RE - Unit 2

By:
Vishnu P Raj
Assistant Professor
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Al Habeeb College of Engineering & Technology
 Material balance applied to oil reservoirs : general form – the
material balance expressed as a linear equation – reservoir
drive mechanism – solution gas drive – gas cap drive –
natural water drive – compaction drive under related pore
compressibility phenomena.
 Darcy’s law and applications: Darcy’s law and field potential
– sign convention – units and units conversion – real gas
potential – datum pressures – radial steady state flow and well
stimulation– two phase flow – effective and relative
permeabilities.
Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 2

Material balance applied to oil reservoirs:
general form – the material balance expressed as a
linear equation – reservoir drive mechanism – solution
gas drive – gas cap drive – natural water drive –
compaction drive under related pore compressibility
phenomena

Underground Withdrawal =
Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas +
Expansion of Gas Cap +
HCPV reduction due to Expansion of Connate
Water & compression of pores +
Net water influx

Expansion of Gas Cap Expansion of Oil 𝑹𝒔 + (𝑹 − 𝑹𝒔 )
Water Influx
𝑵𝒑
Expansion of Connate Water & Compression of pores
𝑾𝒑
GAS
GAS
OIL
OIL
WATER WATER
@ initial pressure 𝑷𝒊 @ reduced pressure 𝑷

after production of 𝑵𝒑 oil
 Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas
There are 2 components associated with
expansion of oil and associated dissolved gas.
1. Liquid expansion
2. Expansion of liberated gas
1. Liquid expansion
Liquid expansion = Vol. of Oil @ 𝑃 – Vol. of oil @ 𝑃𝑖
= 𝑁𝐵𝑜 − 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖
= 𝑁(𝐵𝑜 −𝐵𝑜𝑖 )

 Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas
2. Expansion of liberated gas
Expansion of liberated gas
=Total amount of solution gas @ 𝑃𝑖 - Total amount of
solution gas @ 𝑃
= N𝑅𝑠𝑖 𝐵𝑔 − 𝑁𝑅𝑠 𝐵𝑔
= N(𝑅𝑠𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠 )𝐵𝑔
Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas

= Liquid expansion + Expansion of liberated gas
= 𝑵(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + 𝐍(𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈

 Expansion of Gas Cap
Expansion of gas cap

= Vol. of gas cap @ 𝑃- Vol. of gas cap @ 𝑃𝑖
𝐵𝑔
= 𝑚𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝑚𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝐵𝑔
= 𝑚𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 −1
𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝑩𝒈
Expansion of gas cap =𝒎𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 −𝟏
𝑩𝒈𝒊

 HCPV reduction due to Expansion of Connate Water
& compression of pores
1. HCPV change due to expansion of Connate Water (CW)
1 𝜕𝑉𝑤
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑤 =
𝑉𝑤 𝜕𝑝
Change in volume due to connate water expansion
𝑑𝑉𝑤 = 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 ∆𝑝
Total Change in volume due to connate water expansion
=expansion of CW in gas cap + expansion of CW in oil zone
= 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑔𝑐 ∆𝑝 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑜 ∆𝑝

𝑉𝜑(1−𝑆𝑐𝑤 ) 𝑁𝐵
𝑁= : 𝑉𝜑 = (1−𝑆𝑜𝑖 )
 Expansion of CW in oil zone, 𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑤𝑐
= 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑜 ∆𝑝 𝑉𝑤 𝑜 = 𝑉𝜑𝑆𝑐𝑤
𝑐𝑤 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑆𝑐𝑤 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑆𝑐𝑤
= (1−𝑆 ) ∆𝑝 =
(1 − 𝑆𝑐𝑤 )
𝑐𝑤
𝐻𝐶𝑃𝑉 𝑔𝑐
𝑚=
Expansion of CW in gas cap, 𝐻𝐶𝑃𝑉 𝑜
𝐻𝐶𝑃𝑉 𝑔𝑐 = 𝑚 𝐻𝐶𝑃𝑉 𝑜
= 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑔𝑐 ∆𝑝 𝑉𝜑 𝑔𝑐 (1 − 𝑆𝑐𝑤 ) = 𝑚 𝑉𝜑 𝑜 (1 − 𝑆𝑐𝑤 )
𝑚𝑐𝑤 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑆𝑐𝑤 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖
= ∆𝑝 𝑉𝜑 𝑔𝑐 = 𝑚
(1−𝑆𝑤𝑐 ) (1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑐 ) 𝑜
Therefore,
𝑉𝑤 𝑔𝑐 = 𝑉𝜑 𝑔𝑐 𝑆𝑐𝑤
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝑉𝑤 𝑔𝑐 = 𝑚 𝑆
(1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑐 ) 𝑤𝑐

