Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

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Results in Geophysical Sciences

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Mineralisation potential assessment using analytical hierarchy process

(AHP) modeling technique: A case study of Ilesha schist belt,
southwestern Nigeria
A.A. Akinlalu *, G.M. Olayanju, K.A.N. Adiat, G.O. Omosuyi
Department of Applied Geophysics, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A mineralisation potential assessment in part of Ilesha Schist belt of southwestern Nigeria was carried out using
Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA) in the context of analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Three parameters
Euler deconvolution sourced from aeromagnetic, electrical resistivity and geological data were identified to favour gold minerali­
Edge detection
sation in the study area. These parameters include lineament density (Ld), lithology (Lt), and electrically derived
Analytical hierarchy process (AHP)
coefficient of anisotropy (An). The application of data enhancement techniques such as total horizontal deriv­
ative, 3-D Euler deconvolution and source edge detection were employed in the production of lineament map of
the study area. Two hundred and sixty-five (265) vertical electrical sounding (VES) points were investigated
using Schlumberger configuration. Coefficient of anisotropy derived from the Dar-Zarouk parameters was ob­
tained from the synthesized VES data. The lithologic information was obtained from the existing geological map
of the area. The orientations of lineaments displayed on the aeromagnetic results suggest predominantly NE-SW
trending structures, which are characteristic of the Pan African orogenic events in the area. However, few of the
E-W trending lineaments are imprints of secondary structural alteration. Furthermore, the Euler deconvolution
solutions revealed that the area is characterised by geological contacts with estimated depth of 94–600 m. The
coefficient of anisotropy results obtained from the geo-electric parameters vary from 1.00–2.87. AHP weighting
and ranking technique was used to develop a reliable mineralisation potential model (MPM). In line with the
recommended lower limit of 10 %, the consistency ratio of the developed model is 9.61 %. The produced MPM
was classified into low, moderate and high mineralisation potential zones. Preliminary validation of the MPM
using the existing pits in the area showed 79 % success rate. The validation of the model using the existing
geochemical information from the previous studies indicated 85 % agreement with the conceptual model; thus,
confirming the reliability of the produced MPM. The developed model is therefore believed to serve as a future
reference in the resource management of the study area.

1. Introduction
Mineral resources are the major sources of raw materials in several
manufacturing industries including in metallurgy, automobile, agricul­
ture, civil construction, electronics, and pharmacy (Adekoya et al.,
2003). Nigeria as a nation is endowed with vast mineral resources,
including metallic ores like gold, iron, tantalite, columbite, lead, zinc
etc., as well as non- metallic minerals including kaolin, limestone,
gypsum, silica sand, marble to mention a few (Ajayi and Ogedengbe,
2003).
Nigeria’s economic history shows that the mining sector was a major
player in the country’s economy before the discovery of oil. The mining
sector contributed about 12 % to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
before the discovery of oil and inflow of foreign currencies in the 70s
(Adinoyi, 2014). However, the downward interest in this sector has
shown a decline to less than 0.5% contribution to the Nation’s GDP in
2009 (David et al., 2016). The decline in GDP contribution is due to
over-dependence on oil and gas production. The severely impaired local
crude-oil production, low global oil prices and overtly dependence on
hydrocarbon as the mainstay of the national economy has resulted to
reduction in Government revenues and ultimately triggers the economic
crisis currently experienced in Nigeria (Gummi et al., 2017). In an

