Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Singularity mapping of bulk leach extractable gold and −80# stream T

sediment geochemical data in recognition of gold and base metal
mineralization footprints in Biga Peninsula South, Turkey
Huseyin Yilmaza,∗, Mahyar Yousefib, Mohammad Parsac, Fatma Nuran Sonmeza,
Abbas Maghsoodic
a
Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
b
Department of Mining, Faculty of Engineering, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran
c
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Stream sediments remain the preferred geochemical sampling media for regional mineral exploration programs
Geochemical dispersion in most parts of the world where there is a well-defined drainage system. In Au exploration the analysis of either
Singularity mapping Bulk Leach Extractable Gold (BLEG) or acid-extractable Au in the −80# (< 180 μm) stream sediment fraction
Number-size are the two most common approaches. Western Turkey contains a variety of mineral deposit types and geological
Concentration-area
settings. Using a geochemical database derived mainly from company exploration programs, a study is made on
Multi-fractal models
the efficiency of singularity mapping technique in detecting the known mineral deposits or prospects.
Anomalies
Western Turkey The composite media of samples are representative of sampling locations but also are extremely diluted.
Therefore, recognition and mapping of significant geochemical anomalies of composite media still remains a
challenge. In this study, geochemical assay results were subjected to multifractal analyses to detect gold geo-
chemical anomalies, which are related to gold mineralization. In this regard, a singularity mapping technique
was applied to enhance the single element geochemical signatures of BLEG sand −80# stream sediment data.
Since the singularity mapping technique does not define threshold values for delineation of anomalies, number-
size (N-S) and concentration-area (C-A) fractal models were applied to delimit the geochemical anomalies as
target areas for further exploration. A hundred percent of the known gold deposits and prospects discovered in
the study area are delineated by BLEG Au stream sediment anomalies by N-S and C-A multifractal modeling.
Moreover, 89% of known gold prospects of the study area are delineated within the recognized anomalous zones
of Au in −80# stream sediment data. The comparison of the delineated geochemical anomalies of BLEG and
−80# stream sediment with those of rock chip samples demonstrated the efficiency of the applied methodology.

1. Introduction
Geochemical surveys have been applied to derive signatures of ore-
forming processes or to generate spatial proxies of ore-deposition
events (Afzal et al., 2010; Darrehshiri et al., 2015; Yilmaz et al., 2017).
BLEG and −80# stream sediment samples are frequently used in re-
gional-scale geochemical studies for mineral exploration (e.g., Beeson,
1995, Radford, 1996; Yilmaz, 2007; Mokhtari et al., 2009; Geranian
et al., 2013; Yilmaz et al., 2015; Parsa et al., 2016, 2017a, b, c). Precise
delineation of geochemical anomalies through stream sediment sam-
pling is a major concern for regional exploration surveys and is a cri-
tical undertaking. This is because these samples are not only a com-
posite of their upstream materials, but also extremely diluted (Spadoni
et al., 2005; Spadoni, 2006; Carranza, 2010, 2011; Yousefi et al., 2013;
Liu et al., 2017). On the other hand, several parameters should be
considered in the delineation of mineralization-related geochemical
anomalies including statistical, spatial and power-law distribution of
geochemical data (e.g., Zuo and Wang, 2016). Traditional statistical
methods such as exploratory data analysis (Tukey, 1977) and setting
specific threshold values (Hawkes and Webb, 1962) ignore the spatial
variability and complexity of geochemical anomalies (Zuo et al., 2012;
Parsa et al., 2017a). On the contrary, fractal and multifractal modeling
methods such as number-size (N-S: Mandelbrot, 1983) fractal tech-
nique, concentration-area (C-A: Cheng et al., 1994) fractal technique,
spectrum-area (S-A; Cheng et al., 1999, 2000) fractal technique and
singularity indexex (Cheng, 2007) multifractal technique have gained a