Total Change in volume due to connate water expansion
=expansion of CW in gas cap + expansion of CW in oil zone
= 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑔𝑐 ∆𝑝 + 𝑐𝑤 𝑉𝑤 𝑜 ∆𝑝
𝑚𝑐 𝑁𝐵 𝑆 𝑐 𝑁𝐵 𝑆
= 𝑤 𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝 + 𝑤 𝑜𝑖 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝
(1−𝑆 )𝑤𝑐 (1−𝑆 ) 𝑐𝑤
(𝟏+𝒎)𝒄𝒘 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑺𝒄𝒘
= ∆𝒑
(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒄 )
Similarly
2.HCPV change due to Compression of pore space
Total Change in volume due to compression of pores
=compression of pore in gas cap + compression of pore in oil zone
= 𝑐𝑟 𝑉𝑝 𝑔𝑐 ∆𝑝 + 𝑐𝑟 𝑉𝑝 𝑜 ∆𝑝
𝑚𝑐𝑟 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑐 𝑁𝐵
= ∆𝑝 + 𝑟 𝑜𝑖 ∆𝑝
(1−𝑆𝑤𝑐 ) (1−𝑆𝑐𝑤 )
(𝟏+𝒎)𝒄𝒓 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊
= ∆𝒑
(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒄 )

 Total HCPV reduction due to Expansion of Connate Water
& compression of pores
= Total Change in volume due to connate water
expansion +Total Change in volume due to compression
of pores
=
(𝟏+𝒎)𝒄𝒘 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑺𝒄𝒘 (𝟏+𝒎)𝒄𝒓 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊
(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒄 )
∆𝒑 +
(𝟏−𝑺𝒘𝒄 )
∆𝒑
𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓
= 𝟏+𝒎 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑
𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘

 Change in volume due to net water influx
Change in volume due to net water influx
= Volume of water influx – Volume of water produced
= 𝑁𝑊𝑒 𝐵𝑤 − 𝑁𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
= 𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘
 Underground withdrawal
Underground withdrawal associated with production of Np oil
= 𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )

Underground Withdrawal =
Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas +
Expansion of Gas Cap +
HCPV reduction due to Expansion of Connate Water &
compression of pores +
Net water influx
𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 ) =

𝑩𝒈
𝑵(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + 𝐍(𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 + 𝒎𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 − 𝟏 + (𝟏 +
𝑩𝒈𝒊
𝒎)𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑 + 𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘
𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘

𝑩𝒈
𝑵(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + 𝐍(𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 + 𝒎𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 −𝟏 +
𝑩𝒈𝒊
𝟏 + 𝒎 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑 + 𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘
𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘

(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + (𝑹𝒔𝒊 −𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 𝑩𝒈 𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓
𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 +𝒎 −𝟏 + 𝟏+𝒎 ∆𝒑
𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝑩𝒈𝒊 𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘
+ 𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘

𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 +𝒎 −𝟏 + 𝟏+𝒎 𝑵 ∆𝒑 + 𝑵(𝑾𝒆 −
𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘
Let
Underground withdrawal
𝑭 = 𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )+ 𝑾𝒑 𝑩𝒘
Expansion of Oil & associated dissolved gas
𝑬𝒐 = (𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + (𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈
Expansion of Gas cap
𝑩𝒈
𝑬𝒈 = 𝑩𝒐𝒊 −𝟏
𝑩𝒈𝒊
Change in HCPV due to exp. of CW and comp. of pore space
𝒄 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓
𝑬𝒑,𝒘 = 𝟏 + 𝒎 𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝒘𝟏−𝑺 ∆𝒑
𝒄𝒘

So the material balance equation become
F  N Eo  mEg  E p ,w   We Bw
𝑭 = 𝑵 𝑬𝒐 + 𝑬𝒈 + 𝑬𝒑,𝒘 + 𝑾𝒆 𝑩𝒘
 If the reservoir has no initial gas cap, negligible water influx

and for which the connate water and rock compressibility
term may be neglected, then the above equation will be
reduced to:
𝑭 = 𝑵𝑬𝒐
 Thus the material balance equation can be reduced to a
linear form as shown.
 The above equation relates production (underground
withdrawal) as a linear function of the expansion of the
oil plus its originally dissolved gas.

