence of hyposaline diagenetic
products (Wilson, 1981; Mitchell et al., 1988; Cantrell and Hagerty,
1999). The association of moldic pores with evaporite deposits, implies
porosity formation in a hypersaline regime, as suggested by Sun and
Esteban (1994). Seemingly, dissolution of some aragonitic fragments by
brines was followed by precipitation of fine crystalline dolomite re-
sulted in porosity inversion. This denotes that dolomitization occurred
coeval with dissolution of allochems (Alsharhan and Whittle, 1995).
Similar mechanism have been found in the Permian-Triassic Kangan
and Dalan formations in the central Persian Gulf as reported by Mehrabi
et al. (2014). Later pore-filling anhydrite cements occluded some of this
porosity during the burial stages. Undersaturated hypersaline brines
(with respect to aragonite) resulted in dissolution of aragonite frag-
ments (Fig. 12e.). Significant dissolution in the form of moldic porosity
is observed in F4, F5 and F6 due to proximity to hypersaline brines.
Shoal facies (F6 and F7) show lesser moldic dissolution because of
distance to the source of the hypersaline brines. The seaward shoal
facies (F8) shows a lesser degree of dissolution. Generally, frequency
and volume of this type of porosity decrease downward, through the
early HST and late TST, owing to increasing normal salinity of sea-
water. Later diagenetic processes such as anhydrite cementation
plugged moldic porosity during the hypersaline stage destroying re-
servoir quality. Moldic pores are absent in the sequence D and C owing
to development of reflux dolomitization (before dissolution) which
prevented dissolution of allochems. Moldic porosity development in
ooid fragments beneath the sequence boundary of the Lower Arab
Formation has been described by Cantrell and Hagerty (1999), Swart
et al. (2005) and Cantrell (2006). They suggest that it could be due to
leaching of allochems during subaerial conditions in the calcite li-
thology. In contrast to the present study, dolomite was not seen in the
uppermost interval of the Lower Arab Formation in the studies.
5.2.3. Linking facies distribution, diagenetic history and sequence
stratigraphy under burial conditions
In the Upper Arab Formation, dolomite cement occurs as over-
growth in shallow to medium burial diagenetic conditions (Fig. 12f.)
predating burial dissolution events. This dolomite cement is mostly
observed as overgrowth for the coarse dolomite crystals. The grain-
dominated facies (F6 to F8) in the late TST and the early HST of the
fourth-order sequences show larger dolomite crystals than the mud-
dominated facies. Among sequences of the Upper Arab Formation,
widespread dolomite cementation mainly occurred in the early TST of
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110

Fig. 14. Correlation between sedimentological logs of this study with other areas of Arabian Platform, including Daraei et al. (2014) (central Persian Gulf), Azer and
Peebles (1995) (UAE) and Al-Awwad and Collins (2013) (Saudi Arabia).

the A and C sequences. This is due to the presence of shoal facies and
coarse crystalline dolomites in this position immediately above tidal
facies.
Vuggy dissolution and anhydrite cementation are not limited to
special facies or system tracts. Genetically, the relationship of vuggy
pores and anhydrite cement reflects the complexity of the diagenetic
history. Accordingly, Mazzullo (1994) pointed out that mesogenetic
dissolution cannot be placed in the sequence stratigraphic framework.
Nevertheless, a relatively logical relationship is seen between the
thickness of evaporite deposit and volume of vuggy pore space. It could