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: huseyin.yilmaz@deu.edu.tr (H. Yilmaz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.015
Received 16 July 2018; Received in revised form 5 February 2019; Accepted 11 February 2019
Available online 15 February 2019
1464-343X/ Published by Elsevier Ltd.
H. Yilmaz, et al.
considerable reputation in delineating geochemical anomalies (e.g.,
Wang et al., 2011; Afzal et al., 2010; Luz et al., 2014). This is because
these methods consider not only the statistical distribution of geo-
chemical elements but also the spatial distribution and complexity of
the variables to adequately recognize significant geochemical anoma-
lies (Zuo and Wang, 2016). The fractal/multifractal methods of geo-
chemical anomaly recognition can be further classified into two cate-
gories of hard- and soft-threshold techniques (Shuguang et al., 2015).
Both groups have their own merits and shortcomings. The former group
includes N-S (Mandelbrot, 1983) and C-A (Cheng et al., 1994) fractal
models that can specify specific thresholds for delineation of geo-
chemical anomalies but they fail to recognize weak geochemical
anomalies in complex geological environments. The latter group in-
cludes S-A (Cheng et al., 1999, 2000) and singularity mapping (Cheng,
2007) multifractal techniques, which are filtering methods and enhance
the predicting ability of geochemical anomalies, however, are unable to
specify thresholds for the separation of geochemical populations (Zuo
and Wang, 2016). Therefore, geochemical signatures, those derived by
the S-A and singularity mapping methods, require further recalibration.
In this study a combination of soft- and hard-threshold multifractal
techniques was utilized. This study makes use of the extensive geo-
chemical databases for the performance measure of singularity map-
ping in detecting precious and base metal mineralizations. For this, the
singularity mapping technique was initially applied on single element
BLEG and −80# stream sediment data aiming at generating enhanced
geochemical signatures. Then the hard-threshold fractal techniques
were applied to recognize ore-deposition geochemical footprints and to
delimit further exploration targets. Geochemical attributes of known
gold deposits and prospects as well as individual rock-chip samples
were employed to further verification of the results obtained.
2. Study area and geochemical data
2.1. Regional geology and tectonic setting
The study area (Fig. 1) is located in the southeastern part of the Biga
Peninsula. Kazdağ range, which forms a topographic anomaly rising to
a peak of 1767 m above the sea-level in the northeastern Aegean where
the average elevation is below 500 m, was underlain by high-grade
metamorphic rocks (Okay et al., 1996; Okay and Satır, 2000). The
Kazdağ Group forms a doubly plunging and NE-SW-trending anticline
(Duru et al., 2004). The Ezine Group, which is more than three km
thick, includes systematically alternating carbonate rocks in the
greenschist facies, representing a part of the Rhodopian passive margin.
Basement rocks over the Kazdağ range consist of Paleozoic gneiss,
marbles and amphibolites (Okay and Satır, 2000), which are tectoni-
cally overlain by Late Cretaceous to Paleocene oceanic accretionary
mélange comprising spilitic basalts, clastic sediments, limestones and
serpentinites (Fig. 2). The Kazdağ Massif is intruded by a Late Oligo-
cene/Early Miocene granitoid (23.8 Ma; Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000).
The granitoid extends northeast-southwest parallel to the trend of a
shear zone of the Kazdağ dome (Genç, 1998). In the north the granitoid
has intruded the Late Oligocene-Middle Miocene andesites, dacites and
intercalated sedimentary rocks. These volcanic rocks are geochemically
similar to the Evciler Pluton and are regarded as its extrusive equiva-
lents (Genç, 1998). Thermal metamorphism developed at the contacts
between the Evciler Late Oligocene granodiorites and marbles and/or
metamorphic rocks hosting gold mineralization (Yilmaz and Kara,
1996; Yücel-Öztürk et al., 2005).
The Evciler and several other I-type mid to shallow-seated intrusive
rocks of granite/granodiorite to monzodiorite compositions were em-
placed into basement of the Kazdağ group. Early Miocene volcanism
within the Evciler area is characterized mainly by andesite and dacite
lavas, and associated pyroclastic rocks (Genç, 1998) whereas dacite
lava domes, lava flows and volcanoclastics are dominant facies in the
Altınoluk area. The Evciler (Ayazma) Fe-Cu-Au, the Tuztaşı Au-Ag and
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
Altınoluk (Papazlık) Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag-Au mineralizations (Fig. 1 and
Table 1; Yilmaz, 2007) occur within Kazdağ mountain range, which is
regarded as an extensional metamorphic core complex of Oligocene
age. The metamorphic core complex consists of gneiss, marble and
amphibolite at its footwall, and Early Tertiary accretionary mélange
with exotic Upper Cretaceous eclogite blocks in its hanging-wall (Okay
and Satır, 2000; Beccaletto and Jenny, 2004).
2.2. Local geology and mineralization
Variability in geologic and tectonic settings in western Turkey
caused the country to be suitable for a wide spectrum of mineralization
associated with subduction, collision and post-collision processes. The
known Au-Ag-Cu deposits and prospects are mainly of porphyry and
epithermal types associated with volcano-plutonic arcs forming from
Oligocene to Early Miocene (Yiğit, 2006, 2009). Descriptions and for-
mation of the porphyry, skarn and epithermal deposits/prospects of the
Biga Penisula South area and their locations in relation to geology and
tectonic setting are summarized as follows:
The Altınoluk-Papazlık vein-type Pb-Zn-Ag-Au mineralization (Fig. 2)
is described by Yilmaz (2007) and in Table 1. The Au mineralization
reported at Ayazma is associated primarily with massive pyrite-mar-
casite-pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-quartz-calcite mineralization within
marble and biotite amphibole gneiss intruded by the Evciler Pluton
(Yilmaz and Kara, 1996). The Ayazma Fe-Cu-Au mineralization occurs
mainly as exoskarn consisting predominantly of prograde garnet and
diopside with minor retrograde tremolite, epidote, chlorite, scapolite
and sericite (Fig. 2). Mineralization appears to be controlled strongly by
the intercalated amphibole gneiss and marble, which is cut by a por-
phyritic granodiorite sill of the Evciler pluton. Based on Yilmaz and
Kara (1996) Au exploration work, a detailed study on the Ayazma skarn
alteration was first carried out by Yücel-Öztürk et al. (2005). The Ev-
ciler granitoid is also characterized by relatively un-evolved to mod-
erately evolved and oxidized suites, as in most Au-Cu core metal as-
sociations globally (Yücel-Öztürk et al., 2005).
