MEC 353 Fluid Mechanics: Lecture Notes

MEC 353 Fluid Mechanics
Lecture Notes
Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

a.pesyridis@alasala.edu.sa
1
Week 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 1

2
Overview
1. Course Details
2. Basic Introduction
3. Dimensions and Units
3
1. Course Details
4
1. Course Details - Lecturer Background
 Professor
 Vice Provost and Dean (Quality and Development) at Alasala
 Chair of Research Committee
 22 years experience as a researcher in propulsion and power
(automotive, aerospace, marine & rail sectors) applying
turbomachinery and Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)-related
propulsion and power technologies
 Researcher (PhD, post-doctoral research) at Imperial College
London for 10 years
 Turbomachinery consultant (ICEs, turbos etc)
 Company CEO in the propulsion and power sectors
 Worked with Ford, Lotus, Fiat, Jaguar, Honda and Formula 1
companies (Williams, Ferrari, Mercedes etc) on next generation of
ICEs, boosting and energy recovery and a wide range of SMEs
 Exposed to wide range of engine & vehicle demonstrator projects
 120+ scientific publications (incl.6 patents) 5
1. Course Details – Topics to be covered
Contact
No List of Topics
Hours
1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 6
2 Introduction to Fluid Statics and Manometers (+lab) 5
3 Forces on Submerged Objects and Buoyancy (+lab) 5
4 Fluid Kinematics 6
5 Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equations (+lab) 5
6 The Bernoulli Equation (+lab) 8
7 General Energy Equation 3
8 Momentum 6
Total 44
6
1. Course Details – Today’s lecture 1
 First class day items: attendance, outline etc.
 Class goals and learning objectives
 Quiz
 Discussion of dimensions and units
 Physical quantities have dimensions
 Several units measure the same dimension
 Use of SI system of units (meter, kilogram, etc…)
 Also use of other systems of engineering units (feet, pounds, etc)
7
1. Course Details – Lecture 2, Week 1
 Fluid Properties
 Density
 Bulk modulus
 Viscosity
 Vapor pressure
 Surface Tension
 Start discussion of fluid statics using next set of notes
8
1. Course Details – Basic Information
 Professor Apostolos Pesyridis; a.pesyridis@alasala.edu.sa
 Office Hours: At the hours indicated below you can enter this
office (in Main Building no.447) without appointment:
 Monday, 09:00 – 13:00,
 Tue 09:00 – 13:00, Wednesday 09:00 – 11:00
 Other times by email, phone, appointment or drop-in:
 when my office door is open – I am usually here from 8.30 to 4.30.
 At any other time meetings can only be scheduled by exception and
only having emailed me in advance at: a.pesyridis@alasala.edu.sa
 Recommended Reading: Frank M. White, Fundamentals of
Fluid Mechanics (6th edition), McGraw Hill.
9
1. Course Details – Basic Information
 Campus policy requires students to monitor their Alasala
emails addresses
 These email addresses will be used as the class email list
 Setup your email account if you have not done so already
 If desired, forward email to another address
10
1. Course Details – Learning Objectives (1)
 Understand and be able to formulate and solve problems using
basic fluid properties:
 Density
 Specific weight
 Viscosity
 And mechanical quantities:
 Pressure
 Velocity
 Force and stress
 Solve problems to determine pressures in static fluids and
manometers
 Understand limits and solve problems with Bernoulli equation
11
 Understand definition and be able to use concepts of system
and control volume
 Use continuity equation and mass conservation in problem
solving
 Solve problems to determine forces in moving fluids using
control volumes
 Use dimensionless parameters and apply the concept of
similitude for fluid mechanics experimentation
12
 Understand the differences between laminar and turbulent
flows and…
 be able to determine if a flow is laminar or turbulent based on
the Reynolds number for the flow
 Solve problems in laminar and turbulent flows in pipes
 Be familiar with the basic ideas of boundary layers and
irrotational flows outside of these boundary layers
13
 Solve problems of lift and drag in external flows
 Understand the important variables used to solve problems in
open channel and compressible flows
 Solve problems in one of the following areas
a. Compressible flows
b. Open flows
14
1. Course Details – See the Course Outline
 Download course files from the Google Classroom or receive
emails (or Learning Management System (LMS) if LMS is
available) about:
1. lecture schedule and homework assignments
2. Also read information on the following items:
a. Class participation and courtesy
b. Collaboration
 Students are responsible for following ALL announcements on
Google Classroom or LMS or email from the instructor for
MEC353.
15
1. Course Details – See the Course Outline
week as per
Alasala Week LABS Comments
lecture notes
1 07/12/2022 No lecture Registration week

2 14/12/2022 1
3 21/12/2022 2 long weekend; Sun 18/12;
4 28/12/2022 3 Lecture by replacement instructor
7 18/01/2023 6, 7-1 Long weekend; Sun 15/1
Mid-term Exam quizz; 1 -

Hydrostatic Pressure (on
8 25/01/2023 No lecture 23/01/2023) Mid-term exam quizz
2 - Series and Parallel
9 01/02/2023 10 Pumps (on 30/01/2023) Hand out Homework
10 08/02/2023 11 Homework deadline
11 15/02/2023 12 Last day for announcing out of 60% marks
12 19/02/2023 Final Exam
13 02/03/2023 Final Exam Last day of Final Exams 16
1. Course Details – Grading
Percentage of Total
# Assessment task* Week Due
Assessment Score
1 Class Quizz 8 10
2 Homework Assignment 8 30
3 Laboratory Reports 8 - 10 20
4 Final Examination Exam 40
17
1. Course Details – Goals for this Course
 to help all students find within themselves sufficient
knowledge of fluid mechanics
 To excite you about the subject – probably the very best of the
fundamental topics!
 To help you achieve high grades
 What is your goal for this course?
 What will you do to achieve that goal?
18
1. Course Details – How to get a good grade
 Study with fellow students and try to answer each other’s
questions
 Do the homework as well as you can
 Contact me by email, telephone or office visits to ask questions
if needed
 Develop a good working relation with the other members of
your self-study group
19
1. Course Details – What I will do to help?
 Use the allocated attendance roll call of 15 minutes before the start
of the actual class and in the 15 minutes of the end of lecture
attendance roll call to answer any question you may have.
 Give lectures that stress the application of basics to problem solving
 Return quizzes and exams promptly so that you can learn from your
errors
 Be available for questions by email, office visits or phone calls at the
designated times if appropriate
 Send emails to the entire class if appropriate
 We have a tutorial time period (slot) on Wednesdays in M313 (in
your time table – this is not a lecture and you don’t have to attend.
 I will be in my office and I will be at hand to answer any questions
you have from the theory and practical problems that I deliver on
the Monday lecture.
 Also during this time I will be in my office and if you have questions I
will be happy to discuss them there between 13.30 and 16.30. 20
2. Basic Introduction
21
2. Basic Introduction - What is a fluid?
 Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas
phase
 A fluid deforms continuously under
the influence of a shear stress, no
matter how small
 In solids, stress is proportional to
strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
 When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops Deformation of a rubber block placed
deforming at some fixed strain angle, between two parallel plates under the
whereas a fluid never stops influence of a shear force.
deforming and approaches a constant
rate of strain The shear stress shown is that on the
rubber—an equal but opposite shear
stress acts on the upper plate.
22
2. Basic Introduction - What is fluid mechanics ?
 Fluids are any materials that flow (deform) when force (shear
stress) is applied
 Fluid mechanics deal with the behavior of fluids at rest ( Fluid
statics ) and in motion ( Fluid dynamics )
 The analysis is based on the fundamental laws of mechanics,
which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and
momentum
 An understanding of the properties and behavior of fluids at
rest and in motion is of great importance in engineering
23
2. Basic Introduction - Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart. 24
25
26
27
 Any physical quantity has a unique dimension: e.g. mass,
length , time…
 Several units may be available for any dimension
 Length is measured in meters, feet, miles, fathoms, furlongs, yards,
light-years, etc…
 You cannot measure length in units with the dimension of mass
28
3. Dimensions and Units – Systems of Units
 Arbitrary units for fundamental dimensions, e.g. mass (M),
length (L), time (t), and temperature (T)
 Units for other physical quantities from the physical relations
to quantities with fundamental units:
 Velocity dimensions are length/time, L/t
 Acceleration dimensions are L/t2
 Force dimension of (M x L)/t2
29
3. Dimensions and Units – More dimensions
 Pressure = force per unit area
=[force]/[length]2
=[(mass)(length)/(time) 2]/(length)2
= (mass)/[(time) 2(length)] or Mt-2L-1
 Common dimensions for energy terms are
(mass)(length)/(time)2 or ML2t-2
Work = force times distance
=(force)(length)
=(mass)(length) 2 /(time) 2 or ML2t-2
Kinetic energy = MV2/2
=(mass)(velocity) 2
=(mass)(length) 2 /(time) 2 or ML2 T-2
30
3. Dimensions and Units – More dimensions (2)
 Another energy term
Potential energy = mgh =
=(mass)(acceleration)(length) =
=(mass)(legth)2/(time)2
 Power = (energy)/(time)
=(mass)(length)2/(time)3 or ML2T-3
 Thermodynamic work is PdV = Fdx
 This is like Fdx since P = F/A and dV = Adx (A is area)
 PdV dimensions are (length)3(force)/(area) which is also
(mass)(length)2/(time)2
31
3. Dimensions and Units – SI Units
 Basic definitions for fundamental units
 Mass: kilogram (kg) = international prototype
 Time: second (s) = time for 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation
from Cs133 (Caesium or Cesium-133)
 Length: meter (m) = length light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a
second
 Temperature: Kelvin (K) = 1/273.16 of the triple point of water
 Current: Ampere (A) defined in terms of electrostatic force
32
3. Dimensions and Units – Other Units
 Light intensity and molar units
 Units for velocity and acceleration are m/s and m/s2
 Units of force are kg.m/s2
 1 Newton (N) = 1 kg.m/s2
 Units for energy are kg(m/s)2 = N.m
 1 Joule (J) = 1 N.m = 1 kg.m2/s2
33
3. Dimensions and Units – Other Units (2)
 Power = (energy)/(time) = joules/second
 1 Watt (W) = 1 J/s = 1 N.m/s = 1 kg.m2/s3
 Pressure = (force)/(area) = Newtons per square meter (1 atm =
101,325 Pa)
 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 = 1 kg/(m.s2)
 Note that Isaac Newton has 2a capital N. 1 Newton of force does
not unless it is abbreviated as 1 N (true for all units named
after individuals)
34
3. Dimensions and Units – Some Prefixes
35