 Reservoir drive mechanism: A reservoir drive
mechanism is a source of energy for driving the fluid
out through well bore. The different types of reservoir
drive mechanism are:
1. Solution gas drive
2. Gas cap drive
3. Natural water drive
4. Compaction drive

 The solution drive mechanism can be explained in
two phases.
◦ Depletion down to bubble pint.(Above bubble point)
Production of fluids down to the bubble point is as a result of
the effective compressibility of the system. The compressibility
of oil, connate water and the pore space within contributes to
this effective compressibility. This combined compressibility
provides the drive mechanism for depletion drive above the
bubble point.
◦ Depletion below bubble point
As pressure is reduced below bubble point the gas is liberated.
The expanding gas provides the force to drive the oil hence the
term solution gas drive.

 A solution gas drive reservoir is one in which the principal
drive mechanism is the expansion of the oil and its
originally dissolved gas.
Above bubble point pressure (under saturated oil)
• No gas cap, m = 0
• Relatively small aquifer and the water influx is negligible
• 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖 = 𝑅𝑝 (No free gas)
So the material balance equation become

0
𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )=
0 0
𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 +𝒎 −𝟏 + 𝟏+𝒎 ∆𝒑 +
0
𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘

So the material balance equation reduces to
(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) 𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓
𝑵𝒑 𝑩𝒐 =𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 + ∆𝒑
𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑 𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘
(𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 )
Substituting Compressibility 𝑐𝑜 =
𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑
𝑵𝒑 𝑩𝒐 =𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝒄𝒐 + ∆𝒑
𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘
𝑆𝑜 + 𝑆𝑐𝑤 = 1
𝒄𝒐 𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓 𝑆𝑜 =1-𝑆𝑐𝑤
𝑵𝒑 𝑩𝒐 = 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 ∆𝒑
𝟏−𝑺𝒄𝒘
𝒄 𝑺 +𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓 Effective compressibility

𝑵𝒑 𝑩𝒐 = 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝒐 𝒐 𝟏−𝑺 ∆𝒑
𝒄𝒘 𝒄𝒐 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒄𝒘 + 𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 + 𝒄𝒓
𝑐𝑒 =
𝟏 − 𝑺𝒄𝒘
𝑵𝒑 𝑩𝒐 = 𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 𝒄𝒆 ∆𝒑

 The following data were collected for a particular
Solution gas driven reservoir.
4000 psi
3330 psi
1.2417 rb/stb
1.2511 rb/stb
Connate water saturation, Swc 20%
Determine the fractional oil recovery if the reservoir is depleted down

to bubble point pressure.

 Below bubble point pressure (saturated oil)
Below the bubble point pressure gas will be liberated
from the saturated oil and a free gas saturation will
develop in the reservoir.
• No initial gas cap

• Negligible water influx
• The contribution due to expansion of connate
water and compression of pore is negligible once a
significant free gas saturation develops in the
reservoir.

Now material balance equation under bubble point for
a solution drive reservoir becomes
𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )=

0 0
𝑵𝑩𝒐𝒊 +𝒎 −𝟏 + 𝟏+𝒎 ∆𝒑 +
0
𝑵(𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑 )𝑩𝒘
𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 ) = 𝑵((𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + (𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )

 The following data were collected for a solution gas
driven reservoir.
Initial formation volume factor for oil 1.2417 rb/stb
Initial solution gas oil ratio 510 scf/stb

Solution gas oil ratio @ 900 psi 122 scf/stb
Formation volume factor for oil @ 900 psi 1.0940 rb/stb
Formation volume factor for gas @ 900 psi 0.00339 rb/scf
If the abandon pressure is 900 psi, find the producing gas oil
ratio which will give a recovery factor of 10%.