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aaakinlalu@futa.edu.ng (A.A. Akinlalu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ringps.2021.100026
Received 6 January 2021; Received in revised form 27 July 2021; Accepted 9 August 2021
Available online 17 August 2021
2666-8289/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 1. Geological map of Nigeria and its adjoining areas showing the Schist belt localities (Haruna et al., 2012)
attempt to tackle this menace, the Federal Government is gradually
shifting from a monolithic hydrocarbon economy to a diversified
economy, where agriculture and mining sectors are the main focus to
resuscitate and sustain Nigeria’s economy (Uzonwanne, 2015; Any­
aehie and Areji, 2015; Abasilim et al., 2017; Chukwuma, 2018). Despite
the enormous economic importance of mining industry to the nation, the
geological processes that control the target identification and delinea­
tion of mineral deposits, more significantly Pan African orogenic gold
mineralisation in Nigeria, are usually complex (Sanusi and Amigun,
2020a, 2020b).
In target identification and delineation, the effects of tectonic ac­
tivities and stresses (tensional or compressional stress) often account for
the structural disposition of rocks at different scales. Owing to the roles
these structures play in hosting gold minerals, mapping of geologic
structures such as faults, folds, joints, lithological contacts and shear
zones is imperative to orogenic gold exploration (Akinlalu et al., 2018;
Sanusi and Amigun, 2020a, 2020b). Geophysical investigations play a
major role in preliminary target identification and delineation (Akinlalu
et al., 2018; Sanusi and Amigun 2020a, 2020b). As a matter of fact, the
mapping of geologic structures that provide host to gold mineralisation
can be recognised and reliably delineated with geophysical methods.
Most often, the geologic structures hosting the gold mineral are con­
cealed beneath overburden materials, and cannot be reliably captured
during surface geological mapping program (Sanusi and Amigun,
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Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
2020b). Similarly, structural mapping in the basement complex can be
difficult due to the paucity of exposures (Onyedim and Ocan, 2009), size
of the exposure, vegetation covers, and poor access to the exposure in a
difficult terrain (Sanusi and Amigun, 2020b).
Since orogenic gold mineralisation in any geological setting with
supportive mineral system is influenced by several geological processes,
particularly the subsurface structural styles, there is a need to use
appropriate geophysical tools to unravel geological complexities that
are associated with orogenic gold mineralisation in such an area. (Sanusi
and Amigun, 2020a, 2020b). The guidelines to choosing appropriate
methods are well documented in various texts (Grant and West 1965;
Telford et al., 1990; Keary and Brooks, 1991; Blakely, 1996). Several
studies have shown the advantages and disadvantages, benefits and
limitations of using geophysical methods in delineating and analysing
the morphology of mineral deposits (Irvine and Smith 1990; White et al.,
2001; Moreira et al., 2012; Gaafar, 2015).
Magnetic survey is used extensively in mineral exploration for the
delineation of metalliferous deposits. Its applications range from min­
eral exploration and structural mapping to rock characterisation (Airo
and Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, 2004; Murphy, 2007; Adelusi et al., 2013;
Sanusi and Amigun, 2020a, 2020b). The very vital and accurate infor­
mation provided by magnetic data is the structural framework of the
basement, and this can be interpreted from discontinuities/truncations
of the magnetic fabrics. Aeromagnetic survey is a powerful tool in
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area showing the VES points (modified after Odeyemi 1993).
delineating the regional geology (lithology and geologic structure) in
basement terrain (Hassanein and Soliman, 2009). Aeromagnetic maps
are considered highly useful in mineral prospecting and bedrock map­
ping (Korhonen, 2005). They are faster, economical, versatile and
well-known geophysical tool to delineate subsurface structures both at
regional and deposit scales (Vasanthi et al., 2006; Al-Garni, 2009).
Electrical resistivity prospecting method also play significant role in
mineral exploration. It assists in measuring electrical resistivity contrast
between the host rock and its surrounding geology. It provides infor­
mation on depth to bedrock and electrical properties of the bedrock and
the materials overlying it.
Spatial prediction of mineral resources is an aspect that is vital for an
effective planning and resource management. Prediction can be done
with the use of various factors that contribute to the occurrence of
minerals in a geologically permissible setting (Sanusi and Amigun,
2020a). Consequently, the prediction of mineralisation potential is a
spatial problem that involves several options and criteria.
Mineral potential mapping (MPM) is a frontier task often conducted
during exploration targeting program with a view to confining an
additional exploration work to promising areas, where further investi­
gation gives the most returns on resource and time investments (Nyka­
nen an Salmirinne, 2007; Hosseinali and Alesheikh, 2008; Abedi et al.,
2013; Yousefi and Carranza, 2015a; Sanusi and Amigun, 2020a). Min­
eral potential map of an area is often sourced from various exploration
datasets (e.g. geological, geophysical and geochemical data) to produce
a predictive model for resource management (Abedi et al., 2016; Sanusi
and Amigun, 2020a). Moreover, it can as well reduce environmental
impacts on aquatics, crop, groundwater quality, land, flora and fauna
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Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
succession, and humans within a geologically permissible setting
(Sanusi and Amigun, 2020).
Ilesha schist belt belongs to one of the major schist belts in Nigeria.
The geology of the schist belt has been mapped and studied in the
following localities: Maru, Anka, Zuru, Kazaure, Kusheriki, Zungeru,
Kushaka, Iseyin, Oyan, Iwo and Ilesha (Fig. 1). It is widely known that
the aforementioned Nigerian schist belts are associated with gold min­
eralisation (Obaje, 2009). Rocks in Ilesha schist belt are reported to be
structurally divided into two major fracture zones, the Iwaraja fault in
the east and Ifewara fault in the western part of the Schist belt (Elueze,
1986; Folami, 1992; Kayode, 2006). The Ifewara fault zone is one of the
longest linear features in the Nigerian basement complex. It stretches
from east of Ijebu Ode through Ifewara and Okemesi to the basin of the
River Niger south of Lafiagi. Hubbard (1975) suggested a possible link
between the fault and the subsurface Okitipupa Ridge in the Atlantic
Ocean. Beyond the Nupe Basin, it extends northeastwards through
Zungeru as the Zungeru mylonites (Ajibade, 1979) and beyond. Ilesha
schist belt is thought to be traversed by a major NNE-SSW fault zone that
extends southwards to Omifunfun area, and northwards to Ifewara with
a major bifurcation that passes through Iwaraja (Anifowose and Ade­
tunji, 2015; Adelusi et al., 2013).
There are two main forms of gold mineralisation occurrences in the
Ilesha Schist belt namely, the primary and the alluvial gold minerali­
sation (Akande et al., 1992; Ajayi and Ogedengbe, 2003). The primary
mineralisation is disseminated in quartz veins, and it is associated with
gneisses or lithologies of the schist belt. Wright et al. (1985) suggested
that orogenic gold mineralisation in the Ilesha schist belt occurs with
veins, lenses, stringers, reefs and similar bodies of quartz,
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fig. 3. Residual magnetic anomaly (RMA) map of the study area.

Table 1 Table 4
Pairwise comparison matrix table for the mineralisation indices. Class ratings for the mineralogical indices.
Ld Lt An Mineralogical Classes Potential for Rating Normalized
Indices Mineralization (R) Weight (w)
Ld 1 5 7
Lt 1/5 1 3 Lineament 0 - 0.7947 Very Low 1 0.7235
An 1/7 1/3 1 Density (Ld) 0.7947 - Low 2
Sum 47/35 19/3 11 1.4006 Medium 3
1.406 - High 4
Lineament Density –Ld; Lithology –Lt, Anisotropy-An. 2.1222 Very High 5
2.1222 -
3.2004
Table 2 3.2004 -
Determination of relative weights for the mineralogical indices. 3.8526
Lithology (Lt) Amphibolite Very High 5 0.1932
Ld Lt An Weights Amphibolite Very High 5
Ld 35/47 15/19 7/11 0.7235 Schist Very High 5
Lt 7/47 3/19 3/11 0.1932 Quartz Schist High 4
An 5/47 1/19 1/11 0.0833 Quartzite Medium 3
Sum 1 1 1 ~1 Granite Very Low 1
Gneiss
Migmatite
Gneiss
Table 3 Anisotropy 1.00 - 1.28 Very Low 1 0.0833
Determination of consistency vector. (An) 1.28 - 1.62 Low 2
1.62 – 1.96 Medium 3
λmax 1.96 – 2.30 High 4
˃2.30 Very High 5
Ld 47/35(0.7235) 0.9716
Lt 19/3 (0.1932) 1.2236
An 11 (0.0833) 0.9163
Sum 3.1115 belt (Ghanbari et al., 2014; Zhang and Zhou, 2015; Akinlalu et al.,
2018). In line with the appealed findings established in these afore­
mentioned studies, engaging the similar conceptual modeling technique
quartz-feldspar-tourmaline rocks. in the case of the Ilesha schist belt, where few or no surficial manifes­
Conceptual models such as analytical hierarchy process in the tations of gold mineralisation exist is a welcome task.
context of multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) are appropriate The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) being an expert-driven data
techniques for MPM in a frontier geologic setting like the Ilesha schist

4
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fig. 4. Total Horizontal Derivative (THD) of the RMA Map.