Lecture 2

36
Overview
1. Engineering Units
2. Density and Related Properties
37
1. Engineering Units
 Second is the basic unit of time
 The foot = 0.3048 m (exactly) is the basic unit of length
 Pound is confusing because it can be used to represent two
dimensions
 Mass: pound-mass (lbm = 0.453592 kg)
 Force: pound force (lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2)
 What is the SI equivalent for pound force?
1 lbf = 4.4482 N
38
1. Engineering Units – Why use a pound force?
 From the definition of pound force, the weight, W = mg, of a
pound of mass in a standard gravitational field is 1 lbf
 This is convenient, but the same name for two dimensions is

confusing and the conversion factor awkward
39
1. Engineering Units – Two Engineering Unit Systems
 British engineering units use mass as pound mass and force as
pound force
 1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2
 British gravitational (BG) system uses slug as the mass unit
 1 lbf = 1 slug.ft/s2
 Which mass is larger, slug or lbm?
 What is their conversion factor?
 1 lbf lbm. s2/ft= 32.174 lbm = 1 slug
40
1. Engineering Units – More Engineering Units
 Foot-pound is work (energy unit)
 British thermal unit (Btu = 778.16 ft-lbf)
 Pressure in lbf/in2 (psi) – 1 atm = 14.696 psi = (144)(14.69)
lbf/ft2 (psf)
 Horsepower as power unit
 1 hp.hr = 2,545 Btu = 1.98x106 ft/lbf
 1 kW.hr = 3,412 Btu
 The metric unit, calorie = 1/252 Btu
 The food calorie is kilocalorie (kcal)
41
1. Engineering Units – Calculating Units
 What is the kinetic energy of a 100 lbm mass moving at 10 ft/s?
 mV2/2 = (100 lbm)(10 ft/s)2/2 = 5000lbm.ft2.s-2
 Unit conversion
 Note the algebraic cancellation units
42
1. Engineering Units – Calculating Units (2)
 What is the kinetic energy of a 3 slug mass moving at 10 ft/s?
 mV2/2 = (3 slugs)(10 ft/s)2/2 = 150 slug.ft2.s-2
 Unit conversion
 Note the algebraic cancellation units
43
1. Engineering Units – Units Quiz (1)
 What is the change in potential energy when a mass of 20 slugs
is raised a distance of 15 ft?
 Do you need more data to answer this question?
 What is g? Use 5 ft/s2 for this problem
44
1. Engineering Units – Units Quiz (1): Answer
45
1. Engineering Units – Units Quiz (2)
 Some European engineering calculations use the kilogram-
force, defined in the same way as the pound-force and measure
pressure in kgf/cm2
 What exactly is the definition of a kgf?
 How many newtons are in a kgf?
 How many pascals are there in a kgf/cm2
46
1. Engineering Units – Units Quiz (2): Answer
 One kgf is the force required to accelerate 1kg at an
acceleration of standard gravity, g = 9.80665 m/s2
47
1. Engineering Units – A few other units
 Volume is sometimes measured in liters (or litres in British
English), L, where 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3
 Gallons, gal, is another volume measure; 7.4805 gal = 1 ft3
 Speed is sometimes measured in miles per hour, mph; 30 mph;
30 mph = 44 ft/s and 1 mph = 0.44704 m/s
 1 hogshead = 63 gallons
48
1. Engineering Units – Working with units
 Carrying units in the calculation is a good approach for correct
results
 If you do not want to do that, here are some hints for correct
unit results
 In the BG system convert all lengths to feet, time to seconds,
and pressures to lbf/ft2 (psf); 1 lbf = 1 slug.ft/s2
In the SI system always use m, Pa and N (instead of mm, cm, kPa,
kN, etc; 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2
Volume is sometimes measures in liters (or litres in British English), L,
where 1 L = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3
49
1. Engineering Units – Temperature units
 SI unit: absolute temperature in K
 Degrees Celsius, °C = K – 273.15
 Degrees Fahrenheit, °F = 1.8 (C) + 32
 Rankine, R = °F +459.67 is absolute temperature for Fahrenheit
scale
 T(R) = 1.8 T(K)
 What is 15 C in Rankine?
 15 C = 288.15 K = 59 F = 518.67 R
50
 Density, ρ, is mass per unit volume, ρ = 1/v
where, v, is the specific volume used more commonly in
thermodynamics)
 Specific weight, γ = ρg
typically tabulated at standard gravity, g = 9.80665 m/s2 =
32.174 ft/s2, in N/m3 for SI and lbf/ft3 for both EE and BG
51
 Specific gravity, SG, of a substance:
 Ratio of substance density to the density of a reference
substance at a specified temperature
 Reference substance is usually water for liquids and air for gases
 Water reference temperature: 4 C (39.4 F) where ρwater =
1000kg/m3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3
 The specific gravity of mercury at 68 F is 13.56 (relative to water
at 39.4 F).
 What is the density at this temperature?
ρwater = 1.356 x 104 kg/m3 = 26.3 slugs/ft3
52
2. Density and Related Properties - Summary
 Density, ρ = mass per unit volume with units of kg/m3 or
slugs/ft3
 Specific weight: γ = ρg with units of N/m3 or lbf/ft3 (varies with
local g)
 Specific gravity: SG = ρ/ρref = γ/γref
Liquid ρref: water at 4 C with ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and γ = 9806.65
N/m3 or water at 60 F with ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 and γ = 62.4
lbf/ft3
Gas ρref: air at 15 C (59 F) with ρ = 1.23 kg/m3 = 0.00238
slugs/ft3 and γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3
53