 This gas cap drive reservoir, receives its
energy from the high compressibility of the
gas cap. Bottom hole pressure will be below
bubble point, therefore solution gas drive will
also be occurring. The gas cap provides the
major source of energy but there is also the
expansion of oil and its dissolved gas and the
gas coming out of solution. The oil expansion
term is very low and is within the errors in
calculating the two main energy sources.

N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  
0
0
 ( Bo  Boi )  ( Rsi  Rs ) Bg 
 B 
 c  c S 
NBoi   m  1  (m  1) p   (We  W p ) Bw
g r w cw
  1  S cw 
 B oi  Bgi   
 ( Bo  Boi )  ( Rsi  Rs ) Bg  
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  

 Bg 
NBoi   m  1
 B  B  
 oi  gi  

 Water drive reservoirs are of two types.
◦ Edge water drive reservoir.
The reservoir is thin enough so that the water is in
contact with the hydrocarbons at the edge of the
reservoir. The other type of water drive reservoir is
the
◦ Bottom-water-drive reservoir;
Where the reservoir is so thick or the accumulation
so thin that the hydrocarbons are completely
underlain by water.

Edge water drive
Bottom water drive

A drop in the reservoir pressure, due to the
production of fluids, causes the aquifer water
to expand and flow into the reservoir.
Water Influx= Aquifer Compressibility × Initial
volume of water × Pressure Drop
We  (cr  cw )WI p
 Material balance equation

N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg   0 0
 ( Bo  Boi )  ( Rsi  Rs ) Bg 
 Bg 
 cr  cw S cw 
NBoi   m  1  (m  1) p   (We  W p ) Bw
  1  S cw 
 B oi  Bgi   
N p Bo  R p  Rs Bg  
 ( Bo  Boi )  ( Rsi  Rs ) Bg 
NBoi    (We  W p ) Bw
 B oi 
F  N Eo   We
F W
N e
Eo Eo

 PORE COMPRESSIBILITY PHENOMENA
◦ The withdrawal of liquid or gas from a reservoir
results in a reduction in the fluid pressure and
consequently an increase in the effective or grain
pressure. This increased pressure between the
grains will cause the reservoir to compact and this
in turn can lead to subsidence at the surface.

 If Vb is the bulk volume of a rock sample of
thickness h, then the uni-axial compaction
V b h

Vb h
 At low grain pressures the compressibility of the

un-compacted sample is very high since it is
relatively easy to effect a closer packing of the
grains at this stage. As the grain pressure
increases, however, it becomes progressively
more difficult to compact the sample further and
the compressibility decreases.

 Compaction drive is the expulsion of
reservoir fluids due to the dynamic reduction
of the pore volume.
 Only significant as a drive mechanism if the
pore compressibility is large.
 Such a drive mechanism will normally only
provide a significant increase in the primary
hydrocarbon recovery in shallow reservoirs.

Darcy’s law and applications:
Darcy’s law and field potential – sign convention units
and units conversion – real gas potential – datum
pressures – radial steady state flow and well
stimulation– two phase flow – effective and relative
permeabilities.

 Darcy’s Experiment
Where,
l → total length of the sand pack, cm
∆h = h1 – h2
(difference in manometric levels, cm)
u → flow velocity in cm/sec
Q → total measured flow rate, cc/sec
A → cross-sectional area of the sand
pack, sq.cm
Datum z=0 ; p = 1atm

 Experiment:
The equipment consisted of an iron cylinder containing an
unconsolidated sand pack, about one metre in length, which
was held between two permeable gauze screens. Manometers
were connected into the cylinder immediately above and
below the sand pack. By flowing water through the pack
Darcy established that, for any flow rate, the velocity of flow
was directly proportional to the difference in manometric
heights.
h1  h2
u αK
l
h
uK
l

 Darcy’s Law:
 Darcy’s law of fluid flow states that rate of flow (Q) through a given
rock varies directly with the pressure applied (∆p), the area open to
flow (A) and varies inversely with the viscosity (µ) of the fluid flowing
and the length (l) of the porous rock. It can be mathematically
expressed as:
Ap Ap
Q α Q  k
l l
 The constant of proportionality (k) in the equation is termed the
permeability. Unit of Permeability is Darcy. One Darcy is defined as
the permeability which will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity
to flow at a linear velocity of one centi metre per second under a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centi metre.

