Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-023-03207-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Near‑surface characterization and delineation of 2‑D shear wave

velocity profile from geologically complex landscape of Kangra Valley,
NW Himalaya, India
Ambrish Kumar Mahajan1 · Praveen Kumar1,2

Received: 24 February 2022 / Accepted: 4 April 2023 / Published online: 24 April 2023
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The geotechnical characterization for delineating stiffness parameters is important to aid safe engineering foundations. The
Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) was utilized to estimate shear wave velocity (Vs) profile and near-surface
material characterization. The initial reconnaissance surveys allow optimization of acquisition parameters for seismic data
recording that controls signal penetration and attenuation. The gathering of multiple records with several receivers in the
surface-wave inversion technique progressively enhanced the dynamic characterization of the sediments. The 2-D genetic
algorithm was used for the inversion of dispersion curve. The seismic data was processed to prepare multiple 1-D and 2-D
share wave velocity (Vs) profiles. The depth of exploration in 2-D profiling varied from 25 to 52 m. The average Vs of the
top 30 m soil column was used to classify the site as per National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) clas-
sification. The analysis reveals the majority of sites come under soil class D (­ Vs30 = 180–360 m/s) and class C (­ Vs30 = 360–
760 m/s). The response analysis performed for different sites reveals variation in spectral acceleration at 10 Hz (single-story
buildings) ranging from 0.09 to 0.5 g and at 5 Hz (double-story buildings) ranging from 0.13 to 1.7 g. The present study
also discusses the variation of stiffness parameters across the study region to understand the subsurface heterogeneities and
allowable bearing capacity for a safe engineering foundation for constructing earthquake-resilient in the area.

Keywords Geotechnical characterization · Multichannel analysis of surface waves · Seismic reflection · Site effect ·
Response analysis

Introduction unconsolidated sediments. Past earthquakes, such as Mexico

Natural disasters are inevitable events governed by natu-
ral forces that may lead to disastrous effects due to their
abnormal intensity. Earthquake is one of the worst natural
disasters that release intense energy in a short time and
brings huge devastation to infrastructure and lifelines. Dur-
ing an earthquake, the young sedimentary basin may suf-
fer unexpected damage due to varied site effects that arise
from the accumulation of energy pertaining to the difference
in impedance contrast between the bedrock and overlying
* Praveen Kumar
pk.hpkv@gmail.com
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University
of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamshala 176215, India
2
Department of Soil Science, CSK HPKV, Himachal Pradesh,
Palampur 176062, India
(1985) M 7.9, San Francisco (1989) M 7.1, Los Angeles
(1994) M 6.7, Bhuj (2001) M 7.7, and Nepal (2015) Mw 7.8,
have indicated the site amplification effect of soft sediments
due to low-frequency waves and varied damage distribution
from epicenter to the far away from the epicentre (Goda
et al. 2015; Prakash et al. 2016). This effect may arise due to
the diverse geomorphological features, geological structures
such as faults, folds, and varied sediment thickness result-
ing in varied impedance contrasts due to composition of the
underlying material (Mahajan et al. 2007; Ning et al. 2018).
The Kangra valley is located in a geologically complex
region of the northwest Himalaya, India and had witnessed
devastating damage on 4 April 1905 (Ms 7.8) and resulted in
a death toll of 20,000 people (Middlemiss 1910). This region
is still vulnerable to upcoming seismic hazards as the area is
located in proximity to several active tectonic zones. Despite
high vulnerability of the building to seismic hazard, only a
few studies are available on Deterministic Seismic Hazard