Fig. 5. Source edge detection (SED) map of the study area.

5
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 6. Map of Euler solutions for structural index N =0.0.
mining technique was introduced by Saaty (1980) and it is an effective
tool in dealing with complex situations like geologic processes involving
interrelated geological factors and mechanisms in order to obtain a
clearer insight of the subsurface geology ( Akinlalu et al., 2018; Omo­
suyi et al., 2020). The complexity that is known with gold mineralisation
can be simplified by a series of pairwise comparison among exploration
criteria i.e. the critical conditioning factors of the gold mineralisation
and evaluating the significance or relative weight of each of the explo­
ration criteria. The main impetus in involving AHP in this study is to
produce a reliable and unbiased mineral potential map of the Ilesha
schist belt in Nigeria by integrating the critical conditioning factors
(coefficient of anisotropy, lithology, and lineament) of gold minerali­
sation sourced from magnetic, electrical resistivity and geological
datasets and at same time, minimizing systemic uncertainties that usu­
ally affect mineral potential mapping (Lisitsin et al., 2014; Zhang and
Zhou, 2015). Although several researches have been conducted in the
Ilesha schist belt to unravel the modes of occurrence and characteristics
of gold mineralisation, within the context of the literature review done
in this study, there is yet a mineral potential map for the Ilesha schist
belt in Nigeria.
It is on this premise that this research applied the analytical hierar­
chy process (AHP) modeling technique in the context of MCDA to
develop a reliable mineral potential map (MPM) for the study area. A
better understanding of the subsurface structural setting in part of the
Ilesha schist belt will also be achieved.
2. Geologic setting
The study area is close to the ancient city of Ilesha, southwestern
Nigeria and it spans between latitude 70 30’N – 70 38’N and longitude
40 30’E – 40 51’E (Fig. 2). It has a N-S trend with a length of over 200 km
and maximum width of 60 km in the south (Obaje, 2009). It consists of
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Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
two structural units with contrasting lithology, separated by the Ifewara
fault zone (Hubbard, 1975). Petrographic studies of the Ilesha schist belt
gave indications that the rocks have experienced shearing, banding and
foliations and also displayed preferred orientations, which suggest that
the area has experienced more than one episode of deformation (Ajibade
et al., 1979; Odeyemi, 1981; Odeyemi, 1993; Anifowose and Borode,
2007; Ademeso, 2013; Adeoti and Okonkwo, 2017).
The western unit consists of amphibolite, amphibolite schist and the
pelitic schist with intimately associated trondhjemitic granite, gneiss
and pegmatite. It shows a moderately open style of folding with N-S
axes.
Metamorphism is mainly in the amphibolite facies, but locally in the
greenschist facies (Obaje, 2009). Quartzite is dominant at the eastern
part of the study area. The quartzite occurs in association with quartz
schist, quartzo- feldspathic gneiss and minor iron rich schists. Associa­
tion of mafic and ultramafic rocks with metamorphosed granitic rocks
and extensive pegmatites is similar to that found in the Anka
meta-igneous complex in northwest Nigeria. The Ilesha schist belt is
known for its mineralisation potential, particularly for gold minerali­
sation. Adjacent to the gold-bearing veins, the granite-gneiss has been
hydrothermally altered to a sericite-chlorite epidote assemblage
(Akanmu et al., 2019). The study area is underlain by amphibolites,
amphibolite schist, quartz schists, quartzite intruded by granite now
deformed into gneisses (Granite-gneiss) and migmatite gneiss (Fig. 2).
3. Methodology
The research methodology involves data acquisition, processing,
analysis, interpretation, data mining and validation.
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 7. Combined THD, SED AND SI=0 map of the study area (THD-Shaded Relief.
3.1 Data acquisition
The aeromagnetic map, the geological map on scale 1: 250,000 and
topographical maps on scale 1:50,000 were obtained from the Nigerian
Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) and Federal Surveys of Nigeria. The
aeromagnetic data was collected at a constant flight height of 80 m
above sea level, while the flight line spacing of 500 m and tie line
spacing of 2000 m were maintained in the course of the survey. The
flight line direction was NW-SE and the tie lines were NE-SW. To allow
easy processing, the data was stripped of 32,000 nT. The data collection
and processing, being financed by the Federal Ministry of Mines and
Steel Development of Nigeria, were done in 2006 by Fugro Airborne
survey. The magnetometer used is a 3X Scintrex, CS3 Cesium vapour
magnetometer. The Earth main field strength = 32902 nT, inclination =
-10.052, and declination = -2.822 in the area were obtained from the
international geomagnetic reference field using the IGRF- Epoch of the
year 2005 on the magnetic calculator to carry-out reduction-to-equator
transformation. Oasis MontajTM geophysical software was used to
process and analyse the magnetic dataset (Geosoft, 2005).
The electrical resistivity survey involved the use of SAS 4000 ABEM
Terrameter. Vertical electrical sounding (VES) technique using the
Schlumberger configuration was used to acquire the 1D electrical re­
sistivity data. Two hundred and sixty-five (265) VES points were occu­
pied and distributed across the study area, with electrode spacing (AB/
2) ranging from 1 to 100 m (Fig. 2). The geochemical data were obtained
from the works of Ariyibi (2008) and Arisekola et al. (2007).
3.2 Data analysis, processing and interpretation
The signal-to-noise ratio of the magnetic data was enhanced by
removing the effect of shallow magnetic sources, as described by
Jacobsen (1987). The reduction-to-equator transformation was per­
formed on the magnetic data that was corrected for effect of shallow
7
Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
sources. The RTE transformation removes the asymmetry associated
with magnetic anomalies of low latitude and the effect of magnetic
inclination by centering the peaks of the magnetic anomalies over their
causative magnetic sources (Gilbert and Galdeano, 1985; Oyeniyi et al.,
2016).
Residualisation of magnetic anomalies involve the estimation of
presumably regional magnetic field (i.e. the deep-seated and long
wavelength magnetic sources) and subsequent removal of the regional
field’s values from the observed total magnetic field values along grids.
The total magnetic intensity (TMI) data was upward continued to 5000
m and the resultant field was deducted from the TMI data to obtain
residual magnetic field (Fig. 3).
The residual magnetic field data was subjected through several data
enhancement techniques such as total horizontal derivative (THD),
source edge detection (SED) and Euler deconvolution (ED). The total
horizontal derivative (THD) filter was applied to locate edges of
anomalies and extract lineaments. The technique is the simplest
approach to estimate contact locations of geologic bodies at depths
(Parasnis, 1986; Ndougsa-Mbarga et al., 2012), while source edge
detection (SED) filter was also performed to improve on the isolation of
the lineaments. SED filter is based on the technique of Cordell and
Grauch (1987). The SED function estimates the location of abrupt lateral
changes in magnetisation or mass density of upper crustal rocks through
the identification of anomaly maxima on a grid of horizontal gradient
magnitudes. 3D Euler deconvolution also assisted in delineating struc­
tures favouring mineralisation in the study area in terms of depths and
spatial locations. Possible depths to the delineated fractured zones were
estimated from the 3D Euler deconvolution solutions. 3D Euler decon­
volution, as described by Thompson (1982) in solving for Euler’s ho­
mogeneity equation, was adopted for the study. The Euler’s
homogeneity equation relates the magnetic field and its gradient com­
ponents to the location of the source of an anomaly. The degree of ho­
mogeneity expressed as a structural index is also an essential component
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fig. 8. Lineament density map of the study area.