The Tuztasi and Kircalar prospects (Fig. 2; Yilmaz, 2007) and its
surrounding area are underlain mainly by Kazdağ metamorphic rocks,
which is cut by the Late Oligocene/Early Miocene Evciler granitoid and
andesites (23.8 Ma; Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000). The Tuztasi prospect
(Yilmaz, 2007) underlain by fine to medium grained gneiss and the
Evciler pluton contains three approximately N50oE-trending and 20° to
40° N-dipping quartz veins (Table 1). Several additional Au-bearing
quartz veins are recorded over a strike length of 8 km toward south-
west. The Kisacik deposit and its surrounding area are underlain mainly
by Early Miocene andesitic and rhyodacitic pyroclastics with minor
metamorphic rocks. Alteration is represented by Low Sulfidation style
argillic alteration and adularization. It has an unclassified resource of
56.5 Mt@ 0.5 g/t Au (Özpınar et al., 2012).
The Agi Dagi deposit is a high sulfidation epithermal deposit (Fig. 2),
with resources of 1.86 Moz Au and 10.4 Moz Ag, the feasibility studies
of which has been completed. Disseminated Au-Ag mineralization at the
Agi Dagi, which consists of two mineralized zones, is associated with
Oligocene, pervasively altered, felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks and
porphyry in flow-dome complexes, forming an approximately 4-km-
long, 2-km-wide, northeast-trending silica cap (Yiğit, 2009). The Kus-
cayiri/Karaayi Au (Cu) deposit with a geological resource of 10.3 Mt@
0.64 g/t Au plus 17, 700 tons metal Cu is localized along EW-trending
linear silica-quartz structures or pods within altered Lower Miocene
volcanic rocks that are underlain by medium to high level Mesozoic
granodiorite intrusions (Yilmaz, 2003b). The deposit is characterized by
disseminated or fracture-controlled pyrite (up to 12%), variable
amounts of silicification, hematite–pyrite matrix breccias produced by
intense fracturing of siliceous rocks and moderate to weak saccharoidal
to crystalline quartz stringer stockwork veining in small breccia pipes.
An early quartz–sericite alteration event was focused along the EW-
trending structures and resulted in the precipitation of pyrite. A later,
H. Yilmaz, et al.
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Tertiary volcanic and plutonic field of northwest Turkey and location of the study area (Biga Peninsula South) and significant
mineralizations (Yilmaz, 2007).
more spatially extensive, advanced argillic alteration event overprinted
the quartz–sericite event. The highest gold content is restricted to the
high-temperature portion of the alteration zone characterized by
stockwork or replacement quartz associated with sericite–pyr-
ite–alunite–pyrophyllite (Fig. 2). Trace gold and associated magnetite,
arsenopyrite, specular hematite and chalcopyrite also occur within the
smectite–illite/smectite–kaolinite–chlorite alteration facies. The Kayali
Dag deposit includes extensive outcropping zones of vuggy and massive
quartz and strong advanced argillic alteration over a 2 km × 1.5 km
area at the top of TV Tower Hill (Fig. 2). Pilot Gold company report,
2014; Smith et al., 2014). This area is characterized by the presence of
extensive silicified ledges, hosted primarily in volcaniclastic rocks.
Quartz-alunite ledges are variably developed in overlying feldspar-
hornblende porphyritic volcanic flows, and WNW-ESE-striking, steeply
SSW-dipping vuggy quartz ribs marking joint sets, brittle faults and
breccia zones. The faults appear to have acted as conduits and traps for
the mineralizing fluids. The mineralized zone is characterized by the
presence of brecciated and hematitized vuggy quartz after relatively
fine-grained, tuff and volcaniclastic rocks extending from surface to a
depth of up to 120 m (Pilot Gold company report, 2014). Grade gen-
erally correlates with a higher degree of brecciation. The silicified in-
terval is strongly oxidized. Below the silicified zone occurs advanced
argillic-altered, feldspar porphyritic flows, and eventually passes into
un-oxidized rocks. At this boundary, a zone of supergene chalcocite and
covellite is developed. Copper likely was present as enargite in the si-
licified zone but was subsequently leached and re-deposited at the
oxidation-reduction boundary (Smith et al., 2014). The Pirentepe and
Halilaga prospects are interpreted to be a single widespread mineralized
system containing porphyry related high-sulfidation style gold and
copper-gold mineralization (Fig. 2). The mineralized intrusions are in-
terpreted to be related to the 35-23 Ma granites and granodiorites.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
Drilling by Fronteer at Pirentepe returned the results from PD-01 as
1.79 g/t Au over 46.90 m, starting at 17 m depths. The hole ended in
high-grade gold mineralization. PD-02 intersected over 38.0 m at
1.83 g/t Au, also starting at 17 m. The Halilağa Cu-Au porphyry is re-
lated to a quartz-monzonite porphyry stock situated within the Bayr-
amiç–Çan Basin in the central Biga Peninsula (Fig. 2). The discovery of
outcropping, leached porphyry stockwork was made in 2006 as a result
of the follow-up of strongly anomalous stream and soil geochemistry.
Subsequent drilling outlined a NI 43-101 compliant Indicated resource
of 182.7 Mt grading 0.27% Cu and 0.3 g/t Au and an Inferred resource
of 178.7 Mt grading 0.23% Cu and 0.24 g/t Au (Doerksen et al., 2015;
Sánchez et al., 2016). The Halilağa Porphyry intrudes late Oligocene
andesite flows and volcaniclastic layers causing contact metamorphism
and quartz-sericite alteration (Fig. 2) in the immediate vicinity of the
stock. At the surface, the Halilağa Porphyry shows an acid leached li-
monitic crust with limonite-goethite and quartz stockwork hosted by a
quartz rich porphyry stock. Rock chip geochemistry commonly returns
gold values of 0.5–1 ppm with maximum values of up to 3.37 ppm.
Anomalous copper concentrations are commonly over 500 ppm. Mi-
neralization is associated with a quartz-sulfide stockwork and local
sheeted veins. At depth, chalcopyrite, magnetite, pyrite and minor
pyrrhotite are associated with K-feldspar and biotite alteration, whereas
quartz-sericite alteration and later chlorite-epidote constitute the upper
and peripheral alteration assemblages (Sánchez et al., 2016).
2.3. Sampling and chemical analysis
The geochemical and mineral data base of Biga Peninsula South
contains 221 BLEG and 1537 -80# stream sediment as well as 737 rock
chip samples. A significant proportion (95%) of the geochemical data
was generated by the Eurogold Corporation during the periods
H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Fig. 2. Geology, tectonic (Modified from Okay and Satır, 2000; MTA, 2002; Smith et al., 2014) alteration (Yilmaz, 2007; Özpınar et al., 2012; Smith et al., 2014)
mineralization (Yiğit, 2009; Yilmaz et al., 2017) of Biga Peninsula South area, western Turkey.