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Analysis (DSHA) and Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
(PSHA) (Mahajan et al. 2009; Mukhopadhyay and Dasgupta
2013; Patil et al. 2014), and some recent effort to find out
fundamental frequency (f0), amplification and bedrock depth
(Mahajan and Kumar 2018; Kumar and Mahajan 2021). The
varied thicknesses of alluvial/glaciated sediments above bed-
rock may strongly modify the ground motion characteristics
that have motivated to conduct site characterization studies.
Several geophysical methods, namely gravity, magnetic, elec-
tric, electromagnetic, and seismic, are being incorporated and
reviewed by many researchers for shallow as well as deeper
subsurface site characterization (Butler 2005; Milsom and
Eriksen 2011; Reynolds 2011; Sundararajan et al. 2018).
However, surface wave methods became quite popular in the
late 1980s, starting with two geophone setup, named Spectral
Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW). The SASW has been
extensively modified with the multiple geophone set-ups to
overcome the inherent drawback such as unwrapping error
and mode jumping associated with two geophone setup. In
the late 1990s, multiple geophones were well popularized for
smaller geotechnical engineering surveys and named Mul-
tichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) (Park et al.
1999; Lin et al. 2004). The MASW method made a valuable
contribution to near-surface seismic measurement by over-
coming the disadvantages of other surface wave methods.
These surface wave techniques utilize the dispersive proper-
ties of the Rayleigh wave to delineate the shear wave velocity
(Vs) structure. Presently, the MASW method is non-invasive
seismic survey widely used by many researchers to estimate
stiffness parameters for site characterization in different
regions of the world (Park et al. 1999; Xia et al. 1999, 2002;
Anbazhagan and Sitharam 2009; Brahma 2011; Mahajan and
Rai 2011; Tokeshi et al. 2013; Anukwu et al. 2018; Nath
et al. 2018; Taipodia et al. 2018). The MASW method has
also been tested in geologically complex environments to
produce a shear velocity profile (Mahajan 2009; Mahajan
et al. 2011; Anukwu et al. 2018).
The shear wave velocity (Vs) is the key input parameter
for the geotechnical engineer to design, prepare and redefine
existing building codes for improved engineering structures
(Kanli et al. 2006; Borcherdt 2012). Despite site characteri-
zation and site response studies, the MASW method was also
used for the delineation of fault zones (Ivanov et al. 2006),
bedrock relief and geological structure (Park 2016; Owoc
et al. 2019) and evaluation of multiple disasters such as land-
slides (Mihai et al. 2017), dissolution features, evaluation of
seismic hazard by microzonation studies (Hanumantharao
and Ramana 2008; Martinez‐Pagan et al. 2014; Kalinina
and Ammosov 2015; Mohamed et al. 2016), and soil lique-
faction potential and vulnerability analysis (Lin et al. 2004;
Singh et al. 2017; De Franco et al. 2019). The technique
has wide acceptance in the geophysical community to find
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
out the thickness of soft sediment and delineation of bed-
rock depth in terms of stiffness value of the soil column
(Park et al. 1999; Xia et al. 1999, 2002; Park and Miller
2004; Mahajan et al. 2007; Anbazhagan and Sitharam 2009;
Ismail et al. 2012; Gonsiewski 2015; Akin and Sayil 2016;
Anukwu et al. 2018). During dispersion analysis, some mode
may not be present in experimental data due to very smooth
changes from one mode to another, resulting in mode kissing
or osculation (Mi et al. 2020). Many researchers demon-
strated that mode kissing caused the higher mode energy is
to be identified as fundamental mode, especially in the area
with high strong velocity contrast and low-velocity layers
(Boaga et al. 2013; Gao et al. 2016; Mi et al. 2018). In such
conditions correct identification of multimodal dispersion
curves are prerequisite for obtaining reliable results and
avoiding errors in near-surface shear wave characterization.
Many efforts have been made to improve the accuracy and
resolution of MASW method for near-surface characteriza-
tion and detection of geological anomalies (Xia et al. 2003;
Wang et al. 2015; Ning et al. 2018). Researchers have tested
many options for dispersion analysis, such as the use of
Full Waveform Inversion (FWI) that fully utilize waveform
information (Pan et al. 2019) and the Multiscale Window
Analysis of Surface Waves (MWASW) method that uses a
forward algorithm for calculating the theoretical dispersion
curves (Hu et al. 2021). The MWASW in smaller spatial
windows provide higher lateral resolution compared to the
traditional MASW method. However, this method may over-
estimate the low-velocity zone compared to MASW method,
so the MASW was used in the Kangra valley for near-surface
characterization. The horizontal/lateral resolution is also
important to detect the subsurface anomalies that depend
upon many factors, such as the selection of data acquisi-
tion parameters and near surface wave velocity structure that
further show average results below the configuration of the
recording array (Park 2005; Xia et al. 2005; Mi et al. 2020).
The horizontal resolution depends upon receiver spread
length and source interval that decreases with increasing
depth and is “approximately one-half of the shortest Ray-
leigh wavelengths” (Mi et al. 2017).
The present study aimed to delineate the 1-D (depth) as
well as 2-D (depth as well as distance from the surface)
shear wave profile to delineate the lateral and vertical varia-
tion of sediments and the bedrock. The present study has sig-
nificance for optimal engineering to estimate seismic param-
eter stiffness value and response behavior of the soil column
on which the structure is to be raised. The target stakeholder
can use the surface wave velocities for future sustainable
earthquake-resistant development. The experimental results
obtained from the present study will help to recommend safe
engineering foundation as per National Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Program (NEHRP) site classification.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 3 of 13 184