of the Euler’s homogeneity equation (Yaghoobian et al., 1992). Struc­ longitudinal resistivity, transverse resistivity and coefficient anisotropy
tural index of 0, which is typical of lithological contact with large depth are as shown in Eqs. (2), (3) and (4), respectively.
throw, was found appropriate for the delineation of geologic structures ∑
hi
favourable to mineralisation in this study. Details of the methodology on ρL = ∑ (2)
hi/ρi
the magnetic data enhancement techniques can be found in Parasnis
(1986), Telford et al. (1990), Sharma (1997) and Reeves (2005). ∑
hiρi
The electrical resistivity data was processed by plotting the apparent ρe = ∑ (3)
hi
resistivity values against the electrode spread (AB/2). This was subse­
quently interpreted quantitatively with WinResist 1.0 version software √̅̅̅̅̅
ρe
using the partial curve matching method and computer assisted 1-D λ= (4)
ρL
forward modeling (Vander-Velpen, 2004). From the first order geo­
electric parameters (layer resistivities and thicknesses), the Dar Zarrouk where hi = thickness of layer “i” and ρi = resistivity of layer ‘i’.
parameters were obtained. These parameters, which are the secondary In an anisotropic medium, λ is > 1, unlike in isotropic medium where
geoelectric parameters, include the total longitudinal unit conductance ρe = ρL andλ = 1.
(S), total transverse unit resistance (T) and coefficient of anisotropy (λ). Therefore, the λ is an index to degree of fracturing such that the
The coefficient of anisotropy (λ) is a measure of the degree of in­ higher the ‘λ’, the higher the fracturing. Details of how λ can be derived
homogeneity arising from fracturing, faulting, jointing and weathering from geo-electric parameters can be found in the works of Iduma et al.
of rocks (Maliek and Bhattacharya, 1973). Thus, the λ is related to the (2016) and Oladunjoye et al. (2019).
degree of secondary porosity as obtained in the crystalline rocks of the Three parameters were considered to favour gold mineralisation in
basement complex as shown in equation 1. the study area. The parameters include lineament density (Ld), lithology
λ = f (s) (1) (Lt) and coefficient of anisotropy (An). Lineaments were extracted from
the information obtained from the derivative filters, the total horizontal
where “s” is the secondary porosity. derivative (THD), source edge detection (SED) and 3D Euler deconvo­
In order to estimate the secondary porosity (s), longitudinal re­ lution techniques. Lineaments showing consistent trends from the three
sistivity (ρL) and transverse resistivity (ρe) were determined from the derivative techniques (THD, SED and ED) were selected as the linea­
geo-electrical parameters. The mathematical expressions for ments controlling gold mineralisation in the study area. The lineament

8
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 9. Coefficient of anisotropy map of the study area showing the VES locations.
density is a measurable quantity derived from the lineament map. The
Lineament density (Ld) is the total length of all recorded lineaments
divided by the area under consideration This is expressed as in Eq. (5):
∑n
i=1 Li
Ld = (5)
A
∑
where ni=1 Li = sum of the length of all the lineaments picked (km) and
A = area of the grid (km).
3.3 The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) modeling technique
The data mining technique for the study adopted the MCDA in the
context of AHP, as presented by Saaty (1980). The details of the pro­
cedures of MCDA can be obtained in Adiat et al. (2012), Akinlalu et al.
(2017) and Omosuyi et al. (2020).
The pairwise comparison of the four factors selected for the study
produces a 4 by 4 matrix (Table 1). The diagonal elements of the matrix
being 1 is due to the fact that every factor or parameter is as important as
itself. The upper triangular matrix is filled using the following rules by
Kardi (2006):
(i) If the judgment value is on the left side of 1, we put the actual
judgment value.
(ii) If the judgment value is on the right side of 1, we put the
reciprocal value.
9
Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
The matrix can be concluded by filling the lower triangular matrix
with the reciprocal of the upper diagonal matrix. This is obvious on the
Table 1 as the elements in the first row are 1, 5 and 7. Consequently, the
elements in the first column will be the reciprocal which are 1, 1/5, and
1/7.
This process is repeated to obtain the pairwise comparison for all the
factors selected for consideration in this study.
Weight describes the degree of influence of each factor with respect
to the mineralisation potential of the study area. They are expressed as
percentage of 1. Table 2 shows how the factors weightage were deter­
mined. Lineament density was assigned the highest normalized weight
value of 0.7235 and can be expressed to be approximately 72%. Li­
thology was assigned weight value of 0.1932, which is approximately 19
%. Anisotropy was assigned the lowest weight value of 0.0833 and can
be expressed to be approximately 8%. The weights were obtained by
estimating the average of all the elements of each row.
Although the pairwise matrix and weight assignment of the factors
considered for mineralisation were already presented in Tables 1 and 2,
there is a need to consider the consistencies of this assertions. This
consistency check is essential to verify the reliability of the assigned
weights. The results were obtained from the product of the vector sum
and the assigned weightage (Table 3). The expression for the consistency
check is as in Eq. (6)
(λmax − n)
CI = , (6)
(n − 1)
where λmax – Principal Eigen value, is the summation of products be
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fig. 10. Mineralisation potential map (MPM) of the study area (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.).