1988–1996. The BLEG samples were collected at a density of ∼1
sample per 10 km2 depending on catchment areas, with sites selection
designed to minimize the contribution of sediments from the larger
streams. There are some gaps in coverage due to access issues or where
the geology was viewed as not being conducive to mineralization. Silt-
rich material was collected from along a 20–40 m section of active
channels, taking care to limit loss of colloidal or organic-adsorbed Au
by excessive disturbance of the sediment column. Sufficient material
was collected to deliver 2 kg of 16# fraction for BLEG analysis after
drying at 90 °C and dry sieving (again to limit loss of very fine Au). The
2 kg samples were leached in 2 L of 0.1–0.3% cyanide solution in a
bottle roller for 12 h, the Au then extracted onto Zn powder, re-dis-
solved in acid and analyzed for Au, Ag and Cu by AAS (Yilmaz, 2003a).
The −80# samples were collected as part of separate surveys with
few sites having both BLEG and −80# fractions analyzed. Samples
were collected from mainly clay- and silt-rich parts of the stream bed

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 H. Yilmaz, et al.

Table 1
Characteristics of porphyry/skarn, epithermal and orogenic deposits, and prospects in Biga Peninsula South.
Deposit Name Province Commodity Principal host rock Deposit type Age of host rock/orebody (Ma) Ore body and Structure Mineral reserve/resources Reference

Kuscayiri Canakkale Au, Cu Andesite, dacite Epithermal HS Eocene/38.2 ± 5 Ma EW-trending linear silica-quartz structures Geological resource: 10.3 Mt@0.64 g/t Eurogold (1996);
or pods Au plus 17700 tons metal Cu Yilmaz (2003b); Yigit
(2012)
Kuscayiri Canakkale Cu, Au Granodiorite Porphyry/ Eocene/38.2 ± 5 Ma Mineralized zone characterized by the Significant rockchip Mo values up to Eurogold (1996);
(Karaayi) porphyry, Epithermal HS presence of brecciated and hematitized 0.074% Yilmaz (2003b)
quartzdiorite vuggy quartz after relatively fine-grained,
porphyry (42.7 Ma) tuff and volcaniclastic. Grade is generally
correlated with a higher degree of
brecciation.
Kayalidag Canakkale Au, Ag, Cu Andesite, dacite Epithermal HS Eocene/38.2 ± 5 Ma brecciated, silicified tuff with vugy quartz, Reserve indcated: 23.06 Mt@ 0.63 g/t Pilot Gold (2014);
Au, 27.6 g/t Ag, 0.16% Cu; Reserve Smith et al. (2014)
inferred: 10.77 Mt@ 0.15 g/tAu,
25.7 g/t Ag
Pirentepe Canakkale Au, Cu Felsic volcanics Epithermal HS Late Oligocene/26.38 Ma (biotite) massive to vuggy silica (quartz-alunite), At Pirentepe, PD-01: 46.9 m @ 1.79 g/t Pilot Gold (2012),
strongly limonitized breccias Au and PD-02: 38 m @ 1.83 g/t in two 2014; Sánchez et al.
drill holes (2016)
Halilaga Canakkale Cu, Au Quartz diorite Porphyry Oligocene/24.81 ± 014 Mainly B- and D-type quartz veins/veinlets; Resource indicated: 168 Mt @0.3% Cu, Pilot Gold (2012);

160
porphyry, quartz Skarn mineralization plus HS epithermal 0.3 g/t Au; Resource inferred: 198 Mt Sánchez et al. (2016)
monzonite porphyry @ 0.23% Cu and 0.26 g/t Au
Agidagi Canakkale Au, Ag Felsic to intermediate Epithermal HS Oligocene/27.48 Ma (muscovite- Disseminations, breccias, NE-trending Reserve indcated: 79.366 Mt@ 0.59 g/ Alamos Gold (2014);
volcanic rocks and sericite) and 26.4 Ma (alunite) mineraralized and altered zone t Au, 3.32 g/tAg and Reserve inferred: Yigit (2009)
porphries 20.86 Mt@ 0.53 g/tAu, 2.2.86 g/t Ag
Ayazma Canakkale Au, Cu, Zn Marble, amphibolite Skarn Paleozoic, Late Oligocene Marble-amhibolite gneiss, replaced by Channel rockchip: 4.5 m @ 4.8 g/t Au, Yilmaz and Kara
gneiss, granodiorite, (26.38Ma from biotite)/Latest massive pyrite-phrrhotite-chalcopyrite; NE- 0.18% Cu; 4m @ 14.4 g/t Au, 0.87% (1996); Yilmaz
quartz monzonite Oligocene (∼25 Ma) trending structures controlling Cu; 4m @ 9.7 g/t Au, 0.23% Cu, with a (2007); Yucel-Ozturk
mineralization peak value of 15.2 g/t Au; Inferred et al. (2005); Sánchez
geological resource: 2 Mt @ 5 g/t Au et al. (2016)
Kisacik Canakkale Au, Ag Pumiceous Epithermal LS Miocene Fault- and lithology-controlled quartz- Resource: 56.5 Mt@0.5 g/t Au Ozpinar et al. (2012)
pyroclastics, rhyolite sulfide veins/veinlets within EW-trending (Unclassified)
dyke zone
Kirca Canakkale Au, Ag Karakaya formation Epithermal LS Mesozoic/Latest Oligocene (?) crystalline to saccharoidal, NE-trending Rockchip values ranging up to 5.3 g/t Yilmaz (2007)
(orogenic) quartz vein/breccia with vug-infill and Au, 95 g/t Ag
comb textures
Tuztasi Canakkale Au, Ag Schist, gneiss Epithermal LS Paleozoic/Latest Oligocene (?) crystalline to saccharoidal, NE-trending A quartz vein zone of 200 m by 2000 m Yilmaz (2007)
(Orogenic) quartz vein/breccia with vug-infill and ranging up to 5.4 g/t Au, 130 g/t Ag
comb textures
Papazlik Balikesir Au, Ag, Pb, Zn Schist, marble Skarn Paleozoic/Latest Oligocene (?) Quartz-sulfide veins (> 300 m × 1.6 m) Resource inferred: 240.000 tons @ Ilbar, 2005; Yilmaz
within sheared marble-schist layer 2.7% Pb, 8.2% Zn, 5 g/t Au, 25 g/t Ag (2007)
Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Fig. 3. Location of major mineral deposits/prospects (A), sampling sites for BLEG stream sediments (B), −80# stream sediments (C) and rock chips (D).