Geological setting
The long-term Cenozoic shortening in the foreland basin
resulted in the formation of Kangra valley as a piggyback inter-
montane basin. The study area is a part of the Kangra re-entrant
that covers a sedimentary infill accumulated mainly in the last
glacial period with the exhumation of the Dhauladhar Range
(Deeken et al. 2011; Dey et al. 2016). The area comprises sedi-
ment derived from Shiwalik Group, namely Miocene-Pliocene
boulder conglomerate (Upper Siwaliks), late Miocene sandstone
(Middle Siwaliks), and middle Miocene claystone-siltstone
(Lower Siwaliks). The long-term convergence of the Indian
plates results in generation of the major thrust system, such
as the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) to the north and the
Jawalamukhi Thrust (JMT) to the south with lots of variations
in lithology, due to folded mountain belt (Fig. 1). The compres-
sional and the active tectonic resulted in the varied topographic
features such as ridges, valleys, and areas of moderate topogra-
phy. The tectonic setup is also intervened by the steeply dipping
conjugate wrench faults that extend from the Outer Himalayan
to Lesser Himalayan region (Mahajan et al. 2021). The fragile
lithology and active tectonics trigger fast erosion and subsequent
deposition in the low land area. The long-term sedimentation
and the climatic oscillation resulted in generation of fans with
glacial, interglacial, and quaternary deposits. The presence of
active tectonic and steep slopes triggers the development of fans,
terraces, and erosional features in the northern and central parts
of the basin. The fan area under Kangra Valley is classified in

Fig. 1  Map showing underly-

ing geology and location of
the sampling sites and selected
profiles in black dotted lines
with respect to Himachal
Pradesh, India. Abbreviations:
MCT = Main Central Thrust;
MBT = Main Boundary Thrust;
JT = Jawalamukhi Thrust; BrT
= Barser back Thrust; PT =
Panjal Thrust