Table 5
Mining pits in the study area including their corresponding geographic coordinates, direction of trenches and mineral mined in the area.
Easting Northing Pit Number Location Trench direction Mineral mined Geologic Unit Mined

684282 834072 Pit 1 Itikan N-S Gold Amphibolite

684924 832612 Pit 2 Igun N-S Gold Amphibolite
702070 832436 Pit 3 Iperindo NE-SW Gold Granite gneiss
701311 834393 Pit 4 Omogbara NE-SW Gold Granite gneiss/Quartzite contact
702859 832495 Pit 5 Iperindo NE-SW Gold Granite gneiss
683493 832553 Pit 6 Itagunmodi N-S Gold Amphibolite
681711 833371 Pit 7 Itagunmodi N-S Gold Amphibolite
695235 838979 Pit 8 Ajubu N-S Gold Quartz Schist
694739 839242 Pit 9 Ajubu N-S Gold Quartz Schist
701340 833868 Pit 10 Omogbara NE-SW Gold Granite gneiss/Quartzite contact
686138 840907 Pit 11 Ibodi NE-SW Gold Amphibolite Schist
687670 834539 Pit 12 Epe N-S Gold Amphibolite Schist
683522 835825 Pit 13 Agbao N-S Gold Amphibolite
683590 831204 Pit 14 Ariyelepe NE-SW Gold Amphibolite

tween each element of Eigen vector and the sum of columns of the
0.0558
reciprocal matrix; n = no of criteria in level 1 of the AHP hierarchy, CI = CR = = 0.0961 (9)
0.58
consistency index (Eq. (7)).
Since 0.096 < 0.1, it thus implies that there is a relatively high level
(3.1115 − 3)
CI = = = 0.0558 (7) of consistency in the pairwise comparison. Thus, the weights assigned to
(3 − 1) lineament density, lithology and anisotropy are plausible.
Recall, RI for n = 3 is 0.58, where RI = Random index Also, each thematic layer was rated based on their contribution to
Using the Eq. (8): mineralisation potential. For simplicity and convenience, they were
grouped into five classes. Thus, lineament density, and anisotropy were
CI
CR = (8) grouped into five classes. As it applies to the study area, the lithology
RI ′ thematic layer was also rated accordingly on the basis of the contribu­
where CR = consistency ratio tion of each of the rocks to mineralisation potential. The lithology in­
formation was obtained from the geological map of the area. Ratings
were done through the assessment of experts and information obtained

10
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fig. 11. Mineralisation potential map of the study area showing existing mining pits and new prospect location.

Table 6 Table 7
Validation result from mining pits. Threshold and crustal abundance for elements analysed (Arisekola et al.,
Pits
2007;Ariyibi, 2008)
Low Moderate High Element Threshold/Crustal abundance (ppm)
Pit 1 (Itikan) ✓ Failed Pb 4.5
Pit 2 (Igun) ✓ Failed Zn 0.2
Pit 3 (Iperindo) ✓ Passed Mn 10
Pit 4 (Omogbara) ✓ Passed Ag 0.07
Pit 5 (Iperindo) ✓ Passed Au 0.04
Pit 6 (Itagunmodi) ✓ Passed
pit 7 (Itagunmodi) ✓ Passed
Pit 8 (Ajubu) ✓ Passed indices in the area.
Pit 9 (Ajubu) Passed
Mineralisation potential index is the sum of products of weights (W)
✓
Pit 10 (Omogbara) ✓ Passed
Pit 11 (Ibodi) ✓ Passed and ratings (R) over all factors used for the evaluation. The weighted
Pit 12 (Epe) ✓ Passed linear combination (WLC) is applied according to Eq. (10) (modified
Pit 13 (Agbao) ✓ Failed after Eastman 1996) to estimate the MPI from the three rasterised the­
Pit 14 (Ariyelepe) ✓ Passed matic maps.
% of Agreement = 11/14 × 100 = 79 %
∑
MPI = Wi Ri (10)
from literatures. Olajide-Kayode et al. (2020) reported that results from
where Wi is the weight (w) of parameter i and Ri is the rating score (R) of
geochemical analysis in parts of Ilesha schist belt reveals that quartz
parameter, i.
schist, amphibolite schist and quartzite in that order holds high con­
The mineral potential index for the study area was obtained using Eq.
centration of gold. The conclusions of the works of Olajide-Kayode et al.
(10) by applying Eq. (11) to the grid locations. The weights are then
(2020) assisted in rating the lithology in this study. This information was
substituted into the equation such that Eq. (10) becomes:
garnered through questionnaires in agreement with the methodological
approach of AHP. It should be noted that the opinion of the experts is MPI = 0.72LdR + 0.19LtR + 0.08AnR (11)
also constrained with the knowledge of the authors about the geology of
the study area. Table 4 shows the class ratings for the mineralogical where LdR = Lineament density rating; LtR = Lithology rating; AnR =

11
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Table 8 predominantly in the NE-SW direction, thereby suggesting prominent