Lecture 1

Lab Associate: Eng.Mr. Abdulmajid Alaliw

abdulmajid.alaliw@alasala.edu.sa
54
Overview
1. Further Definitions
2. Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
3. Classification of Fluid Flows
55
Mechanics: The oldest physical science
that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics),
and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also
referred to as fluid dynamics by Fluid mechanics deals
considering fluids at rest as a special with liquids and gases in
case of motion with zero velocity.
motion or at rest. 56
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that
can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.
57
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free The normal stress and shear stress at
surface. the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress. 58
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the volume remains
relatively constant because of the strong cohesive forces between the molecules.
As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the container it is in, and it forms a free surface
in a larger container in a gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the entire available
space. This is because the gas molecules are widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
between them are very small. Unlike liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a
free surface.
Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available
space.
59
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.
The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at relatively fixed
positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random in the gas phase. 60
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.
Macroscopic or classical approach:
Does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to
analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach:
Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual molecules.
On a microscopic scale, pressure
is determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the
pressure on a macroscopic scale
61
with a pressure gage.
1. Further Definitions – No Slip Condition
A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop at
The development of a velocity the surface because of the no-slip
profile due to the no-slip condition condition.
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose.
Boundary layer: The flow

region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects
(and thus the velocity
gradients) are significant.
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface.
62
Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each A mine hoist powered by

clay pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in a reversible water wheel.
63
diameter.
Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the

onset of turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard
at the University of Manchester in 1975.
64
The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.
The Oklahoma Wind Power Center

near Woodward consists of 68
turbines, 1.5 MW each.
65
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.
The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
66
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.
• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind. 67
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density
of flowing fluid remains nearly
constant throughout (e.g., liquid
flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of
fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number
Schlieren image of a small model of

the space shuttle orbiter being tested at
Mach 3 in the supersonic wind tunnel
Ma = 1 Sonic flow of the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several oblique shocks are seen in the
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow air surrounding the spacecraft.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow 68
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that
alternates between being
laminar and turbulent. 69
Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows.
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by

external means such as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to natural means such as the
buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and
thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.
70
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
 The term steady implies no change at
a point with time.
 The opposite of steady is unsteady.
 The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
 The term periodic refers to the kind of
unsteady flow in which the flow
oscillates about a steady mean.
 Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.
Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil

at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while photo (b) is 71
a long-exposure (time-averaged) image. 71
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
 A flow field is best characterized by its velocity
distribution.
 A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one,
two, or three dimensions, respectively. Flow over a car antenna is
 However, the variation of velocity in certain approximately two-dimensional
directions can be small relative to the variation except near the top and bottom of
in other directions and can be ignored. the antenna.
The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in 72
72
the flow direction, V = V(r).
73

Lecture 2


74
Overview
1. States of Matter
2. Other Principal Properties
75
1. States of Matter (Phases)
 Triple point:
unique point for
each substance
where solid,
liquid and vapour
coexist
 No liquid-gas
transition above
critical point
76
1. States of Matter (Phases) – Transition between phases
 For phase
transitions
pressure and
temperature are
related
 Vapor pressure is
the pressure at
which liquid-
vapour transition
occurs
77
2. Other Properties – Vapor pressure
• Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which
a pure substance changes phase at a given pressure.
• Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a
pure substance changes phase at a given temperature.
• Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor
in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature. It is identical to the saturation pressure
Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
• For water the vapour pressure at 100 C is 101.325kPa
• Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a
mixture with other gases. For example, atmospheric air
is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and atmospheric
pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air and
the partial pressure of water vapor.
78
2. Other Properties – Specific Heats
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature
of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained
constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is
maintained constant.
Constant-
volume and
constant-
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. 79
2. Other Properties – Cavitation
• There is a possibility of the liquid
pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor pressure at
some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization. (When
Pliq<Pvap)
• The vapor bubbles (called cavitation
bubbles since they form “cavities” in
the liquid) collapse as they are swept
away from the low-pressure regions,
generating highly destructive,
extremely high-pressure waves. Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by
• This phenomenon, which is a 23-mm aluminum sample tested at
common cause for drop in 60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
performance and even the erosion located at the cavity collapse
of impeller blades, is called region downstream of a cavity
cavitation, and it is an important generator specifically designed to
consideration in the design of produce high damage potential.
hydraulic turbines and pumps.
80
2. Other Properties – Ideal Gases
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and density (or specific volume) of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known
equation of state for substances in the gas phase.
 For chemistry: PV = nRT (V is volume)
 n = m /M is the number of moles
For mass in kg, n is in kilogram moles (kmol); for mass in lbm, n is
in pound moles (lbmol)
 Ṝ = 8.31447 kJ/kmol.K = 10.7316 psia.ft3 / lbmol.R is universal gas
constant
 Or R =287.058 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1
 R = Ṝ/M is engineering gas constant that is different for each gas
 Real gases are like ideal gases at low pressures
 P=nṜT/V = (m/M)ṜT/V = (m/V)(Ṝ/M)T => P=ρRT
81
2. Other Properties – Compressibility
Coefficient of Compressibility
We know from experience that the volume
(V) (or density (ρ)) of a fluid changes with a
change in its temperature or pressure (P &
T).
Fluids usually expand as they are heated or
depressurized and contract as they are
cooled
But the amount of volume change is
different for different fluids, and we need to
define properties that relate volume
changes to the changes in pressure and
temperature.
Two such properties are:
the bulk modulus of elasticity  Fluids, like solids, compress
the coefficient of volume expansion . when the applied pressure is
increased from P1 to P2. 82
Coefficient of compressibility
(also called the bulk modulus of
compressibility or bulk modulus of
elasticity) for fluids
The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid
while the temperature remains constant.
What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible
substance (v = constant)?
A large value of  indicates that a large change in pressure is needed
to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a
large  is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually
considered to be incompressible.
83
The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its

absolute pressure, and the coefficient of compressibility of the gas
increases with increasing pressure.
The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal

compression is equal to the percent increase in pressure.
Isothermal compressibility (α): The inverse of the coefficient of
compressibility.
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change
in volume or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.
84
2. Other Properties – Volume change
The coefficient of volume expansion
(or volume expansivity): The variation of
the density of a fluid with temperature at
constant pressure.
 A large  for a fluid  large change in density with

temperature
 product  T represents the fraction of volume
change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of T at constant pressure
The volume expansion coefficient of an ideal
gas (P = RT ) at a temperature T is
equivalent to the inverse of the temperature: The coefficient of volume expansion is a measure
of the change in volume of a substance with
temperature at constant 85
pressure.
2. Other Properties – Volume change
In the study of natural convection currents, the condition of the main fluid body
that surrounds the finite hot or cold regions is indicated by the subscript “infinity” to
serve as a reminder that this is the value at a distance where the presence of the
hot or cold region is not felt. In such cases, the volume expansion coefficient can
be expressed approximately as
coefficient of volume expansion
The combined effects of P&T changes on the volume change of a fluid can be
determined by taking the specific volume to be a function of T and P.
coefficient of compressibility
The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in P&T can
be expressed approximately as
86
2. Other Properties – Speed of Sound & Mach Number
Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.
Control volume moving with the

small pressure wave along a duct.
For an ideal gas,

For any fluid k: spec.heat ratio
Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct. 87
2. Other Properties – Speed of Sound & Mach Number
Mach number Ma: The ratio of the
actual speed of the fluid (or an object
in still fluid) to the speed of sound in
the same fluid at the same state.
The Mach number depends on the

speed of sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.
The speed of sound

changes with temperature
and varies with the fluid. The Mach number can be different
at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. 88
2. Other Properties – Viscosity
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid
to motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a

measure of its “resistance to
deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.
A fluid moving relative to

a body exerts a drag
force on the body, partly
because of friction
caused by viscosity. 89
Newtonian fluids: Fluids for
which the rate of deformation is
proportional to the shear
stress.
Shear
stress
The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow Shear force

between two parallel plates when the upper
plate moves with a constant velocity.
 coefficient of viscosity
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
kg/m  s or N  s/m2 or Pa  s
1 poise = 0.1 Pa  s 90
Variation of shear stress with the

rate of deformation for
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) Newtonian and non-
of a Newtonian fluid is proportional to Newtonian fluids (the slope of a
shear stress, and the constant of curve at a point is the apparent
proportionality is the viscosity. viscosity of the fluid at that
point).
91
Kinematic viscosity
m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
For liquids, both the dynamic and
kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any
small variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for
dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic
viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure.
Dynamic viscosity, in general,
For gases does not depend on pressure,
but kinematic viscosity does.
For liquids 92
The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to
the pumping power needed to transport a
fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a
fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
the molecular collisions in gases, and it
varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they can
oppose the large cohesive intermolecular
forces more strongly. As a result, the
energized liquid molecules can move more
freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high
temperatures move randomly at higher
The viscosity of liquids decreases velocities. This results in more molecular
and the viscosity of gases collisions per unit volume per unit time and
increases with temperature. therefore in greater resistance to flow. 93
The variation of
dynamic
(absolute)
viscosity of
common fluids
with
temperature at
1 atm
(1 Ns/m2
= 1kg/ms
= 0.020886
lbfs/ft2)
94
2. Other Properties – Surface tension
 tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area
possible
 Forces generated at liquid-gas or liquid-liquid interfaces
 Surface tension, σ, is a fluid property with dimensions F/L (N  m/m2)
Some consequences of surface tension.

Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop
95
Attractive forces acting on a liquid

molecule at the surface and deep
inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a U-
Surface tension: The work done per unit shaped wire, and the forces acting
increase in the surface area of the liquid. on the movable wire of length b.
96
The strength of the capillary effect is Capillary Effect
quantified by the contact (or wetting)
angle, defined as the angle that the
tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact.
The meniscus of colored water in a

4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
The contact angle for wetting and meets the wall of the capillary tube
nonwetting fluids. at a very small contact angle.
97
The capillary rise of water and the

The forces acting on a liquid column
capillary fall of mercury in a small-
that has risen in a tube due to the
diameter glass tube.
capillary effect.
 Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the

radius of the tube and density of the liquid.
98
2. Other Properties – Surface tension problem
 Find the capillary rise for water at 60 F (γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3, σ =
0.00503 lbf/ft) in a circular tube with a diameter of 0.5 in?
 For water in clean glass, θ = 0°
99
2. Other Properties – Surface tension problem: Answer
Specific weight, γ = ρg
100
2. Other Properties – Surface tension problem: Answer
101
2. Other Properties – Typical Units
102
Week 3: Introduction to Fluid Statics and Manometers

Lecture 1


103
Overview
1. Pressure
2. Pressure and Measurement Devices
104
1. Pressure
Applications of pressure in the context of fluid statics will show
you how to:
 Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest
 Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers
 Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at rest on plane or curved
submerged surfaces.
 Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies.
 Analyze the rigid-body motion of fluids in containers during
linear acceleration or rotation.
105
1. Pressure
 Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
68 kg 136 kg
Afeet=300cm2
0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2
Some
The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the feet of
basic
a chubby person is much greater than on the
pressure
feet of a slim person.
gages.
106
1. Pressure
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in
the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
107
1. Pressure
108
1. Pressure
109
1. Pressure - Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the compressive
force per unit area but it is not
a vector. Pressure at any point
in a fluid is the same in all
directions. Pressure has
magnitude but not a specific
direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity.
x
Forces acting on a wedge-shaped 110
fluid element in equilibrium.
1. Pressure - Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known
Specific weight:
γ = ρg
The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

increases with depth (as a fluid element in equilibrium.
result of added weight). 111
1. Pressure
Pressure in a liquid at
In a room filled with a gas, the rest increases linearly
variation of pressure with height is with distance from the
negligible. free surface.
112
1. Pressure
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a

given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are
interconnected by the same fluid.
113
1. Pressure
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount.
The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
Lifting of a large
weight by a small
force by the
application of
Pascal’s law. 114
2. Pressure Measurement Devices - The Barometer
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus,
the atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
 A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in
height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
The length or the

cross-sectional area
of the tube has no
effect on the height
of the fluid column of
a barometer,
provided that the
tube diameter is
large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
The basic barometer. 115
At high altitudes, a car engine generates

less power and a person gets less oxygen
because of the lower density of air.
116
2. Pressure Measurement
Devices - The Barometer
117
118
2. Pressure Measurement Devices - The
Barometer
119
120
2. Pressure Measurement
Devices - The Barometer
121
The variation of gage

pressure with depth in the
gradient zone of the solar
pond.
122
Week 3: Introduction to Fluid Statics and Manometers

Lecture 2


123
Overview
1. Pressure and Measurement Devices
2. Introduction to Fluid Statics
3. Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
124
1. Pressure and Measurement Devices – The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the pressure
drop across a flow section
or a flow device by a
differential manometer.
The basic
manometer
.
In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid layer
of density  and height h is gh. 125
126
127
128
129
1. Pressure and Measurement Devices – Other Devices
 Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube
bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
 Pressure transducers: Use various techniques
to convert the pressure effect to an electrical
effect such as a change in voltage, resistance,
or capacitance.
 Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
 Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
 Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in
a crystalline substance when it is subjected to
mechanical pressure.
Various types of Bourdon tubes used 130

to measure pressure.
1. Pressure and Measurement Devices – Other Devices
Deadweight tester: Another type of mechanical pressure gage. It is
used primarily for calibration and can measure extremely high pressures.
A deadweight tester measures pressure directly through application of a
weight that provides a force per unit area —the fundamental definition of
pressure.
It is constructed with an internal chamber filled with a fluid (usually oil),
along with a tight-fitting piston, cylinder, and plunger.
Weights are applied to the top of the piston, which exerts a force on the oil
in the chamber. The total force F acting on the oil at the piston–oil interface
is the sum of the weight of the piston plus the applied weights.
A deadweight tester is
able to measure
extremely high
pressures (up to 10,000
psi in some
applications).
131
2. Introduction to Fluid Statics
 Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
 The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
 Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
 Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
 In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the
fluid trying to deform it.
 The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress,
which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only
to the weight of the fluid.
 The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
 The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and
liquid storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting
on the surfaces using fluid statics.
132
A plate, such as a gate valve in a dam, the
wall of a liquid storage tank, or the hull of a
ship at rest, is subjected to fluid pressure
distributed over its surface when exposed to
a liquid.
On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces
form a system of parallel forces, and we often Hoover
need to determine the magnitude of the force Dam.
and its point of application, which is called the
center of pressure.
When analyzing hydrostatic forces on

submerged surfaces, the atmospheric
pressure can be subtracted for simplicity
when it acts on both sides of the structure. 133
Hydrostatic force
on an inclined
plane surface
completely
submerged in a
liquid.
pressure at the centroid of a surface (Pc) =

average pressure on the surface (Pavg)
134
The resultant force (FR)

acting on a plane surface =
pressure at the centroid of the
surface (Pc) times the surface
area (A), and its line of action
passes through the center of
pressure.
second moment of area, IXX (area moment of

inertia) about the x-axis. Second moment of
area is a geometrical property of an area which
reflects how its points are distributed with
regard to an arbitrary axis
135
The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some common geometries
136
 Pressure acts normal to the surface, and
the hydrostatic forces acting on a flat plate
of any shape, form a volume whose base
is the plate area and whose length is the
linearly varying pressure.
 This virtual pressure prism has an
interesting physical interpretation: its
volume is equal to the magnitude of the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on the
plate since FR =  PdA, and the line of
action of this force passes through the
centroid of this homogeneous prism.
 The projection of the centroid on the plate
is the pressure center.
 Therefore, with the concept of pressure
prism, the problem of describing the The hydrostatic forces acting on a
resultant hydrostatic force on a plane plane surface form a pressure prism
surface reduces to finding the volume and whose base (left face) is the surface
the two coordinates of the centroid of this and whose length is the pressure.
pressure prism. 137
Special Case:
Submerged
Rectangular Plate
Hydrostatic force acting
on the top surface of a
submerged tilted
rectangular plate.
138
Hydrostatic force
acting on the top
surface of a
submerged vertical
rectangular plate.
139
Hydrostatic force acting
on the top surface of a
submerged horizontal
rectangular plate.
140
141
Same equation from Page 17
142
Week 4: Forces on Submerged Objects and Buoyancy