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184 Page 4 of 13
upper fan with glacial moraines and clay-rich debris-flow depos-
its, middle fan is dominated by sandy fill deposits and the lower
fan is characterized by sand, silt, and mud deposits (Sah and
Srivastava 1992).
Study area
The study area is part of the Kangra valley situated in the
foothill region of Dhauladhar ranges, exposed as a rocky
batholithic body covered with seasonal snow. Geomor-
phologically, the region is characterized by high hills in
the northern extreme and moderate topography towards
the south. The southward flowing drainage from the steep
mountain brings huge sediments deposited to lower-fan
region. The broad alluvial fans and fluvial terraces result
from long-term sedimentation as supplemented by tectoni-
cally driven erosional processes. The northern zone near the
Dharamshala and the surrounding area gained more atten-
tion due to recent development as a major tourist place, air-
port, and stadium. Figure 1 shows the site covered under
the MASW survey in the area extending from the southern
slope of the Dhauladhar ranges to the moderate topography
and flat area. The data was recorded using an active seismic
survey from 67 sites.
Methodology
Data acquisition
The research methodology comprises seismic data collection
in the field and its processing for the generation of shear
wave velocity profiles. The locations of sites were recorded
with the handheld Global Positioning System (GPS; Fig. 1).
The seismic data was acquired using an engineering seismo-
graph and 24 geophones connected to a portable, rugged lap-
top (Panasonic Toughbook). A set of 24 geophones (4.5 Hz)
deployed in a linear array with an inter-geophone spacing
of 1 m. The seismic data was collected using Geometrics
Fig. 2   Instrumentation and the
layout for seismic data acquisi-
tion with active MASW method
showing a) geophone spread
with engineering seismograph
b) Propelled Energy Generator
(PEG-40) c) optional handheld
hammering with sledge hammer
along the survey line from dif-
ferent offset
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
Seismodule Controller (GCS) software for a sampling inter-
val 0.5 ms and a recording length of 1.024 s. The seismic
waves were generated with the impact source located at near
(1 m), middle (13 m), and far (25 m) offset. Figure 2 rep-
resents the field configuration in roll-along technique with
different offsets to cover the linear spread of approximately
100–150 m on the ground. The seismic data was acquired
from 24 shot locations by activating the 12 geophones simul-
taneously and deactivating the rest. This was achieved by
incrementally activating and deactivating the 12 set of geo-
phones from each offset while moving source towards the
end of the seismic array. Figure 3 demonstrates the seismic
data acquisition from different offsets by activating 12 geo-
phones (green color) and deactivating the rest (red color).
In each shot, location hammering was done 8–15 times to
increase the signal-to-noise ratio.
Data processing
In data processing, Surfseis 5 software developed by the
University of Kansas, USA, was used. The first step was
configuring the raw seismic data acquired in SEG-2 format
into Kansas Geological Survey (KGS) format. The preproc-
essing includes the removal of body waves and the higher
mode from the collected seismic record using filtering and
muting technique. The software allows adding the field con-
figuration used during data acquisition to generate walk-
away for each location by combining seismic records from
near, middle, and far offset. This allows the synconization
of multiple seismic records collected from the scanning of
the ground for better results. Finally, the walk-away for each
shot gather was used in dispersion analysis. Several meth-
ods can be used to generate dispersion or overtone images
and some of these methods have already been discussed by
many researchers (Heukelom and Foster 1960; Park et al.
1998; Zhang et al. 2003). The transform-based methods are
most commonly used in active seismic surveys, where the
space–time domains are transformed to different domains
to provide the dispersive properties of the recorded sur-
face waves (Socco et al. 2010; Olafsdottir et al. 2018). The
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
Fig. 3  Layout of the Multi-
channel Analysis of Surface
Waves (MASW) with roll-along
technique
reference phase velocity and phase frequency was assigned
for the dispersion analysis. This allows extraction of the
fundamental mode from overtone image. The data analysis
in multichannel analysis consists of three steps (Park et al.
1999; Xia et al. 1999; Xia 2014) comprises (1) data acquisi-
tion with multichannel recording system along a linear array
using roll along technique; (2) extract dispersion curves
from Rayleigh wave; and (3) invert Rayleigh wave disper-
sion curves to obtain near-surface 1D Vs profiles. Finally,
pseudo-2D Vs sections are constructed by aligning 1D mod-
els (Miller et al. 1999).
Many researchers have encountered non-unique and non-