Elemental concentration of selected elements analysed by Arisekola et al. (2007) effect of the Pan African orogeny. Few areas display E-W and NW-SE
and Ariyibi (2008). trends, which are an indication of the relics of the effect of Eburnean
Easting Northing Sample Points Pb Zn Mn and Liberian orogeny (Odeyemi, 1988).
689319.3 832309.5 S1 2.77 0.114 2.28
The NE-SW trending structures are observed at locations such as
689893.8 833559 S2 0 0 1.42 Igun, Iperindo, Itagunmodi and Omogbara, to mention a few, where
690320.1 835072 S3 1.24 0.367 4.09 mining activities are currently going on. Generally, Ilesha schist area is a
701245.8 830923.1 S4 3.82 0 3.18 highly fractured terrain as evident from the various structures delin­
700579.7 834495.9 S5 0 0.24 2.75
eated. This attests to the orientation of trenches being dug by local
698503.5 836407.7 S6 1.76 0.139 4.01
696247.3 838594.9 S7 4.66 0.08 5.64 miners at various locations, and confirms the presumption that miner­
681955 832067 S8 1.45 0.298 2.9 alisation in this study area is structurally controlled.
681986.2 833572.4 S9 3.41 0.394 21.9
682538.9 834384.5 S10 1.91 0.11 3.05 4.3 3-D Euler inversion for SI of 0
682905.4 837195.1 S11 5.6 0.33 10.26
683767.6 838542.3 S12 0 0.037 13.12
685335.6 839724.9 S13 0 0.197 7.47 Fig. 6 is the map of the Euler solutions obtained for structural index
685329.5 839724.8 S14 0 0.056 10.45 of 0.0. This map represents lithological contacts and lineament features.
685289.1 835891 S15 0 0.096 14.53 Hsu (2002) suggested that SI of 0 delineates contact with large depth
685203.9 839690.5 S16 3.12 0.356 6.6
extent. Major contact and dykes denoted as (C/D) were observed around
688273.2 834734.9 S17 0 0 22.27
686436.8 834030.8 S18 8.05 0.242 18.88 Iperindo, Omogbara, Iwara and Itagunmodi and are found to approxi­
685774.4 835984.6 S19 5.67 0.058 15.23 mately trend in the NE-SW and W-E directions. The depth to the mag­
687421.1 834791.4 S20 2.47 0 19.79 netic sources delineated from the 3D Standard Euler results range from
686677.8 834323.6 S21 7.46 0.311 7.32 about 94 to 512 m. The NE-SW solutions are presumed to be charac­
687275.5 835705.9 S22 0 0 7.08
688208.4 835708.8 S23 2.84 0.1 3.97
teristic of geologic contacts/ fault/lineament features, which agree with
Ag Au the geology and structural style of the study area.
689561 835242 S24* 1.2 2
699997 837371 S25* 1.4 5 4.4 Extraction of lineaments
704173 841211 S26* 2 2
680441 843966 S27* 2.4 2
Fig. 7 shows the Euler solutions (SI = 0) and the SED lineaments
S1 - S23 = Data from Ariyibi (2008); S24*- S27* = Data from Arisekola et al. superimposed on the THD map of the study area. The map shows that
(2007) there is a high level of consistency in the lineaments delineated from
Blue colourations indicate elemental concentrations beyond Crustal Abundance
both techniques. The maxima on the THD tends to agree with contin­
Note: Units are in Parts per Million (ppm)
uous clustering on the SI of 0 and the lines identified as lineaments on
the SED. Some of the consistencies were observed particularly in the
Anisotropy rating central part of the study area. Areas around Omogbara and Iperindo in
Validation of the mineralisation potential map (MPM) of the study the southeastern part of the study area also show the agreement.
area was carried out in tripartite; (i) by posting the coordinates of the The western part of the study area also displayed a high level of
existing pits where mining activities were going on in the study area to consistency in the structural trend, especially across towns like Iperindo,
see the degree of correlation or agreement with field activities; (ii) Ajubu, Itagunmodi, Iwara, Omogbara, Igun and Ariyelepe, where min­
geochemical information from the works of Ariyibi (2008) in the study ing activities are already going on. This western part of the study area
area, and (iii) use of the multi-element baseline geochemical studies of also shows a significant agreement with the delineated structures
Ilesha Sheet 243 carried out by Arisekola et al. (2007) on behalf of approximately trending in the NE-SW direction, and some in approxi­
NGSA. Elements such as Pb, Zn, Mn, Ag and Au that have been identified mately E-W direction. This suggests that the mineralisation is structur­
in the works of Nude et al. (2012) as pathfinders for gold mineralisation ally controlled. ArcGis 10.0 software was used to digitise and generate
were considered for the validation. Areas where the elemental compo­ the lineaments map from which lineament density map of the study area
sition are beyond crustal abundance are presumed to be mineralised. was produced based on Eq. (5).

4. Results and discussion 4.5 Map; SED-black shaded lines and SI (0)-coloured continuous circles)

4.1 Total horizontal derivative map
The results of the total horizontal derivative (THD) technique
applied to the RMA is presented as colour shaded relief map in Fig. 4. On
the THD map, peaks (maxima) are observed over contacts (Oyeniyi
et al., 2016). Fig. 4 shows major contact locations that were inferred as
laterally continuous dykes in areas around Itagunmodi, Ariyelepe,
Iwara, Ajubu, Omogbara and Iperindo. The amplitude of the gradient
reaches up to about 0.1039 nT/m on the THD map, with major struc­
tures striking approximately in the NE-SW and W-E directions. These
structures are prominent in most of the study area.
4.2 Source edge detection map
Fig. 5 reveals the SED map of the study area used in the delineation of
abrupt lateral changes in magnetisation. Continuous, thin and curvi­
linear solutions are typical of contact between rock units and major
geologic structures in the study area. The delineated structures trend
Factor selection using the multi criteria decision analysis (MCDA)
Lineament and lineament density map Lineaments are surface mani­
festations of structurally controlled subsurface features such as fractures
(faults and or Joints), which play a great role in the movement and
storage of minerals (Akinlalu et al., 2017). The lineament density is a
measurable quantity derived from the lineament. Some parts of the
Ilesha belt are relatively dense in terms of lineaments. Majorly, the
lineaments are denser in the central part of the study location (Fig. 8).
The lineaments trend predominantly in the NE-SW direction, with few
approximately in the E-W orientation. These structures serve as hosts for
mineral accumulation. Therefore, the high density of lineaments around
areas like Itagunmodi, Iwara, Omogbara, Iperindo, Ariyelepe and Ajubu,
where mining activities are currently going on suggests that the occur­
rence of minerals in the study area is structurally controlled. Although
mining activity is going on around Igun, the lineament density is very
low thereby suggesting that the gold mineralisation in Igun might be
probably more of alluvial deposits than being controlled by structures.
Lineament and lineament density maps of the study area suggest an area