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H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Table 2 Au, Ag and Cu analyses. Some samples analyzed by AAS only had Au
Summary statistics for Au, Ag and Cu in the BLEG stream sediments. reported and some did not have the complete trace elements analytical
Element Au (ppb) Ag (ppm) Cu (ppm) suite in the −80# stream sediment or rock chips samples.
The analytical precision set by Eurogold Ltd was better than 10% at
Minimum or DL 0.01 0.1 0.1 the 95% confidence level using the Thompson and Howarth (1978)
Maximum 108 331 9
method. The consistency of the database and evidence of significant
Mean 2.63 27.61 0.23
Standard deviation 7.92 33.22 0.84
variation between blocks of data (e.g. Grunsky, 2010) was checked by
Skewness 11.29 4.7 8.99 plotting of the data, as well as plotting the location of the main uni-
Kurtosis 145.27 33.81 85.56 variate populations determined during EDA. This resulted in elimina-
tion of some blocks of samples. For each variable, the detection limit
was set at the highest detection limit of the component databases;
however, in a few cases where high detection limits were reported, the
samples were excluded from subsequent statistical and spatial analysis.
For the study area of this paper, of the above-mentioned geo-
chemical samples a database of 155 BLEG, 1495 -80# stream sediment
and 684 rock chip samples was made and used in the subsequent data
analysis (Fig. 3). Summary statistics for Au and Cu in the BLEG and
−80# stream sediments and rock samples are listed in Table 2. Geo-
logical units and tectonics at various scales are provided by the Mineral
Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA). Catchments were
defined by the digitization of 1:25000 scale topographic maps and the
location of each BLEG sampling point was examined to ensure it was
associated with the correct catchment.
A MATLAB-based computer program was coded to facilitate analysis
regarding to singularity mapping. For C-A and N-A calculations Excel
spread sheets was applied.

3. Multifractal modeling methods

Multifractal modeling methods have been frequently applied in the

delineation of geochemical anomalies (e.g., Cheng et al., 1999, 2000;
Wang et al., 2011; Afzal et al., 2010; Luz et al., 2014). Shuguang et al.
(2015) further argued that multifractal modeling methods that are
being used for identification of geochemical anomalies could be cate-
gorized in two classes including hard- and soft-threshold methods. The
former modeling methods, such as the C-A (Cheng et al., 1994) and the
N-S (Mandelbrot, 1983) methods are those determining specific
thresholds for the separation of geochemical populations. Despite the
successful application of these methods in numerous studies, several
authors have reached censuses about their limited efficiency in the
recognition of weak and complex geochemical anomalies (Zuo and
Wang, 2016). The latter techniques, however, just act as filtering
methods and can enhance the predicting ability of geochemical sig-
natures (e.g., Parsa et al., 2017b). Therefore, these methods are not
capable of separating geochemical populations and should be coupled
with different methods to overcome this efficiency. In this study, a
combination of hard- and soft-threshold techniques has been used to (a)
enhance the predicting ability of geochemical signatures and (b) de-
lineate enhanced geochemical anomalies for vectoring towards gold
mineralized zones in the study area.
Fig. 4. C-A fractal model applied to singularity indexes of (a) Au, (b) Ag and (c)
Cu. 3.1. Number-size (N-S) fractal model

and sieved in the field if dry or returned to the lab to be dried and then
sieved to produce ∼500 g of −80#. After either aqua regia or four-acid
digestions, in either case extracting all Au that is free, adsorbed or as-
sociated with carbonates, secondary Fe-Mn oxides and sulfides. Prior to
1992, the −80# stream sediment samples were analyzed by AAS for
Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb following aqua regia digestion, with Au se-
parately determined after an MIBK extraction followed by GF-AAS. Post
1992 samples were analyzed by ICP-MS for 33 elements including Ag,
Cu, Pb, Zn, As, Sb and Mo following a HNO3/HClO4 digestion. For the
rock chip samples Au was determined by GFAAS after a 3:2:4 HCl/
HNO3/HF attack and dissolution with HBr followed by uptake in MIBK
(Meier, 1980; Fletcher and Horskey, 1988). All BLEG samples included
The N-S fractal method (Mandelbrot, 1983) has been applied for the
delineation of different geochemical populations of geochemical data
(e.g., Deng et al., 2010; Parsa et al., 2016). In this method, the re-
lationship between concentrations of geochemical samples with the
cumulative frequency of samples can be modeled via the below equa-
tion (Mandelbrot, 1983):
N (≥ρ) = C . ρ−α (1)
where N is the cumulative number of samples with the values greater
than or equal to ρ, α is the fractal dimension of the distribution of
geochemical values and C is a constant. In a log-log plot of cumulative
frequency of samples (i.e., Number) against the values (i.e., con-
centrations of different samples), the preceding power-law relationship

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Fig. 5. Maps showing the delineated geochemical anomaly populations of BLEG (a) Au, (b) Ag and (c) Cu.