linear optimization problems associated with inversion. The
inversion with the fundamental mode is easier to perform
and computationally more efficient (Olafsdottir et al. 2018).
As the fundamental mode mainly prevails in those sites
where the shear wave velocity varies with depth (Socco et al.
2010), so the inversion was performed with fundamental
mode with few exceptions. The higher mode provides impor-
tant information in certain frequency ranges with irregularly
varying stiffness profiles due to sudden presence of the soft
and stiffer strata, which is characteristic of the study area.
In the next step, the entire dispersion curve was extracted
for each location to generate 1-D shear-wave velocity (Vs)
profile using generalized inversion algorithm (Fig. 4) given
by Xia et al. (1999). The 1-D, Vs profile is representative
of the stiffness parameter for the underlying lithology just
below the center of the geophone spread. The quality of
the dispersion curve is assessed by the signal-to-noise ratio
(S/N), which represents the quality of the dispersion image.
Further, the derived 1-D, Vs profile for each site was inter-
polated to produce the 2-D, Vs profile (Fig. 5; MASW-59)
as discussed in detail by Mahajan et al. (2007) and Mahajan
and Kumar (2018). The outcomes of the dynamic soil prop-
erties obtained from 2D, Vs profile such as soil layer thick-
ness and shear wave velocity were used in SHAKE2000 for
Page 5 of 13 184
site response analysis. The method developed by Schnabel
et al. (1972) to calculate response spectra in single degree
of freedom (SDOF) system to predict response under par-
ticular input motion. The software was run with input object
motion for the earthquake with magnitude 7.5 mb to produce
amplification and response spectra.
Results and discussion
The varied thickness of the sedimentary cover can affect the
frequency, amplitude, and duration of vibration, causing huge
devastation in strong-motion excitation. This study provides
the major outcomes regarding shear wave velocity, which
was used as a direct proxy for characterizing the underlying
lithology and subsurface heterogeneities. The MASW used
in active seismic survey provides the capability to explore
1-D and 2-D, Vs profile. The potential of the active seismic
method was explored in the following subheading:
Subsurface characterization and bedrock depth
The near-surface material properties, particularly the top
30-m soil significantly modify the earthquake shaking,
ground motion, response analysis, and damage distribu-
tion in any area. Therefore, the MASW method was utilized
for subsurface characterization and delineation of bedrock
depth. Table 1 represents the shear wave classification as
per the hazard reduction program that was further used
to understand the subsurface lithology with the varying
shear wave velocity. The importance of shear wave veloc-
ity profiling has been discussed in the literature by many
researchers (Asten et al. 2005; Kanli et al. 2006; Borcherdt
2012). Therefore, there is a need to explore the capability
of MASW method in a complex geological environment.
Looking in to the fact total 67 sites were investigated in the
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Fig. 4  The dispersion curve and the 1-D shear wave velocity profile deduced from the inversion technique (MASW-59)
Kangra valley (Fig. 1). Few sites are discussed for brevity
showing their importance in near-surface characterization
and exploration of bedrock depth.
2‑D shear wave velocity profiling and depth of bedrock
The shear wave velocity has been successfully utilized for
exploring the depth of bedrock for seismic soil classifica-
tion and microzonation studies (Hanumantharao and Ramana
2008; Martinez‐Pagan et al. 2014; Kalinina and Ammosov
2015; Mohamed et al. 2016). Two sites (MASW-17 and 59)
were chosen to depict the variation in shear wave velocity
and estimation of bedrock depth. The first site MASW-17
present in the study area shows the site underlain by alluvium
sediment followed by Dharamsala Group of rock. The top
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
10 m soil column represents an average shear wave velocity
of ~ 350 m/s correlated with the stiff soil sediments (Fig. 5).
Further moving to the deeper depth, the Vs reaches > 760 m/s
presented in dark red color may represent the bedrock depth.
The vertical and lateral variation of the shear wave velocity
profile in 2-D reveals a layer of low-velocity inversion in 20
to 25 m. Further moving down to the deeper depth, the shear
wave velocity increases by more than 1000 m/s at isolated
locations, which can be correlated with presence of erosional
features covered by the presence of igneous boulders derived
from Dhauladhar ranges in the soil. The second site MASW-
59 reveals the two distinct layers with the major contrast in
shear wave velocity profile approximately at 8 and 20 m. The
top 8 m of the soil is covered with stiff soil sediments under-
lain by very dense soil and soft rock up to 20 m. Below 20 m
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184 Page 7 of 13 184