 From Darcy’s experiment
 h
uK
 l
 dh
uK
 dl
 We know that
p  g (h  z ) dh d  p  1 d p
   z    zg


dl dl  g  g dl   
p  gh  gz
Therefore
gh  p  gz
K  d p 
p u   zg 
h z g  dl   
g
p
dp
 Substitute    g ( z  zb )
pb

p
For incompressible fluid ρ is constant.   gz

 The above term is known as fluid potential and is defined as
the work required, by a frictionless process, to transport a
unit mass of fluid from a state of atmospheric pressure and
zero elevation to a specified point. Fluid potential is
represented by Φ
 d where k
K
is the permeability
uk g
 dl

 Linear Flow  d Ap
u  k Q  k
 dl l
If distance l is measured positive in the direction of flow, then

the potential gradient dΦ/dl must be negative in the same
direction since fluids move from high to low potential
 Radial Flow  d
uk
 dr
If production from the reservoir into the well is taken as

positive, the radius is measured as being positive in the
direction opposite to the flow, dΦ/dr is positive.

 Dimensional analysis of permeability
 d
uk
 dl
 Dimensions:
L M M
u  3  L2
 2 lL
T L LT T
 M  L 2

 L3   T 2 
L
 k 
M 
 
k   L 2
 LT L 
T

Where,
dp/dl → Pressure gradient, atm/cm.
 Darcy’s relation Q →Flow rate, cc/sec
A → Area open to flow, sq.cm
A dp µ → Viscosity, cp
Q  k k → Permeability, Darcy
 dl
 Field unit Where,
dp/dl → Pressure gradient, psi/ft.
3 A dp
Q  1.127 10 k Q → Flow rate, STB/day
 dl A → Area open to flow, sq.ft
µ → Viscosity, cp
k → Permeability, mD
1mD  10 3 D  10 15 m 2
1 ft  12in  30.48cm
1atm  14.7 psi
 The fluid potential is given by
p
dp
 
pb

 gz
Mp
 For real gas density is given by, 
ZRT
p
p RT Zdp

ZRTdp
Mp
 gz 
M p p  gz
pb b
 Differentiating with respect to length
d RTZ dp dz d 1 dp dz
 g  g
dl Mp dl dl dl  dl dl

 Darcy’s relation is
A d A  1 dp dz 
Q  k  k  g 
 dl    dl dl 
A  dp dz 
Q  k   g 
  dl dl 

 well producing at a constant rate q; dp/dt = 0, at all points
within the radial cell. Thus the outer boundary pressure pe
and the entire pressure profile remain constant with time.

 Darcy's law for the radial flow of single phase oil can be
expressed as
A dp
qk
 dr
 The area for flow
r
A  2rh
 Substituting in Darcy’s equation h
A
2rh dp
qk
 dr
q 1
dp  dr
2hk r
 Integrating the equation
q
p r
1
p dp 
2hk r r dr
wf w
q r
p  pwf  ln
2hk rw
 When r  re
q re
pe  pwf  ln
2hk rw

 If there is formation damage due to drilling and associated
skin factor is S, then the pressure drop due to skin is;
q
ps  S
2hk
 Considering the pressure drop due to skin the radial steady
state equation becomes,
q  re 
pe  pwf  
 ln  S 
2hk  rw 
qBo 
re 
 In field units pe  pwf  141.2 
 ln  S 
hk  rw 
 Productivity Index (PI)
qBo  re 
pe  pwf  141.2 
 ln  S 
hk  rw 
q hk
PI   7.08  10 3
pe  pwf  re 
Bo  ln  S 
 rw 
 The above term which is the ratio of the total liquid flow rate
to the pressure drawdown is known as productivity index and
is a direct measure of the well performance.