Lecture 1


143
Overview
1. Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
2. Buoyancy and Stability
3. Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
144
Determination of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface.
145
When a curved surface is above the The hydrostatic force acting on a

liquid, the weight of the liquid and the circular surface always passes
vertical component of the hydrostatic force through the center of the circle since
(Fy) act in the opposite directions. the pressure forces are normal to
the surface and they all pass 146
through the center.
in a multilayered fluid of different densities, hydrostatic (resistance) force
(FR) can be determined by considering different parts of surfaces in different
fluids as different surfaces, finding the force on each part, and then adding
them using vector addition. For a plane surface, it can be expressed as
The hydrostatic force on a

surface submerged in a
multilayered fluid can be
determined by considering parts
of the surface in different fluids
as different surfaces. 147
Schematic for Example 3–9 and the free-body diagram of

the liquid underneath the cylinder.
148
149
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.
The buoyant force acting on

the plate is equal to the
weight of the liquid
displaced by the plate.
For a fluid with constant
density, the buoyant force is
independent of the distance of
the body from the free surface.
It is also independent of the
density of the solid body.
A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged
in a liquid parallel to the free surface.
150
The buoyant forces acting on a solid body
submerged in a fluid and on a fluid body of
the same shape at the same depth are
identical.
The buoyant force FB acts upward through

the centroid C of the displaced volume and
is equal in magnitude to the weight W of
the displaced fluid, but is opposite in
direction.
For a solid of uniform density, its weight Ws

also acts through the centroid, but its
magnitude is not necessarily equal to that
of the fluid it displaces. (Here Ws > W and
thus Ws > FB; this solid body would sink.)
Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed

in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it
acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
151
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:
A solid body dropped

into a fluid will sink,
float, or remain at rest
at any point in the
fluid, depending on its
average density
relative to the density
of the fluid.
152
The altitude of a hot air

balloon is controlled by the
temperature difference
between the air inside and
outside the balloon, since
warm air is less dense than
cold air. When the balloon
is neither rising nor falling,
the upward buoyant force
exactly balances the
downward weight.
153
154
155
156
157
Stability is easily
understood by
analyzing a ball
For floating bodies such as on the floor.
ships, stability is an important
158
consideration for safety.
A floating body possesses vertical stability, while an immersed
neutrally buoyant body is neutrally stable since it does not
return to its original position after a disturbance.
An immersed neutrally buoyant body is (a) stable if the

center of gravity G is directly below the center of buoyancy
B of the body, (b) neutrally stable if G and B are
coincident, and (c) unstable if G is directly above B.
159
A ball in a trough
When the center of gravity G of an immersed between two hills is
neutrally buoyant body is not vertically aligned stable for small
with the center of buoyancy B of the body, it is not disturbances, but
in an equilibrium state and would rotate to its unstable for large
stable state, even without any disturbance. disturbances.
160
A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the

center of gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the
metacenter M is above point G. However, the body is unstable if
point M is below point G.
Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G
and the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the
buoyant force through the body before and after rotation.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the
161
stability: the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
Week 4: Forces on Submerged Objects and Buoyancy

Lecture 2


162
Overview
1. Fluids in Rigid Body Motion
163
Pressure at a given point has the same
magnitude in all directions, and thus it is
a scalar function.
In this section we obtain relations for the
variation of pressure in fluids moving like
a solid body with or without acceleration
in the absence of any shear stresses
(i.e., no motion between fluid layers
relative to each other).
164
Del, or nabla symbol

(vector differential operator)
Buoyancy force, z:
165
Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
 For fluids at rest or moving on a straight path at constant velocity:
 all components of acceleration are zero, and the relations reduce to:
 The pressure remains constant in any horizontal direction (P is

independent of x & y) and varies only in the vertical direction as a result of
gravity [and thus P = P(z)].
 These relations are applicable for both compressible and incompressible
fluids.
166
Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body
 A freely falling body accelerates under the influence of gravity
 When the air resistance is negligible, the acceleration of the body =
gravitational acceleration, and acceleration in any horizontal direction =0.
 Therefore, ax = ay = 0 and az = -g.
In a frame of reference moving with the fluid,

it behaves like it is in an environment with
zero gravity. Also, the gage pressure in a
drop of liquid in free fall is zero throughout.
The effect of acceleration on the

pressure of a liquid during free
fall and upward acceleration.
167
Acceleration on a Straight Path
Rigid-body motion of a liquid in a

linearly accelerating tank.
168
Lines of constant pressure
(which are the projections of the
surfaces of constant pressure on
the xz-plane) in a linearly
accelerating liquid. Also shown is
the vertical rise.
169
170
171
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Consider a vertical cylindrical container partially filled
with a liquid. The container is now rotated about its
axis at a constant angular velocity of . After initial
transients, the liquid will move as a rigid body together
with the container. There is no deformation, and thus
there can be no shear stress, and every fluid particle in
the container moves with the same angular velocity.
Isobars which means dP = 0

Rigid-body motion of a
liquid in a rotating vertical
cylindrical container. 172
Rigid-body motion of a
liquid in a rotating vertical
173
cylindrical container.
The 6-meter spinning liquid-

mercury mirror of the Large
Zenith Telescope located near
Vancouver, British Columbia. Surfaces of constant
pressure in a rotating
liquid.
174
Note that at a fixed radius, the pressure varies hydrostatically in the

vertical direction, as in a fluid at rest.
For a fixed vertical distance z, the pressure varies with the square of the
radial distance r, increasing from the centerline toward the outer edge.
In any horizontal plane, the pressure difference between the center and
edge of the container of radius R is
175
176
177
Summary
Pressure
Pressure Measurement Devices
Introduction to Fluid Statics
Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved
Surfaces
Buoyancy and Stability
Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion
178
Week 5: Fluid Kinematics

Lecture 1


179
Overview
1. Introduction – Objectives
2. Lagrangian & Eulerian Descriptions
180
1. Introduction
Irrotational flow is a flow in which

each element of the moving fluid
undergoes no net rotation with
respect to a chosen coordinate axes
from one instant to other.
Satellite image of a hurricane near the Florida coast; water droplets move with
the air, enabling us to visualize the counterclockwise swirling motion. However,
the major portion of the hurricane is actually irrotational, while only the core
(the eye of the storm) is rotational. 181
2. Introduction - Objectives
 Understand the role of the material derivative in
transforming between Lagrangian and Eulerian
descriptions
 Distinguish between various types of flow visualizations
and methods of plotting the characteristics of a fluid flow
 Appreciate the many ways in which fluids move and
deform
 Distinguish between rotational and irrotational regions
of flow based on the flow property vorticity
 Understand the usefulness of the Reynolds transport
theorem
182
Kinematics: The study of motion
Fluid kinematics: The study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.
There are two distinct ways to describe motion: Lagrangian and Eulerian
Lagrangian description: To follow the path of individual objects.
This method requires us to track the position and velocity of each individual
fluid parcel (fluid particle) and take it to be a parcel of fixed identity.
With a small number of objects, such In the Lagrangian description, one

as billiard balls on a pool table, must keep track of the position and
individual objects can be tracked. velocity of individual particles. 183
 A more common method is the Eulerian description of fluid motion.
 In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow
domain or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.
 Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables,
functions of space and time, within the control volume.
 The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of
the variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at
that time.
 For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable. We define the
velocity field as a vector field variable.
Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The velocity
field can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates as
184
 In the Eulerian description we
don’t really care what happens to
individual fluid particles; rather we
are concerned with the pressure,
velocity, acceleration, etc., of
whichever fluid particle happens
to be at the location of interest at
the time of interest.
 While there are many occasions in
which the Lagrangian description
is useful, the Eulerian description
In the Eulerian description, one is often more convenient for fluid
defines field variables, such as mechanics applications.
the pressure field and the
velocity field, at any location  Experimental measurements are
and instant in time. generally more suited to the
Eulerian description.
185
EXAMPLE 4–1 A Steady Two-Dimensional (2D) Velocity Field
A steady, incompressible, two-dimensional (2D) velocity field is given by:
where x- and y-coordinates are in meters & the magnitude of velocity is in m/s. A stagnation point is defined as a
point in the flow field where the velocity is zero. (a) Determine if there are any stagnation points in this flow field and, if
so, where? (b) Sketch velocity vectors at several locations in the domain between x = -2 m to 2 m & y = 0 m to 5 m;
qualitatively describe the flow field.
186
Fig 4-4: Velocity vectors
(blue arrows) for the velocity
field of Example 4–1. The
scale is shown by the top
arrow, and the solid black
curves represent the
approximate shapes of
some streamlines, based on
the calculated velocity
vectors. The stagnation
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady point is indicated by the blue
and incompressible. 2 The flow is circle. The shaded region
represents a portion of the
two-dimensional, implying no z- flow field that can
component of velocity and no approximate flow into an
variation of u or v with z. inlet (see Figure below).
Fig 4-5: Flow field near the