12
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 12. Mineralisation potential map of the study area showing geochemical sampling points (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.).
with a relatively good mineral deposition potential. In addition to the
areas where mining activities are on-going, the geologic structures
delineated around localities in the central and western parts of the study
area where mining activities are not being recorded have been identified
as potentially mineralised zones.
5. Lithology
The lithology thematic layer has already been shown in the geolog­
ical map of the study area in Fig. 2. Six rock types characterize the
studied location. These belong to the Proterozoic Ilesha schist belt of
southwestern Nigeria. The rocks in the area are namely amphibolite,
amphibolite schist, granite gneiss, quartzite, quartz schist and migmatite
gneiss. The map was then classified on the basis of its potential for
mineralisation. The classifications served as major factors put into
consideration in rating the mineralisation potential of the rock units.
Migmatite gneiss was rated very low while granite gneiss was rated to
have medium potential for mineralisation. Quartzite and quartz schist
potential ranges from high to very high potential, while Amphibolite
and Amphibolite Schist are rated to have very high potential for min­
eralisation. Rating was based on expert opinion and literature review.
5.1 Coefficient of anisotropy (λ)
The basement complex rocks are significantly anisotropic and thus
exhibits a high degree of heterogeneity (Billing, 1972; Malik and Bhat­
tacharya, 1973). The inhomogeneities arise from near surface effects,
variable degree of weathering and structural features such as faults,
13
Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
fractured zones, networks of joints, foliation and bedding which controls
groundwater yield and mineral accumulation ( Akintorinwa et al.,
2020). The λ values measure the degree of inhomogeneity in the study
area and thus very relevant in predicting the mineralisation potential.
High degree of anisotropy is indicative of basement structures with good
subsurface impression relevant to the occurrence of mineral resources.
Fig. 9 is the coefficient of anisotropy map of the study area. The map
reveals the distribution of λ value in the area and it allows for under­
standing the structural framework of the study area.
Using the anisotropy classification of Adiat et al. (2018) in Ilesha
area, the anisotropy value of 1.00–1.28 is regarded as very low while λ
ranging from 1.28 to 1.62 is classified to be low. Moderate anisotropy
values range from 1.62–1.96, while high degree of anisotropy ranges
from 1.96 to 2.30. Very high degree of anisotropy ranges from > 2.30.
High to very high anisotropy degree is observed around Ajubu, Iperindo
and Omogbara. High degree of anisotropy suggests highly heteroge­
neous areas, with greater degree of development of secondary porosity,
such as fracturing. The fracturing is suspected to be responsible for the
mining activities going on around the area. However, same cannot be
said of areas around Itagunmodi and Iwara, where mining activities are
also going on and their anisotropy is within the very low to low category.
This might be as a result of the high degree of weathering of the schist at
greater depth (Thomas, 1966; Charles, 2013). This probably resulted
into the low values of the coefficient of anisotropy around the area,
though the rocks are believed to be highly fractured and faulted in the
area.
A.A. Akinlalu et al.
Fig. 13. Geochemical analysis bar chart for samples S1–S27.
5.2 Mineralisation potential index map of the study area
The mineralisation potential map of the study area was produced by
applying weighted overlay in the ArcGis environment after the MPI
indices have been applied for each of the grids. The output is as observed
in Fig. 10 which is the mineralisation potential map of the study area.
The study area is thus classified into three potential zones for mineral­
isation denoted as low, moderate and high. Low potential zones denoted
by deep blue colouration are observed mainly around Oke Ana and
Ilesha township. The low potential zones dominate the study area. Areas
with moderate mineralisation potential are distributed across the stud­
ied locations.
The moderate to high mineralized zones are found in areas around
Iperindo, Omogbara, Iwara, Ariyelepe, Itagunmodi, Ibodi and Ajubu
among others. High mineralisation potential zone is only observed in
Iperindo, Omogbara and Iwara thus making the areas a prime target
for exploitation.
14
Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026
6. Validation of the mineralisation potential map of the study
area
6.1 Validation from existing mining pits
Mining pits identified in the study area are presented in Table 5, with
the mining pits designated Pit 1 to Pit 14. The observed pits were pre­
dominantly mined for gold by the artisanal miners in the studied loca­
tions. The mining pit positions were subsequently posted on the MCDA-
AHP model as shown in Fig. 11. It was observed that the mining pits in
Iperindo and Omogbara fall within the moderate to high potential zones.
Same scenario was also observed around Ajubu, Itagunmodi, Ibodi, Epe
and Ariyelepe amongst others. However, pits around Itikan and Agbao
fall within the low potential zones. On the fourteen mining pits identi­
fied, eleven (11) falls within the moderate to high potential zones,
suggesting approximately 79 % accuracy of the mineralisation potential
model (Table 6). New prospects were also observed around areas like
Iyemogun with very high mineralisation potential and also around
Ikoromaja, Eyinta, Iyere, Oke Asa, Aye-Ile where mining activities are
presently on low ebb.
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Table 9 conceptual MPM model developed for the study area, while four (4)
Validation result from geochemical sampling points. representing 15 % failed to be in agreement (Table 9).
Geochemical sample points Therefore, the percentage of agreement shows a relatively high de­
Low Moderate High gree of accuracy of the mineralisation potential map and also the reli­
S 1 (*) ✓ Passed ability of the methodology adopted for this research.
S 2 (*) ✓ Failed
S3 ✓ Passed 7. Conclusions
S 4 (*) ✓ Passed
S5 ✓ Passed
S6 ✓ Passed
This study has integrated magnetic, electrical resistivity and
S7 ✓ Passed geological data to understand the subsurface structural setting of part of
S8 ✓ Passed Ilesha Schist belt. The research applies the multi-criteria decision anal­
S9 ✓ Passed ysis (MCDA) in the context of analytical hierarchy process (AHP) to
S 10 (*) Passed
✓
develop a conceptual model for the mineralisation potential of the study
S 11 ✓ Passed
S 12 ✓ Passed area. Data were integrated in the GIS environment.
S 13 ✓ Failed The magnetic derivatives maps, particularly the total horizontal
S 14 ✓ Passed derivative (THD), revealed major contact locations that are continuous