Fig. 5  2-D shear wave velocity

profile showing variation of
overlying material and bedrock
depth

depth, the site has shear wave velocity of more than 800 m/s
depicting bedrock level.
Characterization of soft sediments
The MASW results were used to predict thickness of sedi-
ments above bedrock. Figure 6 represents the 2-D, Vs profile
of site MASW-38, which shows a low-velocity zone in light
blue, indicating soft sediment with Vs ranging from 220 to
340 m/s. Further moving down to the deeper depth, the Vs
increased up to 700 m/s at 40 m which corresponds to very
dense soil to bedrock. The site is located in the alluvium
underlain by Dharamsala Group of rock with a thick clay
deposit at the surface represented by Vs of 300–400 m/s.
The depth of penetration using active seismic survey could
be from 30 to 40 m; however, the passive survey allows it
to penetrate deeper, but the resolution of lateral and vertical
variation is well reflected in MASW method rather than any
passive seismic survey. The characteristics of near-surface
material with the passive seismic survey and the results are
also presented in detail for the Kangra valley (Mahajan and
Kumar 2018; Kumar and Mahajan 2020; Kumar et al. 2023).

Delineation of subsurface heterogeneities

Table 1  Site categories for geotechnical characterization as per National
Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) The sedimentary architecture of the valley and the varying
NEHRP Average shear wave General description subsurface heterogeneities can have many environmental
site class velocity to 30 m (m/s) and engineering implications. Many studies utilized the 2-D,
Vs profiling to delineate the subsurface characteristics, such
A > 1500 Hard rock
as underground cavities, identify anomalies, and dissolu-
B 760–1500 Rock
tion features (Rahnema et al. 2020; Durdag et al. 2023). The
C 360–760 Very dense soil and soft rock
outcomes were also used to delineate the subsurface hetero-
D 180–360 Stiff soil
geneities as discussed for the site MASW 37, representing
E < 180 Soft soil
the top 11 m soil column covered with stiff to very dense