bell mouth inlet of a
hydroelectric dam; a portion
of the velocity field of
Example 4–1 may be used as
a first-order approximation of
this physical flow field. The
shaded region corresponds to
that of Figure above.
187
Acceleration Field
 The equations of motion for fluid flow
(such as Newton’s second law) are
written for a fluid particle, which we
also call a material particle.
 If we were to follow a particular fluid
particle as it moves around in the
flow, we would be employing the
Lagrangian description, and the
equations of motion would be directly
applicable.
 For example, we would define the
Newton’s second law applied to a fluid particle; the
particle’s location in space in terms acceleration vector (purple arrow) is in the same
of a material position vector direction as the force vector (green arrow), but the
(xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t)). velocity vector (blue arrow) may act in a different
direction.
188
Remember!: ∂ is the partial
derivative operator and d is
the total derivative operator
Advective (or convective) acceleration: fluid particle being "convected" from a given
Local
location to another location in the flow. Convection applies to the movement of a
acceleration
fluid; advection is the movement of some material by the velocity of the fluid.
189
The components of the acceleration
vector in cartesian coordinates:
When following a fluid particle, the x-

component of velocity, u, is defined as
dxparticle/dt. Similarly, v=dyparticle/dt and
w=dzparticle/dt. Movement is shown here only
in two dimensions for simplicity.
Flow of water through the nozzle of a
garden hose illustrates that fluid particles
may accelerate, even in a steady flow. In
this example, the exit speed of the water is
much higher than the water speed in the
hose, implying that fluid particles have
190
accelerated even though the flow is steady.
Material Derivative
The total derivative operator d/dt in this equation is given a special name, the material
derivative; it is assigned a special notation, D/Dt, in order to emphasize that it is formed
by following a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field.
Other names for the material derivative include total, particle, Lagrangian, Eulerian, and
substantial derivative.
The material derivative D/Dt is

defined by following a fluid
The material derivative D/Dt is
particle as it moves throughout
composed of a local or unsteady
the flow field. In this illustration,
part and a convective or
the fluid particle is accelerating to
advective (steady) part.
the right as it moves up and to
the right. 191
EXAMPLE 4–3 Material Acceleration of a Steady Velocity Field
Consider the steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field of Example 4–
1. (a) Calculate the material acceleration at the point (x = 2 m, y = 3 m). (b) Sketch
the material acceleration vectors at the same array of x- and y-values as in
Example 4–1.
192
Eq.1
Eq.4-11
193
Material Acceleration of a Steady Velocity Field
Acceleration vectors for the

velocity field of Examples 4–1
and 4–3. The scale is shown
by the top arrow, and the solid
black curves represent the
approximate shapes of some
streamlines, based on the
calculated velocity vectors.
The stagnation point is
indicated by the red circle.
194

Lecture 2


195
Overview
1. Flow Patterns & Flow Visualization
2. Streamlines and Streamtubes
3. Pathlines
4. Streaklines
5. Comparison of Flow Patterns in Unsteady Flow
6. Timelines
7. Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
8. Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
196
1. Flow Patterns & Flow Visualization
 Flow visualization: The visual
examination of flow field
features.
 While quantitative study of fluid
dynamics requires advanced
mathematics, much can be
learned from flow visualization.
 Flow visualization is useful not
only in physical experiments but
in numerical solutions as well
[computational fluid Spinning baseball. The late F. N. M.
dynamics (CFD)]. Brown devoted many years to developing
 In fact, the very first thing an and using smoke visualization in wind
engineer using CFD does after tunnels at the University of Notre Dame.
obtaining a numerical solution is Here the flow speed is about 23 m/s and
simulate some form of flow the ball is rotated at 630 rpm.
visualization.
197
 Streamline: A curve that is
everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity
vector.
 Streamlines are useful as
indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion
throughout the flow field.
 For example, regions of
recirculating flow and
separation of a fluid off of a
solid wall are easily identified
by the streamline pattern.
 Streamlines cannot be directly
observed experimentally
except in steady flow fields.
198
199
EXAMPLE 4–4 Streamlines in the xy-Plane—An Analytical
Solution For the steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field of Example 4–1, plot several
streamlines in the right half of the flow (x > 0) and compare to the velocity vectors plotted in Fig. 4–4.
(Example 4 -1: A steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field given by
200
201
Streamlines for a steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field
Streamlines (solid black curves) for the

velocity field of Example 4–4; velocity
vectors (color arrows) are superimposed
for comparison.
The agreement is excellent in the sense
that the velocity vectors point everywhere
tangent to the streamlines. Note that speed
cannot be determined directly from the
streamlines alone.
202
A streamtube consists of a bundle of
streamlines much like a
communications cable consists of a
bundle of fiber-optic cables.
Since streamlines are everywhere
parallel to the local velocity, fluid
cannot cross a streamline by
definition.
Fluid within a streamtube must
remain there and cannot cross the A streamtube consists of a bundle
boundary of the streamtube. of individual streamlines.
Both streamlines and

streamtubes are
instantaneous quantities,
defined at a particular
instant in time according to In an incompressible flow field, a streamtube (a)
the velocity field at that decreases in diameter as the flow accelerates or
instant.
converges and (b) increases in diameter as the
203
flow decelerates or diverges.
3. Pathlines
 Pathline: The actual path
traveled by an individual fluid
particle over some time period.
 A pathline is a Lagrangian
concept in that we simply follow
the path of an individual fluid
particle as it moves around in
the flow field. A pathline is formed by following the actual
 Thus, a pathline is the same as path of a fluid particle.
the fluid particle’s material
position vector (xparticle(t), Pathlines produced by white tracer particles suspended
yparticle(t), zparticle(t)) traced out in water and captured by time-exposure photography;
as waves pass horizontally, each particle moves in an
over some finite time interval.
elliptical path during one wave period.
204
3. Pathlines
Particle image velocimetry (PIV): A modern experimental technique that utilizes short
segments of particle pathlines to measure the velocity field over an entire plane in a flow.
Recent advances also extend the technique to three dimensions.
In PIV, tiny tracer particles are suspended in the fluid. However, the flow is illuminated by
two flashes of light (usually a light sheet from a laser) to produce two bright spots
(recorded by a camera) for each moving particle.
Then, both the magnitude and direction of the velocity vector at each particle location
can be inferred, assuming that the tracer particles are small enough that they move with
the fluid.
Modern digital photography and fast

computers have enabled PIV to be
performed rapidly enough so that unsteady
features of a flow field can also be
measured.
PIV applied to a
model car in a
wind tunnel. 205
3. Pathlines
206
4. Streaklines
Streakline: The locus of fluid
particles that have passed
sequentially through a
prescribed point in the flow.
Streaklines are the most
common flow pattern
generated in a physical
experiment.
If you insert a small tube into
a flow and introduce a
continuous stream of tracer
fluid (dye in a water flow or
smoke in an air flow), the
observed pattern is a
streakline. A streakline is formed by continuous
introduction of dye or smoke from a point in
the flow. Labeled tracer particles (1 through
8) were introduced sequentially.
207
4. Streaklines
Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream; since the flow is
steady, these streaklines
are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.
 Streaklines, streamlines, and pathlines are identical in steady flow but they
can be quite different in unsteady flow.
 The main difference is that a streamline represents an instantaneous flow
pattern at a given instant in time, while a streakline and a pathline are flow
patterns that have some age and thus a time history associated with them.
 A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time-integrated flow pattern.
 A pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow path of an
individual particle over some time period.
208
4. Streaklines
In the figure, streaklines are introduced from a smoke wire located just downstream
of a circular cylinder of diameter D aligned normal to the plane of view.
When multiple streaklines are introduced along a line, as in the figure, we refer to
this as a rake of streaklines.
The Reynolds number of the flow is Re = 93.
Smoke streaklines introduced by a smoke wire at two different locations in the