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Table 3
Summary statistics for Au, Cu, As, Sb, Pb and Zn in the −80# stream sediment sediments data.
Element Au (ppb) Cu (ppm) As (ppm) Sb (ppm) Pb (ppm) Zn (ppm)

Minimum or DL 2 1 4 0.25 2 10
Maximum 430 631 253 34.74 1281 1864
Mean 10.43 42.57 29.27 6.08 34.61 83.4
Standard deviation 31.48 49.17 30.62 6.12 56.13 81.68
Skewness 7.88 3.59 2.61 1.25 10.49 11.26
Kurtosis 77.67 22.69 9.89 1.84 184.25 195.87

Fig. 6. N-S fractal model applied to singularity indexes of (a) Au, (b) Cu, (c) As, (d) Sb, (e) Pb and (f) Zn.

would be a linear relationship, in which different straight lines could be
fitted. The number of these lines manifests the number of different
populations, while the break values between adjacent straight lines
manifest the threshold values that can be further applied for separation
of different populations (Zuo and Wang, 2016).
3.2. Concentration-area (C-A) fractal model
The C-A fractal model (Cheng et al., 1994) has been frequently
applied for discrimination of geochemical populations (e.g., Arias et al.,
2012; Parsa et al., 2017a). This method could be expressed by the
following power-law relationships (Cheng et al., 1994):
A (ρ < θ) ∝ ρ−α1 (2)
3.3. Singularity mapping technique
Singular processes are those that are accompanied by a considerable
amount of energy release or material accumulation within a narrow
spatial-temporal interval (Helsey et al., 1993). Hydrothermal miner-
alization stands within such definition because not only mineralization
develops within a short period of geological time but also it occupies
small area of the earth crust (Cheng, 2007). Therefore, hydrothermal
mineralization is a singular geological process, which can be further
modeled by power-law relationships.
The concentration of a specific type of mineralization within an area
(A), ρ(A), is a function of its density μ(A), i.e., ρ(A) = μ(A)/A. Cheng
(2007) argued that the density and the concentration of mineralization
within an area have the following power-law relationships with their
occupied areas:

and μ (A) ∝ Aα/2 (4)

A (ρ ≥ θ) ∝ ρ−α2
where A(ρ < θ) and A(ρ ≥ θ) are representatives of the areas enclosed
by contour values of lower than and higher than the threshold value of
ρ, respectively; α1 and α2 are the fractal dimensions of background and
anomalous populations, respectively. Similar to the N-S fractal model,
the power-law relationships of equations [2] and [3] are linear re-
lationships in a log-log plot of cumulative areas enclosed by the contour
values (A) and concentration of elements (ρ). The number of straight
lines to be fitted to the log-log plot of A against ρ, determines the
number of different geochemical populations and the breaks between
the adjacent straight lines are the threshold values for discriminating
different populations (e.g., Cheng et al., 1994; Zuo and Wang, 2016).
and
(3)
−1
ρ (A) ∝ A(α /2) (5)
In the above-mentioned equations, ∝ and α denote proportionality
and the singularity index, respectively. The singularity index (α) de-
scribes how the concentration changes as the area decreases. According
to Eq. [5], if the concentration remains constant as the area decreases,
the singularity index (α) would be equal to 2, which determines the lack
of interaction of singular processes or multifractality (Cheng, 2007). If
the concentration decreases as the area decreases, the singularity index
would be greater than 2, which manifest negative singularity or geo-
chemical depletion. Likewise, if the concentration increases as the area
decreases, the singularity index would be lower than 2, which

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Fig. 7. The delineated −80# stream sediments anomalies of (a) Au, (b) Cu, (c) As, (d) Sb, (e) Pb and (f) Zn superimposed on the delineated BLEG Au anomalies.

165
H. Yilmaz, et al.
Fig. 7. (continued)
determines positive singularity or geochemical enrichment (Cheng,
2007; Parsa et al., 2017a).
A moving average modeling procedure has been proposed by Cheng
(2007) and has been applied in several studies (e.g., Zuo and Wang,
2016) for determination of singularity index of geochemical signatures.
In this study, the same procedure has been applied for determination
singularity index. In this procedure, for each specific location a set of
sliding windows, A(r), with variable sizes, ri × ri, which are centered at
the desired location are applied to calculate the average of concentra-
tion values for each window size, i.e., Mj[A(ri)] (j = 1, 2, 3, …, n) [n is
total number of cells in a raster map]. The window size changes with a
predefined specific step, d, i.e., ri+1 – ri = d. The selection of window
sizes (ri) and intervals (d) is based on the expanse of the study area, the
scale of the unit cell size and the scale of local structures of interest
(Cheng, 2007). Generally, larger intervals are applied for determination
of regional geochemical characteristics such as regional background.
However, smaller intervals are applied for determination of local
anomalies of the geochemical data (Cheng, 2007). There is a power-law
relationship between the average concentrations Mj[A(ri)] and the
window size ri (Cheng, 2007):
Mj [A (ri )] ∝ ri(α − 2) (6)
In a log-log plot, the above-mentioned power-law relationship
would be a linear relationship or:
Log Mj [A (ri )] = c + (α − 2)log (ri ) (7)
Straight lines could be fitted to the log-log plots of Mj[A(ri)] against
ri, the slopes of which manifest the value of α-2.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
4. Results
4.1. Delineation of BLEG stream sediment geochemical anomalies
As previously mentioned in section 3, the BLEG samples were geo-
chemically analyzed for the concentration of Au, Ag and Cu. The de-
scriptive statistics of these elements can be observed in Table 2. The
statistical characteristics of these elements manifest that they do not
follow normal distribution (Table 2). Instead they exhibit positively
skewed distributions, which indicate that multiple processes have in-
corporated in the distribution of these elements in the study area
(Reimann et al., 2002).
In order to enhance the geochemical signature, the singularity
mapping was applied to the results of geochemical analyses of BLEG
samples. A set of five window sizes with the minimum window size of
ri = 500 m and an interval of 500 m were used to determine singularity
indexes in the study area. The singularity index (α values) were then
specified to the catchment basins of each data. This is because each
BLEG data is representative of its upper catchment basin (Spadoni et al.,
2005; Spadoni, 2006). The α values of Au, Ag and Cu are in the ranges
of 1.09–3.22, 1.35–2.85 and 1.12–2.97, respectively. Because each
singularity index (α value) has been specified to its corresponding
catchment area, the C-A fractal model was further applied to categorize
different populations of singularity indexes. Fig. 4 demonstrates the log-
log plots of concentration versus the area for delineation of geochemical
populations of singularity indexes. The C-A fractal model has yielded in
the delineation of five different Au geochemical populations of high
anomaly, anomaly, high background, background and low background
for Au in BLEG data (Fig. 5a). Likewise, the C-A fractal model has se-
parated five Ag geochemical populations of high anomaly, anomaly,
high background, background and low background for Ag (Fig. 5b).
However, the geochemical singularity indexes of Cu data have been
H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Fig. 8. The delineated −80# stream sediments anomalies of (a) Au, (b) Cu, (c) As, (d) Sb, (e) Pb and (f) Zn superimposed on the delineated BLEG Cu anomalies.