107
M. Sharifi-Yazdi, et al.
be related to high sensitivity of dolomite crystals to Ca2+ increase that
occurred by dissolving overlying Ca2+-bearing evaporites (dedolomi-
tization). Most commonly, dedolomitization is a process which con-
cerns with dissolution of dolomite at first, and then this follows by
calcite cementation of pore spaces. Depending on fluid saturation,
vuggy pores could be filled by anhydrite cement in carbonate-evaporite
successions (Baker and Kastner, 1981; Morad et al., 2012). Where ce-
ment is absent, there is a potential for the development of vuggy por-
osity (Raines and Dewers, 1997). Basinal fluids by dissolution of eva-
porite sediments provide an important source for Ca2+-rich fluids that
may lead to dissolution of dolomite successions (in burial realm). The
observed late anhydrite cement, occluding the vuggy porosity, indicates
dedolomitizing fluids (rich in Ca2+), which originated from sulfate-rich
fluids in the burial diagenetic environment. Thus, the evaporite sedi-
ments (equivalent to the sequence boundaries) significantly induced
and enhanced dedolomitizing in the Arab Formation. Incidentally, there
is a direct relationship between abundance and thickness of overlying
evaporite and propagation of this late burial (mesogenetic) vuggy
porosity. Therefore, frequent evaporite layers in the Upper Arab For-
mation led to creation of vuggy dissolution and reservoir quality im-
provement. On the contrary, vuggy dissolution is limited to below of
the sequence boundary (beneath of the nodular anhydrite) in the Lower
Arab Formation (due to low thickness of evaporites related to the se-
quence boundary in the form of nodular anhydrite). Pervasive and
poikilotopic anhydrite cements, and vugs, show a clear relationship
with the low thickness of evaporite in the sequence boundaries. Hence,
the maximum anhydrite cement is observed in the Upper Arab For-
mation, whereas in the Lower Arab Formation, due to lower evaporite
content, anhydrite cement occurs just beneath the evaporites of the
sequence boundary.
Intertidal (F2 to F4), lagoon (F5) and mid-ramp (F10 and F11) facies
are dominated by stylolites and solution seams. These facies are located
close to the sequence boundaries of fourth-order sequences (early TST
and late HST), and stylolites diminish toward the MFS facies (shoal
facies) in the Upper Arab Formation. Conversely, stylolitization in-
creases toward the MFS of the fourth-order sequence, belonging to the
mid-ramp facies in the Lower Arab Formation. Low hydrodynamic en-
ergy governing depositional setting, resulted in development of mud-
dominated facies, and further compaction led to accumulation of im-
purities (Fig. 12d).
Development of the sucrosic burial dolomites in the deeper facies
(F10 and F11) of the Lower Arab Formation, associated with the sty-
lolites, implies that Mg-rich clay minerals were available for stylolite
formation in the deeper facies which supplied enough magnesium for
dolomitization (Anan and Wanas, 2015) under burial conditions
(Fig. 12c). This process is chiefly found at the near MFS of the fourth-
order in sequence D. The burial dolomites occur as crystals with a bi-
modal grain sizes distribution. Seemingly, medium crystalline dolomite
(100 microns), associated with stylolites, formed during burial, and
later recrystallization increased crystal sizes from 300 to 250 micron.
δ18O values of these dolomites are negative, similar to that of reflux
dolomites in the Lower Arab Formation which may be due to re-
crystallization processes. Recrystallization generated coarse crystalline
dolomite and also resulted in increasing porosity.
6. Conclusions
The Arab Formation was deposited under arid conditions. Its de-
positional and diagenetic features are controlled by the effect of glacio-
eustasy and climate. Petrographic studies of the Arab Formation in the
central Persian Gulf led to the recognition of 11 sedimentary facies
were deposited in five facies zones, including supratidal, tidal flat, la-
goon, shoal and mid-ramp belts. Analyses of sedimentary facies pre-
liminarily indicate that the Arab Formation was deposited in the ramp-
type platform. This is evident by the lack of barrier reefs, the low di-
versity of facies types and expansion of ooidal shoal. Postdepositional
108
Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 91–110
processes (diagenetic evolution) considerably influenced sedimentary
facies and reservoir characteristics. Based on the petrographic analyses
and other studies (Le Nindre et al., 1990; McGuire et al., 1993; Azer and
Peebles, 1995, 1998; Daraei et al., 2014), four third-order sequences are
recognized in this formation (Fig. 14), and all sequence boundaries are
characterized by evaporite capping. Diagenetic processes in marine,
hypersaline and burial settings overprinted the carbonates of the Arab
Formation. Diagenetic evolution modified depositional features in
various phases. The development of marine calcite cement and micri-
tization were concurrent with establishment of a carbonate factory in
the early HST. Sea-level fall resulted in hypersaline conditions and
prevalence of hypersaline brines. Although this phase is associated with
deposition of low-energy facies, hypersaline brines intensely affected
the underlying successions, as well. The hypersaline diagenetic regime
is characterized by dolomitization and moldic dissolution in the Upper
Arab Formation. Just underneath of the sequence boundary, moldic
porosity and fine crystalline dolomite formed. Farther away from the
sequence boundary, moldic pores are fading but intercrystalline por-
osity was enhanced by coarse crystalline dolomite. Dolomite cementa-
tion occurred in the shallow to medium burial environment. This event
was found close to the MFS facies (containing high-energy facies) due to
the presence of intercrystalline porosity in the coarse crystal dolomite.
Vuggy dissolution, caused by destabilization of dolomite in response to
fluids rich in Ca2+, crossed through various facies, system tracts and
sequence surfaces in the Upper Arab Formation. Anhydrite cement has
the same sequence position as the vuggy dissolution in the Upper Arab
Formation. Nevertheless, these diagenetic features indicate a clear re-
lationship with the sequence boundaries by linking diagenesis to de-
velopment of evaporite deposits (F1). In this regard, the frequency and
thickness of the evaporite overlaying in the Upper Arab Formation are
higher than in the Lower Arab Formation. Consequently, vuggy dis-
solution (mesogenetic) along with anhydrite cementation, occur ex-
tensively in the Upper Arab Formation, while these processes are lim-
ited to just beneath of the sequence boundary (nodular anhydrite form)
in the Lower Arab Formation. In deep burial conditions, stylolitization
and burial dolomitization occurred in the mud-dominated facies in the
Lower Arab Formation. These facies developed during maximum
flooding surfaces and belong to the Lower Arab Formation. They also
occurred in the early TST and late HST of the Upper Arab Formation. In
summary, this study reveals some important diagenetic features (eo-
genetic and mesogenetic environments) which have sensible relation-
ships with the depositional processes in the Arab Formation and hence
can be correlated within the sequence stratigraphic framework. This is
evident in the relationships between facies characteristics (e.g. grain
size, fabric, composition) and diagenetic alterations. Furthermore,
identification of these features within this framework would enable us
to create a basic conceptual 3D model for the reservoir characteristics
and its spatial and temporal variations.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the University of Tehran provided fa-
cilities for this study. We also thank the IOOC (Iranian Offshore Oil
Company) for data preparation. The authors also thank SH Dashtgard
and AH Enayati for invaluable suggestion and comments. We also
greatly appreciate reviews and important comments and corrections by
H. Wanas and an anonymous reviewer.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.006.
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