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184 Page 8 of 13
Fig. 6   2-D shear wave velocity
profile representing soft sedi-
ments from the central part of
the study area
soil. Further, in the deeper strata, the soil column between
11 to 22 m is covered with a very high Vs extending up to
1300 m/s (Fig. 7). The lateral and vertical variation of the
shear wave velocity represents the possibility for the layer
of boulder conglomerate that may cause unexpected damage
in strong-motion excitation. Extending more to the deeper
depth, the Vs gradually decreases to < 360 m/s, indicating
low-velocity inversion and the bedrock depth is much deeper
than the exploration depth achieved through the active seis-
mic survey. The results of the 2-D profiling with the active
survey and response analysis are presented in Fig. 8. The
three profiles were chosen across the study area (Fig. 1) rep-
resenting the 2-D, Vs profile, and exploration depth for the
surveyed site and their corresponding amplification ratio and
period. The bar graphs also show the variation of the char-
acteristic site period (0.11–0.54 s) and amplification ratio
(5.6–16.8). The 2-D section of the Vs profiles represents
the clear bedrock depth for the sites MASW-1, 4, 8, 9, 14,
16, 25, and 66 with the Vs > 760 m/s. These sections also
Fig. 7  2-D shear wave velocity
profile showing vertical and
lateral variation for stiffness
parameters for subsurface char-
acterization
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
represent subsurface heterogeneities and dissolution features
for the sites MASW-3, 7, 19, 22, 47, 50, 54, and 57, clearly
visible from the varying Vs in different strata. Few sites
such as MASW-4, 6, 18, 22, 46, and 65 also represent low
velocity zone with Vs = 200 to 360 m/s represented as light
to dark blue depicting soft sediments over bedrock.
Figure 9 represents the shear wave velocity of top 30 m
­(Vs30) of the Kangra valley, indicating the study area falls
under soil class C ­(Vs30 = 360 and 760 m/s) and soil class
D ­(Vs30 = 180 and 360 m/s) and a few areas under soil class
B ­(Vs30 = 760–1500 m/s) as per NEHRP classification. The
southern part of the Dhauladhar ranges and the area encir-
cling the center portion of the study area represent the high
shear wave velocity may be attributed to soft rock or the
bedrock (red color). While the central part and southern por-
tion of the study area represent the Vs > 400 m/s that can
correlate with soft to stiff soil in the 30 m soil column and
soft rock. In general, the bedrock depth is shallow in north-
east portion compared to the central and far west portions
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
Fig. 8  Selected profiles (Fig. 1) representing the variation of shear wave velocity with depth in the lower bar for each profile, while the upper
bars represent the peak amplification and corresponding dynamic site period from response analysis
of the study area. Many researchers demonstrated that the
shear wave velocity profiles are successfully correlated with
borehole data to confirm the reliability of MASW methods
in varied geological environment (Xia et al. 2002; Khaheshi
Banab and Motazedian 2010) and for the study area, the
MASW results were found consistent with multichannel
simulation with one receiver (MSOR) and borehole records
(Mahajan and Kumar 2018).
The few areas in an isolated location in the northern
extreme (green color) represent the pothole and depression
with soft soil infill, while a wide continuous patch of low
Vs in the southern and western extreme represents the val-
ley sub-regions within the Kangra basin. The results also
represent the presence of velocity inversion with a sudden
decrease or increase of Vs contrast resulting in high variabil-
ity in fundamental frequencies. The 1905 Kangra earthquake
Page 9 of 13 184
also reported heavy damage in the study area with varied
damage distribution (Middlemiss 1910). The earthquake
damaged to municipal dispensary, the Thana, area occupy-
ing the European barrack, treasury buildings, temple, and
church were some of the important areas affected due to high
impedance contrast or high-frequency wave vertical motion.
The present results are also in line with the previous find-
ing that the varied damage distribution due to near-surface
anomalies, glacio-fluvial deposits and soft sediment may
have substantial effect during earthquake hazards (Kumar
et al. 2023). The multiple and broad horizontal to vertical
spectral ratio (HVSR) peaks obtained from the passive seis-
mic survey (Mahajan et al. 2021) also signify a good agree-
ment with the fundamental frequency spatial distribution
map of the study area.
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184 Page 10 of 13
Fig. 9  Spatial distribution
map of the average shear
wave velocity for the top 30 m
­(Vs30) derived from 2-D shear
wave velocity profiling
Conclusions
The essence of this study was to demonstrate the potential of
the MASW method for delineating subsurface heterogenei-
ties with shear wave velocity profiling. Optimizing surface
wave methods enhances the spectral resolution and avoids
the risk of lateral variations due to higher frequency surface
wave and spatial aliasing. After some preliminary reconnais-
sance survey, the experiment was optimized with the verti-
cal geophone to achieve desired resolution for near-surface
characterization. Active seismic data was acquired with 1 m
geophone spacing using roll-along technique that progres-
sively enhances quality of 2-D shear wave velocity profil-
ing. The resolution depends upon the geophone spacing,
subsurface condition and powers of the impact source, such
as sledge hammer or Propelled Energy Generator (PEG-40)
and the result reveals the depth of exploration varied from
25 to 52 m. The 2-D shear wave velocity profiling was quite
effective in complex geological environments in exploring
the depth of bedrock, dissolution features, evaluation of soft
soil cover and subsurface heterogeneities. These 2-D sec-
tions from MASW also provide information on sedimen-
tary architecture and subsurface heterogeneities to reduce
earthquake damage. The shear wave velocity profile was
also used to classify the site as per NEHRP classification
in class D ­(Vs30 = 360–180 m/s), C ­(Vs30 = 360–760 m/s),
and a few locations in class B ­(Vs30 = 760–1500 m/s). The
subsurface characteristics were also used in response analy-
sis with SHAKE2000 software for a magnitude of 7.5 mb
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Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
was used as an input object motion possible in the Indian
Himalayan Region. Spectral acceleration variation at 10 Hz
(single-story buildings) ranged from 0.09 to 0.5 g and at 5 Hz
(double-story buildings) ranged from 0.13 to 1.7 g. Further-
more, the MASW measurement from the 67 sites represents
the Vs30 ranges from 348 to 933 m/s. The variation of Vs30
indicates the possibility of a small sub-basin or valley sub-
region within the study area. The target stakeholder can use
the surface wave velocities to verify the strength and allow-
able bearing capacity of the ground for recommending sus-
tainable earthquake-resistant designs in the valley.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 10064-0​ 23-0​ 3207-2.
Acknowledgements The authors greatly thank Central University,
Himachal Pradesh (CUHP) for providing basic logistics. This research
was done under the project entitles “Subsurface Characterization and its
Environmental Implications using Engineering Seismograph and Ground
Penetration Radar” with financial assistance from Ministry of Earth Sci-
ences, Govt. of India under project no. MoES/P.O.(Seismo)/1(206)/2013.
Author contribution All authors contributed to the study conception
and design. Dr. Praveen Kumar performed material preparation, data
collection and first draft preparation. Prof. Ambrish Kumar Mahajan
did the conceptualization, guidance, and editing of the manuscript.
Funding This work was supported by Ministry of Earth Sciences under
project no. (MoES)MoES/P.O.(Seismo)/1(206)/2013.
Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment (2023) 82:184
Declarations
Ethical standards The manuscript comply with ethical standard.
Informed consent The author agrees to publish, as there are no human
participants, and animals involved.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
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