167
H. Yilmaz, et al.
Fig. 8. (continued)
categorized in four populations of high anomaly, anomaly, background
and low background (Fig. 5c). Fig. 5 depicts the spatial distribution of
delineated geochemical populations except for the Ayazama prospect,
around which BLEG samples were not taken. All of the known gold
deposits/prospects of the study area are delimited within the anom-
alous zones of Au BLEG data (Fig. 5a and Table 4). However, the Kisacik
prospect has been delineated within the background populations of Ag
and Cu samples data (Fig. 5b and c and Table 4). Delineation of the
Kisacik prospect by anomalous Cu population has failed because it is a
Low Sulfidation quartz-adularia type Au-Ag mineralization with no
significant Cu content. In another word, this might be due to the weak
geochemical signatures of Ag and Cu in BLEG samples around the de-
posit. However, it is imperative to note that samples are extremely
diluted media, through which even weak anomalous zone should be
noticed. Singularity-based patterns focus much on pointing to miner-
alization preferred faulted, (High Sulfidation) advanced argillic-altered
volcanic rocks in the northern part and (Low Sulfidation) argillic-al-
tered schists of the metamorphic core complex in the southwestern half
of the study area. It appears that the conventional square window-based
singularity mapping technique is an appropriate tool in defining ore-
detecting geochemical anomalies.
4.2. Delineation of −80# stream sediment geochemical anomalies
Minus 80# stream sediment samples were analyzed for Au, Cu, As,
Sb, Pb and Zn. The descriptive statistics of these analyzed elements
demonstrate that they have positively skewed distributions (Table 3)
and thus there are multiple populations in the chemical analyses of
these elements. Consequently, multifractal analysis was applied to these
analyzed elements to delineate geochemical populations, which are
related to mineralization. In this regard, similar to the procedure as
applied to BLEG data, the results of geochemical analyses of stream
sediment were initially subjected to singularity multifractal technique.
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
The selection of window and interval sizes was similar to procedure as
applied to the BLEG data. The singularity indexes of the analyzed ele-
ments of stream sediment data vary widely. In order to model the
spatial distribution of singularity indexes (α values) of stream sediments
geochemical data, the point symbol method (Howarth, 1983) was ap-
plied. This is because unlike the BLEG samples of the study area, stream
sediment media are densely sampled and therefore, the results of their
analyses cannot be exactly specified to catchment basins (Fig. 3).
Because the spatial distribution of α value of stream sediments data
was modeled by point symbols and there was no specified area for each
stream sediment sample, the authors have decided to apply the N-S
fractal model to delineate different geochemical populations of stream
sediments data (c.f. Zuo and Wang, 2016). The N-S fractal model
yielded in the classification of geochemical signatures of Au, Cu, As, Sb
and Pb in five separate categories of highly anomalous, anomalous,
high background, background and low background zones (Fig. 6a–e).
However, according to the results of the N-S fractal model, there are
four delineated populations for the geochemical signature of Zn in
stream sediment data (Fig. 6f).
Aiming at assessing the correlation of geochemical anomalies of
−80# with BLEG stream sediments data, the geochemical anomalies of
−80# stream sediment data were superimposed on those of BLEG
stream sediments data (Figs. 7–9).
The spatial distribution maps of −80# stream sediment α-Au, α-Cu,
α-Pb, α-Zn, α-As and α-Sb highlights the anomalies to high anomalies
with low singularity values (Figs. 7–9). Kayalidag, Kuscayiri, Karaayi,
Ayazma and Pirentepe Au deposits are located in the areas with low
singularity (α) values whereas very large Halilaga Cu-Au deposit is
found in the area with high singularity (α) values. It is also shown that
the singular values (α) of the main ore-forming elements Au, Cu and As
are apparently enriched in the Late Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks in
the northern part, Precamrian metamorphics and Cretaceous ophiolites
in the south parts of the area, and spread in the NE-trends parallel to the
H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Fig. 9. The delineated −80# stream sediments of (a) Au, (b) Cu, (c) As, (d) Sb, (e) Pb and (f) Zn superimposed on the delineated BLEG Ag anomalies.

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H. Yilmaz, et al. Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172

Fig. 9. (continued)

Table 4
Efficiency assessment of the delineated geochemical populations of BLEG and −80# stream sediment data by SM, C-A and N-S fractal modeling.
Geochemical signature Number and percent of gold prospects delineated in the anomalous and highly anomalous zones

Au (BLEG data: Fig. 5a) *(8/8) 100%

Cu (BLEG data: Fig. 5b) *(7/8) 87.5%
Ag (BLEG data: Fig. 5c) *(7/8) 87.5%
Au (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7a, 8a and 9a) (8/9) 89%
Cu (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7b, 8b and 9b) (8/9) 89%
As (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7c, 8c and 9c) (7/9) 78%
Sb (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7d, 8d and 9d) (5/9) 56%
Pb (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7e, 8e and 9e) (7/9) 78%
Zn (−80# stream sediment data: Figs. 7f, 8f and 9f) (5/9) 56%

*No BLEG samples were taken around Ayazma prospect and therefore, this prospect was not considered in the effciency assessment.

