1.4.

1 Magnetic field
Space Mission Design and Operations
Prof. Claude Nicollier

Credits: NASA, K. Endo

The geomagnetic field
● Close to the Earth’s surface, the
geomagnetic field is essentially a bipolar field
slightly offset from the center of the Earth.

The expression of the amplitude of the magnetic field

is a function of the distance to the center of the Earth
and the magnetic latitude (Earth's latitude with zero
degrees at the Equator, +90 at the North Magnetic
Pole, and -90 at the South Magnetic Pole).

B0 is the magnetic field on the Equator.

● B: Local magnetic field.

● λ: Magnetic latitude.
● R: Distance to the Earth’s center measured
in Earth radius unit RE.
Space Mission Design and Operations
 The geomagnetic field and radiations belts
● Magnetic field lines close to Earth and
inner/outer van Allen radiation belts.

The magnetic field of the Earth is creating some regions

with an increased density of charged particles, mainly
protons and electrons, moving to the North from the South.

Charged particles are trapped in these regions, due to an

increased amount of radiation coming from outside of the
solar system, typically galactic cosmic.

The lower boundary of the inner radiation belt is about 550

to 600 km above the Earth's surface. Therefore the ISS is
not located in the radiation belt, which is not the case for
HST.

Credits: NASA
Space Mission Design and Operations
 Radiation (or van Allen) Belts – RB

● High energy protons and electrons trapped

in two regions of the magnetosphere.

The outer radiation belt is not as harmful to electronic ● Protons and electrons in the inner RB,
systems than the inner radiation belt. electrons only in the outer RB.

● Energy of the RB particles are bigger than

30 keV, up to 100 MeV.

Space Mission Design and Operations

 Artist illustration of the magnetic field
The Earth's magnetic field is significantly
distorted away from the surface of Earth
toward the Sun (5, up to 10 Earth radii) and
in the anti-Sun direction due to solar wind,
made of charged particles flowing in all
directions from the Sun.
Polar cusp
The magnetopause is the boundary between Solar wind
the magnetosphere and the flow of particles
from the solar wind, which is mainly protons Radiation belts
and electrons.

The charged particles follow the magnetic

field lines in the equatorial regions of the
Earth. But in the region of the magnetic Poles,
these particles can get into the low
atmosphere and Northern Lights or Southern
Lights.
Magnetopause
In the anti-Sun direction, the magnetic field
lines of the Earth are open to the interstellar Credits: NASA, K Endo
medium.
Space Mission Design and Operations
Northern/Southern lights

Northern and Southern Lights are

produced from the excitation of nitrogen
and oxygen atoms, by the electrons
flowing from the solar wind.

Typically Northern and Southern lights

are produced at the altitude of the
airglow.

Credits: NASA
Space Mission Design and Operations
1.4.2 The Sun and its variations
Space Mission Design and Operations
Prof. Claude Nicollier

Credits: www.climatedata.com
 Sunspot groups on the surface of the Sun

The Sun is a variable star, in its appearance and

its radiation in various parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Sunspots have been recorded since the end of the

18th century.

A solar cycle is a period of approximately 11 years,

based on the sunspot number, which is changing
over time.

The latitude of sunspots varies, depending of the

phase of the solar cycle. At the solar minimum, the
latitude is relatively high: about 25 -30 degrees,
and then it decreases as the solar maximum
approaches.

Credits: NASA, SOHO

Space Mission Design and Operations
 Solar Cycle (11 years)

This table represents the solar cycle from 1979 until 2040, the solar cycle maximum being the maximum number of
sunspots.
The Sun activity decreases within six years and increase in five years.

Space Mission Design and Operations

 Solar radio flux and sunspot number

The number of sunspots cannot be determined very

precisely.

A better determination of the phase of the solar cycle

is the solar radio flux.
At the wavelength of 10.7 cm, the intensity of the
hydrogen changes depending on the solar cycle.

This graph shows the correlation between the flux

intensity of 10.7 cm in the spectrum of the Sun, and
the sunspot number.

Credits: www.climatedata.com
Space Mission Design and Operations
 Solar cycle vs. atmospheric density vs. altitude

The Sun has also a significant effect on the thickness of the

atmosphere; respectively on the density of the Earth’s atmosphere
at a given altitude.

The effect is significant, especially for the altitudes between 500

and 1,000 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Therefore it has an
effect on the lifetime of satellites.
At a solar maximum, for a given altitude, the density will be higher,
the drag on a satellite will be more important and its lifetime
reduced.

Credits: J. R. Wertz & W. J. Larson, Space

Mission Analysis and Design, 1992
Space Mission Design and Operations
1.4.3 The active Sun
Space Mission Design and Operations
Prof. Claude Nicollier

Credits: NASA, SOHO, EIT

 Solar prominences

● The Sun is an active star. Its surface is granular with

prominences: flares and coronal mass ejections

● A solar prominence is a large, bright feature extending outward

from the Sun’s surface, often in a loop shape. While the corona
consists of extremely hot ionised gases, which do not emit
much visible light, prominences contain much cooler plasma,
similar in composition to that of the chromosphere.

● The image represents solar prominence with image of Jupiter

and Earth for size comparison.

Credits: NASA
Space Mission Design and Operations
 Solar prominences – example

The prominences are extended away from the

surface of the Sun and then reconnecting with the
surface. They follow small loops in the local
magnetic field of the Sun.

Prominences are visible during total solar eclipses,

they radiate in the visible part of the spectrum.

Credits: NASA
Space Mission Design and Operations
Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) – June 17-18, 2015

● A Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) is a massive burst

of solar wind, other light isotope plasma, and
magnetic fields rising above the solar corona and
being released into space. CME is mostly
observed in short wavelength part of the spectrum,
typically in UV, extreme UV, or even X-rays.

● The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)

is a ESA/NASA Sun-observing satellite located on
the Lagrange L1 point.
● SOHO always remains in the same position versus
the Earth about 1.5 million km towards the Sun.
● SOHO-EIT image in resonance lines of eight and
nine times ionized iron (Fe IX/X) at 171 Angstroms
in the extreme ultraviolet showing the solar corona
at a temperature of about 1 million K.

Credits: NASA, SOHO, EIT

Space Mission Design and Operations
Coronal Mass Ejection seen by SOHO on January 4, 2002
In coronagraph images, direct sunlight is blocked by an occulter,
revealing the surrounding faint corona. The approximate size of the
Sun’s disk is represented by the white circle.

Credits: NASA, ESA, SOHO, EIT and LASCO

Space Mission Design and Operations
Coronal Mass Ejection seen by SOHO in April-May 2004

Credits: NASA, ESA,

SOHO, LASCO
Space Mission Design and Operations