S 15 ✓ Passed in the study area. The major structures delineated trends approximately
S 16 ✓ Passed
S 17 ✓ Passed
in the NE-SW and W-E directions.
S 18 ✓ Passed The source edge detection (SED) filter allows abrupt lateral changes
S 19 ✓ Passed in magnetisation to be mapped and assists in the delineation of contin­
S 20 ✓ Passed uous, thin, curvilinear solutions typical of contacts between rock units in
S 21 Passed
✓
the study area. These delineated geologic structures are predominantly
S 22 ✓ Passed
S 23 ✓ Failed trending in the NE-SW direction, with few in the W-E and NW-SE di­
S 24 ✓ Passed rections. NE-SW and NW-SE trending shows prominent effect of the Pan-
S 25 ✓ Passed African orogeny with the W-E structures probably relics of the effect of
S 26 ✓ Failed Liberian orogeny.
S 27 ✓ Passed
% of Agreement = 23/27 × 100 = 85 %
The application of the 3D Euler deconvolution techniques on the
residual anomaly map using structural indices (SI) of 0 assisted in the
identification of geologic structures such as contacts, fractures/faults
6.2 Validation from existing geochemical data and dykes in terms of depth and location. The results showed that the
depths to magnetic sources and structures are both near surface and
The threshold in (ppm)/ crustal abundance of the elements that are deep. The near surface structures delineated often coincide with areas
relevant to gold mineralisation are presented on Table 7. When the where mining activities are currently going on in the study area. The
elemental composition is beyond the normal threshold or crustal abundance of solutions observed when SI of 0 was applied suggests that
abundance as the case may be, it can be interpreted as being signifi­ the Ilesha schist belt is characterised by mineralised dykes.
cantly abundant. Elements with higher concentration than the crustal Coefficient of anisotropy was obtained from the geo-electric pa­
abundance are regarded to be rich in the area and thus will contribute to rameters of the study area. The anisotropy values range from 1.00 to
the mineralisation in the study location. For each of the samples, 2.87 with most locations falling within 1.0. This observation suggests
elemental composition beyond the threshold or crustal abundance were the study area is relatively homogenous. This odd situation in a base­
identified as blue colour on Table 8. Table 8 shows the twenty-seven ment complex and a highly fractured environment like Ilesha might be
(27) locations of the soil sampled from previous studies within the as a result of the high degree of weathering that is typical of a schist belt
study area. The sampled locations were denoted with S1 to S27 with environment.
S24*, S25*, S26* and S27* indicating the points selected from the data MCDA in the context of AHP was applied to three subsurface factors
obtained from the works of Arisekola et al. (2007). The elemental that is believed to favour mineralisation in the study area. The factors
composition is produced as bar chart for each sampling point. The re­ were lineament density, lithology and coefficient of anisotropy. The
sults were now superimposed on the MPM map for correlation (Fig. 12). lineament density was derived from the magnetic derivatives, lithology
It was observed that samples S1, S2, S4, S5, S6, S10 and S23 showed from the geological map and coefficient of anisotropy from the electrical
little or no elemental composition beyond the threshold, thus can be resistivity data. Weight assignment was done by relying on expert
categorized as non- mineralised. This showed considerable agreement judgements constrained with the understanding of the geology of the
with the MPM as samples S1, S4, S6 and S10 falls within the low min­ area. Consistency of judgement was relatively high at 0.09 which is less
eralisation potential zones. However, it was observed that samples S2 than the recommended 1.0.
and S23 falls within the moderate to high potential zones for minerali­ For the study, the lineament density was assigned the highest weight
sation thereby showing disagreement with the developed model. of 72.3 %, lithology, 19.3 % and Anisotropy 8.3 %. The product of the
Moreover, S26 show high crustal abundance of several elements as ratings and weights assisted in classifying Ilesha schist belt to be of low,
revealed in Fig. 12. This sampling point (i.e. S26) fall within the low moderate and high mineralisation potential. Validation done by posting
potential mineralised zones, and thus failed to agree with the conceptual the mining pits identified across the study area resulted in 79 % accu­
model. More significantly, observations from most of the other sampling racy. Validation from the results of geochemical analyses obtained from
points fall within the moderate to high potential mineralised zones, the works of Arisekola et al. (2007) and Ariyibi (2008) gave accuracy of
thereby proving the accuracy and reliability of the mineralisation po­ 85%. This shows a relatively very high degree of accuracy of the min­
tential map of the area. It is pertinent to point out that sample locations eralisation potential map and thus confirming the reliability of the
S24, S25 and S27 exceeded crustal abundance for gold (Au) and silver methodology adopted for this research.
(A) (Fig. 13). These sampling points (S24, 25 and 27) falls within the
moderate to high mineralised zones, thereby suggesting a strong cor­ Acknowledgement
relation with the conceptual model (MPM).
In summary, out of the twenty-seven (27) points sampled, twenty- The authors appreciate Federal University of Technology, Akure,
three (23) representing 85 % are in perfect correlation with the Nigeria for funding this research under the Tertiary Education Trust

15
A.A. Akinlalu et al. Results in Geophysical Sciences 7 (2021) 100026

Fund (Tetfund) 2014/2015 Research Grants Intervention. Appreciation Gabriel., BO., Martins., OO., Francis., AO., Lawrence, AO., 2014. A further
comprehensive approach to assessing the groundwater potential of the basement
also goes to Late Professor A.O. Adelusi who spared his precious time
complex terrain of ekiti state, southwestern Nigeria. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 3 (Issue
and energy to make this work a reality. Mr Akeredolu, B.E. assisted in 7), 35–46. VolumeJuly 2014 ISSN:2277-8616.
the production of relevant maps. Dr. Bawallah, Messers. Olomo, Ilugbo, Blakely, R.J., 1996. Potential theory in gravity and magnetic applications. Cambridge
Sodunke assisted during the data acquisition. Mr S.O. Sanusi really University Press, U.K.
Billings, M., 1972. Structural Geology, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffr. NJ. 1972.
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immensely grateful to the anonymous reviewers for improving the pp. 161–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-420018 0.00025-7. ISBN
quality of the paper. 9780124200180. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124200
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