regional faults (Figs. 2, 7–9). The singularity maps of Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As
and Sb were plotted (Figs. 7–9), and the singularity indexes were re-
classified (the N-S fractal model was used) for quantitatively measuring
the significance of spatial correlation between the areas with singu-
larity (α) and the locations of known gold deposits. The spatial dis-
tribution of Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb anomalies relatively differed but
showed that the known gold deposits were closely related to the lower
singularity indexes (mostly less < 2) of Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb
(Figs. 7–9). Besides, 89% (8), 89% (8), 78% (7), 56% (5), 78% (7), 56%
(5) of known gold deposits were consistent with the anomalies of Au,
Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb, respectively (Table 4 and Fig. 10). This means
that Au, Cu, Pb, Zn, As and Sb were appropriate indicator elements in
the study area, and the singularity mapping technique can identify gold
deposits/prospects, which are related to anomalies.
4.3. Verification of the anomalies delineated
Table 4 and Fig. 10 demonstrate the efficiency assessment of the
delineated geochemical anomalies of −80# stream sediment data in
regards to the known gold prospects and deposits of the study area.
According to Table 4 and Figs. 7–10, 89% of known gold prospects are
located within the anomalous zones of Au and Cu for −80# stream
sediments data. However, only 78% of the known gold prospects are
delineated within the anomalous zones of As and Pb. This is even
smaller (i.e., 56%) when considering the geochemical anomalies of Sb
and Zn.
Results of interpretation of rock samples verifies the ability of the
BLEG and −80# stream sediment survey in precise detection of epi-
thermal Au-Ag, porphyry and skarn anomalies. The descriptive statis-
tics of these elements within the anomalous zones (high anomaly and
anomaly) of BLEG Au (Table 4) demonstrates that these areas are
worthy to be followed up by further exploration programs. The geo-
chemical Au anomalies identified are underlain by already-mapped
argillitized and silicified (HS and LS styles) rocks, and thus, are of prima
targets for further exploration apart from the known occurrences
(Figs. 2, 7–9).

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H. Yilmaz, et al.
Fig. 10. Agreement between geochemical anomaly classification and presence/
absence of known mineral deposits or anomalous rock chip geochemistry in
catchment. 8/8: number of deposit detected by stream sediment survey/Au
deposits being discovered, 100: efficiency percentage of the geochemical
anomalies of stream sediment data in regards to the known gold prospects and
deposits. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
5. Discussion and conclusions
Because of dilution of element content in stream sediments along
with effects of and the numerous geogenic and human factors in the
chemical composition of stream sediments, the detection of significant
stream sediments anomalies is becoming more difficult than ever (Parsa
et al., 2017b). This difficulty becomes two-fold due to sparse and ir-
regular sampling (e.g., Parsa et al., 2017a, c) and smoothing effect by
common moving average interpolation techniques (Yuan et al., 2015;
Yousefi, 2017). However, multifractal moving interpolation methods
(e.g., MIDW and multifractal Kriging) may overcome these drawbacks
by integrating local singularity mapping in the interpolation of geo-
chemical data. These methods simplify the distinction of geochemical
populations by enhancing geochemical anomalies and segregation from
geochemical background values (Cheng et al., 2000; Yuan et al., 2015).
Detection of weak anomalies is not possible using hard threshold
techniques, specifically in covered areas, e.g., traditional statistical
methods and C-A fractal modeling (Shuguang et al., 2015). Never-
theless, the application of window-based contrast filtering methods
such as singularity mapping (Cheng et al., 1999, 2007), as soft
threshold techniques, have resulted in delineation of weak geochemical
anomalies in numerous cases (Zuo et al., 2015; Yuan et al., 2015;
Yousefi, 2017a, b). By the integration of local singularity indexes (α
values) in multifractal moving average interpolation, as in this study,
the MIDW-interpolated geochemical data represents enhanced geo-
chemical models, allowing for the recognition of weak anomalies.
In the study area of this paper, the BLEG stream sediment Au
anomalies are strongly consistent with those of −80# stream sediment
Au anomalies manifesting the reliability of the results of sampling and
analytical techniques. Besides, the anomalous to ore-grade results of
follow-up rock-chip sampling along with the discovery of deposits/
prospects in the delineated BLEG and −80# stream sediment anom-
alous zones manifested that most of these zones are worthwhile for
exploring by further detailed sampling. BLEG Au, Ag and Cu geo-
chemical signatures derived from singularity multifractal technique
may account for gold mineralization in the study area because of the
association of BLEG geochemical signatures with gold mineralization
(Table 4, Fig. 5). Moreover, −80# stream sediments Au and Cu geo-
chemical signatures have also strong spatial associations with gold
mineralization over the areas that bear argillitized and silicified
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Journal of African Earth Sciences 153 (2019) 156–172
alterations (Table 4; Figs. 2, 7–9). However, the geochemical signatures
of the rest of elements in −80# stream sediment samples did not show
strong association with gold mineralization (Table 4; Figs. 7–9). This
may be related to mineralization depths (e.g., Pirentepe returning
1.79 g/t Au over 46.90 m, starting at 17 m depth) whereas gold in high
sulfidation (e.g., Kayalidag, Kuscayiri) and porphyry (Halilaga) deposits
is not associated with Sb mineralization, thereby not showing geo-
chemical Sb signatures. Significant geochemical anomalies may be
further integrated with additional prospecting that includes alteration
and structural mapping along with −80# stream sediment, mobile
metal ion soil and rock chip sampling. This may result in the discovery
of further mineralization in the study area with low singularity index
(α). In another word, generated geochemical targets may be further
followed up for discovering possible mineralization.
Acknowledgement
The author (H. Yilmaz) would like to express his appreciation to
Eurogold Madencilik, Turkey (an affiliation of Normandy Mining Ltd.,
Australia) for her generous support to the regional exploration project
during my tenure as Eurogold Exploration Manager between years
1988–2000.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.02.015.
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