 Various method to improve PI
a. Removal of Skin
b. Increasing the effective permeability
c. Viscosity reduction
d. Reduction of the oil formation volume factor
e. Reduction in the ratio re / rw
f. Increasing the well penetration

 Removal of Skin
If it is determined that S is positive, the formation damage
can be reduced by acid treatment. The type of acid used
depends on the nature of the reservoir rock and the type of
plugging materials which must be removed.
 Increasing the effective permeability

The main part of the pressure drawdown occurs close to
the well. the effective permeability in this region can be
increased by hydraulic fracturing, in which high fluid
pressures maintained in the wellbore will induce vertical
fractures in the formation.

 Viscosity reduction
If the oil viscosity is very high, the flow rate in the reservoir
will be correspondingly low. The viscosity can be
siginificantly reduced by raising the temperature of the oil.
The thermal stimulation process applied to effect this
viscosity reduction is steam soaking.
 Reduction of the oil formation volume factor
Oil formation volume factor can be minimised by choosing
the correct surface separator, or combination of separators.
 Reduction in the ratio re / rw
Since re / rw appears as a logarithmic term, it has little
influence on the PI and alteration of the ratio by, for
instance, under reaming the wellbore to increase rw, is
seldom considered as a means of well stimulation.

 Increasing the well penetration
◦ If the well is not fully penetrating, there is a distortion of
the radial flow pattern close to the well giving rise to an
additional pressure drawdown. This is generally accounted
for by using the full formation thickness and including the
effect of partial penetration as an additional skin factor.

 Specific or absolute permeability (k):
◦ The absolute permeability is a property of the porous
medium and is a measure of the capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids. Absolute permeability refers to permeability
when one fluid is present at 100% saturation.
 Effective permeability (ko, kw & kg)

◦ Effective permeability reflects the ability of a porous
medium to permit the passage of a fluid under a potential
gradient when two or three fluids are present in the pore
space. The effective permeability for each fluid is less than
the absolute permeability. For a given rock the effective
permeability is the conductivity of each phase at a specific
saturation.

 Relative permeability (kro, krw & krg)
◦ When two or more fluids flow at the same time, the relative
permeability of each phase at a specific saturation is the
ratio of the effective permeability of the phase to the
absolute permeability.
k kw kg
k ro  o k rw  k rg 
k k k

An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with the
following properties:
L = 2000 ft
h = 20 ft
Width = 300 ft
Φ = 15%
k = 100 md
P1 = 2000 psi
P2 = 1990 psi
μ = 2 cp
 Calculate:
◦ a. Flow rate in bbl/day
◦ b. Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
◦ c. Actual fluid velocity in ft/day

RE - Unit 2

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Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 2

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 3

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 4

@ initial pressure 𝑷𝒊 @ reduced pressure 𝑷

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 6

Expansion of Oil & Associated Dissolved Gas

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 7

Expansion of gas cap

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 8

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 9

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 10

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 11

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 12

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 13

𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 ) =

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 14

𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 ) =

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 15

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 16

 If the reservoir has no initial gas cap, negligible water influx

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 17

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 18

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 19

So the material balance equation become

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 20

𝒄 𝑺 +𝒄𝒘 𝑺𝒄𝒘 +𝒄𝒓 Effective compressibility

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 21

Determine the fractional oil recovery if the reservoir is depleted down

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 22

• No initial gas cap

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 23

𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )=

𝑵𝒑 (𝑩𝒐 + (𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 ) = 𝑵((𝑩𝒐 −𝑩𝒐𝒊 ) + (𝑹𝒔𝒊 − 𝑹𝒔 )𝑩𝒈 )

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 24

Initial solution gas oil ratio 510 scf/stb

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 25

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 26

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 27

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 28

Bottom water drive

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 29

 Material balance equation

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 31

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 32

 At low grain pressures the compressibility of the

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 33

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 34

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 35

Datum z=0 ; p = 1atm

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 36

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 37

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 38

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 40

If distance l is measured positive in the direction of flow, then

If production from the reservoir into the well is taken as

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 41

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 42

 Differentiating with respect to length

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 44

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 45

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 46

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 48

Vishnu P Raj, Dept. of PET, AHCET 50