wake of a circular cylinder: (a) smoke wire just downstream of the cylinder and
(b) smoke wire located at x/D = 150. The time-integrative nature of streaklines
is clearly seen by comparing the two photographs. 209
4. Streaklines
Because of unsteady vortices shed in an
alternating pattern from the cylinder, the
smoke collects into a clearly defined
periodic pattern called a Kármán vortex
street.
A similar pattern can be seen at much
larger scale in the air flow in the wake of
an island.
Kármán vortices visible in

the clouds in the wake of
Alexander Selkirk Island in
the southern Pacific Ocean.
210
4. Streaklines
 For a known velocity field, a streakline can be generated numerically
 We need to follow the paths of a continuous stream of tracer particles
from the time of their injection into the flow until the present time, using
Eq. 4–17
 Mathematically, the location of a tracer particle is integrated over time
from the time of its injection to the present time. Equation 4–17
becomes
 In a complex unsteady flow, the time integration must be performed

numerically as the velocity field changes with time
 When the locus of tracer particle locations at t = tpresent is connected by a
smooth curve, the result is the desired streakline.
211
5. Comparison of Flow Patterns in Unsteady Flow
An unsteady, incompressible,
two-dimensional velocity field
Streamlines, pathlines, and

streaklines for the oscillating
velocity field of Example 4–5.
The streaklines and pathlines
are wavy because of their
integrated time history, but the
streamlines are not wavy since
they represent an
instantaneous snapshot of the
velocity field. 212
6. Timelines
Timeline: A set of adjacent fluid
particles that were marked at the same
(earlier) instant in time.
Timelines are particularly useful in
situations where the uniformity of a flow
(or lack thereof) is to be examined.
Timelines are formed by marking a

line of fluid particles, and then
watching that line move (and deform)
through the flow field; timelines are
shown at t = 0, t1, t2, and t3.
Timelines produced by a hydrogen bubble wire are used to visualize the boundary layer
velocity profile shape. Flow is from left to right, and the hydrogen bubble wire is located to the
left of the field of view. Bubbles near the wall reveal a flow instability that leads to turbulence.
213
 It is based on the refractive property of light waves.
 Speed of light may differ in different or same material if its density changes
 As light travels through one fluid into a fluid with a different index of refraction, the
light rays bend (they are refracted).
 2 primary flow visualization techniques that utilize the fact that the index of
refraction in air (or other gases) varies with density: the shadowgraph technique
and the schlieren technique.
 Interferometry: technique that utilizes the related phase change of light as it
passes through air of varying densities as the basis for flow visualization.
 These techniques are useful for flow visualization in flow fields where density
changes from one location in the flow to another, such as
 natural convection flows (temperature differences cause the density variations)
 mixing flows (fluid species cause the density variations)
 supersonic flows (shock waves & expansion waves cause the density
variations).
214
 Unlike flow visualizations involving streaklines,
pathlines, and timelines, the shadowgraph and
schlieren methods do not require injection of a
visible tracer (smoke or dye).
 Rather, density differences and the refractive
property of light provide the necessary means for
visualizing regions of activity in the flow field,
allowing us to “see the invisible.”
 The image (a shadowgram) produced by the
shadowgraph method is formed when the refracted
rays of light rearrange the shadow cast onto a viewing
screen or camera focal plane, causing bright or dark
patterns to appear in the shadow.
Shadowgram of a 14.3 mm sphere
 The dark patterns indicate the location where the in free flight through air at Ma 3.0. A
refracted rays originate, while the bright patterns mark shock wave is clearly visible in the
where these rays end up, and can be misleading. shadow as a dark band that curves
around the sphere and is called a
 As a result, the dark regions are less distorted than the bow wave
bright regions and are more useful in the interpretation
215
of the shadowgram.
 A shadowgram is not a true optical image; it is, after
all, merely a shadow.
 A schlieren image, involves lenses (or mirrors) and a
knife edge or other cutoff device to block the
refracted light and is a true focused optical image.
 Schlieren imaging is more complicated to set up than
is shadowgraphy but has a number of advantages.
 A schlieren image does not suffer from optical
distortion by the refracted light rays.
 Schlieren imaging is also more sensitive to weak
density gradients such as those caused by natural
convection or by gradual phenomena like expansion
fans in supersonic flow. Color schlieren imaging
techniques have also been developed.
 One can adjust more components in a schlieren
Schlieren image of natural
setup.
convection due to a barbeque grill.
216
8. Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
 The direction of fluid flow immediately above a solid surface
can be visualized with tufts—short, flexible strings glued to the
surface at one end that point in the flow direction.
 Tufts are especially useful for locating regions of flow
separation, where the flow direction suddenly reverses.
 A technique called surface oil visualization can be used for
the same purpose—oil placed on the surface forms streaks
called friction lines that indicate the direction of flow.
 If it rains lightly when your car is dirty (especially in the winter
when salt is on the roads), you may have noticed streaks along
the hood and sides of the car, or even on the windshield.
 This is similar to what is observed with surface oil visualization.
 Lastly, there are pressure-sensitive and temperature-sensitive
paints that enable researchers to observe the pressure or
temperature distribution along solid surfaces.
217

Lecture 1


218
Overview
1. Plots of Fluid Flow Data
2. Other Kinematic Descriptions
219
 Regardless of how the results are obtained (analytically,
experimentally, or computationally), it is usually necessary to plot
flow data in ways that enable the reader to get a feel for how the
flow properties vary in time and/or space.
 You are already familiar with time plots, which are especially useful
in turbulent flows (e.g., a velocity component plotted as a function of
time), and xy-plots (e.g., pressure as a function of radius).
 In this section, we discuss three additional types of plots that are
useful in fluid mechanics—
profile plots, vector plots, and contour plots.
220
Profile Plots
A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property
varies along some desired direction in the flow field.
In fluid mechanics, profile plots of any scalar
variable (pressure, temperature, density, etc.)
can be created, but the most common one used
is the velocity profile plot.
Since velocity is a vector quantity, we usually plot
either the magnitude of velocity or one of the
components of the velocity vector as a function
of distance in some desired direction.
Profile plots of the horizontal component of

velocity as a function of vertical distance;
flow in the boundary layer growing along a
horizontal flat plate: (a) standard profile
plot and (b) profile plot with arrows. 221
Vector Plots
A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating the
magnitude and direction of a vector property at an
instant in time.
Streamlines indicate the direction of the
instantaneous velocity field, they do not directly Fig. top: Velocity vector plot
indicate the magnitude of the velocity (i.e., the speed).
A useful flow pattern for both experimental and
computational fluid flows is thus the vector plot, which
consists of an array of arrows that indicate both
magnitude and direction of an instantaneous vector
property.
Vector plots can also be generated from
experimentally obtained data (e.g., from PIV
measurements) or numerically from CFD calculations.
Fig. bottom: Acceleration vector
plot. Both generated analytically.
222
Results of CFD calculations of a two-

dimensional flow field consisting of
free-stream flow impinging on a block
of rectangular cross section.
(a) streamlines,
(b) velocity vector plot of the upper
half of the flow, and
(c) velocity vector plot, close-up view
revealing more details in the separated
flow region.
223
Contour Plots
A contour plot shows curves of constant values of a
scalar property (or magnitude of a vector property) at an
instant in time.
Contour plots (also called isocontour plots) are
generated of pressure, temperature, velocity magnitude,
species concentration, properties of turbulence, etc.
A contour plot can quickly reveal regions of high (or low)
values of the flow property being studied.
A contour plot may consist simply of curves indicating
various levels of the property; this is called a contour line
plot.
Alternatively, the contours can be filled in with either colors
or shades of gray; this is called a filled contour plot.
Contour plots of the pressure field due to flow impinging on a block, as
produced by CFD calculations; only upper half is shown due
to symmetry; (a) filled gray scale contour plot & (b) contour line plot where
pressure values are displayed in units of Pa gage pressure. 224
Types of Motion or Deformation
of Fluid Elements
In fluid mechanics, an element may undergo four
fundamental types of motion or deformation:
(a) translation, (b) rotation,
(c) linear strain (also called extensional strain), and
(d) shear strain.
All 4 types of motion or deformation usually occur
simultaneously.
It is preferable in fluid dynamics to describe the motion
and deformation of fluid elements in terms of rates
such as
velocity (rate of translation),
angular velocity (rate of rotation),
linear strain rate (rate of linear strain), and Fundamental types of fluid
shear strain rate (rate of shear strain). element motion or
In order for these deformation rates to be useful in deformation: (a) translation,
the calculation of fluid flows, we must express them in (b) rotation, (c) linear strain,
225
terms of velocity and derivatives of velocity. and (d) shear strain.
A vector is required in order to fully describe the rate of translation in three
dimensions. The rate of translation vector is described mathematically as
the velocity vector.
Rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a point:

The average rotation rate of two initially
perpendicular lines that intersect at that point.
Rate of rotation of fluid element about point P
For a fluid element that translates and deforms

as sketched, the rate of rotation at point P is
defined as the average rotation rate of two
226
initially perpendicular lines (lines a and b).
The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular velocity vector.
Linear strain rate: The rate of increase in length per unit length.
Mathematically, the linear strain rate of a fluid element depends on the
initial orientation or direction of the line segment upon which we measure
the linear strain.
227
Using the lengths marked in the figure, the linear strain rate in the xa-direction is
228
 Volumetric strain rate (VSR) or bulk strain rate: The rate of increase of
volume of a fluid element per unit volume.
 This kinematic property is defined as positive when the volume increases.
 A synonym of volumetric strain rate: rate of volumetric dilatation, (the iris of your eye
dilates (enlarges) when exposed to dim light).
 VSR is the sum of the linear strain rates in 3 mutually orthogonal directions.
The volumetric strain rate is

zero in an incompressible flow.
Air being compressed by a piston in a

cylinder; the volume of a fluid element in
the cylinder decreases, corresponding to
a negative rate of volumetric dilatation. 229
Shear strain rate, initially perpendicular
lines in the x- and y-directions:
Shear strain rate in Cartesian coordinates:
For a fluid element that translates

and deforms as sketched, the shear
strain rate at point P is defined as
half of the rate of decrease of the
angle between two initially
perpendicular lines (lines a and b). 230
Figure shows a general (although two-
dimensional) situation in a compressible
fluid flow in which all possible motions and
deformations are present simultaneously.
In particular, there is translation, rotation,
linear strain, and shear strain.
Because of the compressible nature of the
fluid flow, there is also volumetric strain
(dilatation).
You should now have a better appreciation
of the inherent complexity of fluid
dynamics, and the mathematical
sophistication required to fully describe A fluid element illustrating
fluid motion. translation, rotation, linear
strain, shear strain, and
volumetric strain.
231
EXAMPLE 4–6 Calculation of Kinematic Properties in a Two-Dimensional
Flow
Consider the steady, two-dimensional velocity field below:
Equation 1
where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and velocities in m/s. There is a stagnation
point at (20.625, 1.875) as shown in the Figure, here. Streamlines of the flow are also
plotted. Calculate the various kinematic properties, namely, the rate of translation, rate
of rotation, linear strain rate, shear strain rate, and volumetric strain rate. Verify that this
flow is incompressible.
232
EXAMPLE 4–6 Calculation of Kinematic Properties in a Two-Dimensional Flow
Consider the steady, two-dimensional velocity field of Example 4–1:
Equation 1
where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and velocities in m/s. There is a stagnation point at (-
0.625, 1.875) as shown in Fig. 4–41. Streamlines of the flow are also plotted in Fig. 4–41.
Calculate the various kinematic properties, namely, the rate of translation, rate of rotation,
linear strain rate, shear strain rate, and volumetric strain rate. Verify that this flow is
incompressible.
233
EXAMPLE 4–6 Calculation of Kinematic Properties in a Two-
Dimensional Flow
where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and velocities in m/s. There is a

stagnation point at (-0.625, 1.875) as shown in Fig. 4–41. Streamlines of the flow
are also plotted in Fig. 4–41. Calculate the various kinematic properties, namely, the
rate of translation, rate of rotation, linear strain rate, shear strain rate, and
volumetric strain rate. Verify that this flow is incompressible.
234
EXAMPLE 4–6 Calculation of Kinematic Properties in a Two-Dimensional Flow
where lengths are in units of m, time in s, and velocities in m/s. There is a stagnation point at (-
0.625, 1.875) as shown in Fig. 4–41. Streamlines of the flow are also plotted in Fig. 4–41.
Calculate the various kinematic properties, namely, the rate of translation, rate of rotation,
linear strain rate, shear strain rate, and volumetric strain rate. Verify that this flow is
incompressible.
235

Lecture 2


236
Overview
1. Vorticity and Rotationality
237
Another kinematic property of great importance to the analysis of fluid flows is
the vorticity vector, defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity vector
curl is a vector operator that

describes the infinitesimal rotation
of a vector field in three-
dimensional Euclidean space
Vorticity is equal to twice the

angular velocity of a fluid particle
The direction
of a vector
cross product
is determined The vorticity vector is equal to
by the right- twice the angular velocity vector
hand rule. of a rotating fluid particle. 238
 If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is non-zero,
the fluid particle that happens to occupy that point in
space is rotating; the flow in that region is called
rotational.
 Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the flow is zero
(or negligibly small), fluid particles there are not
rotating; the flow in that region is called irrotational.
 Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow
rotate end over end as they move along in the flow.
The difference
between rotational
and irrotational flow:
fluid elements in a
rotational region of the
flow rotate, but those
in an irrotational
region of the flow do
not.
239
For a two-dimensional flow in the xy-

plane, the vorticity vector always
points in the z- or z-direction. In this
illustration, the flag-shaped fluid
particle rotates in the counterclockwise
direction as it moves in the xy-plane;
its vorticity points in the positive z-
direction as shown.
240
EXAMPLE 4–7 Vorticity Contours in a Two-Dimensional Flow
Consider the CFD calculation of two-dimensional free-stream flow
impinging on a block of rectangular cross section, as shown in Figs. 4–33
and 4–34. Plot vorticity contours and discuss.
Fig. 4–33 Fig. 4–34
241
242
EXAMPLE 4–8 Determination of Rotationality in a Two-Dimensional

Flow
Consider the following steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field:
Is this flow rotational or irrotational? Sketch some streamlines in the first

quadrant and discuss.
243
FIGURE 4–48
Deformation of an initially square
fluid parcel subjected to the velocity
field of Example 4–8 for a time period
of 0.25 s and 0.50 s. Several
streamlines are also plotted in the first
quadrant. It is clear that this flow is
rotational.
244
For a two-dimensional flow in the r-

plane, the vorticity vector always
points in the z (or -z) direction. In
this illustration, the flag-shaped fluid
particle rotates in the clockwise
direction as it moves in the ru-plane;
its vorticity points in the z-direction
as shown.
245
Not all flows with
circular streamlines where ω and K are constants
are rotational.
vorticity field for

each of the
above 2 flows:
Streamlines and
velocity profiles for
(a) flow A, solid-body
rotation and (b) flow
B, a line vortex. Flow
A is rotational, but
flow B is irrotational
everywhere except at
the origin.
246
A simple analogy can be made between flow A and a

merry-go-round or roundabout, and flow B and a Ferris
wheel.
(a) merry-go-round As children revolve around a roundabout, they also rotate
at the same angular velocity as that of the ride itself. This
is analogous to a rotational flow.
In contrast, children on a Ferris wheel always remain
oriented in an upright position as they trace out their
circular path. This is analogous to an irrotational flow.
A simple analogy: (a) rotational circular

(b) Ferris wheel
flow is analogous to a roundabout, while
(b) irrotational circular flow is analogous to
a Ferris wheel.
247
248
FIGURE 4–52
Streamlines in the rθ-plane for the
case of a line sink.
249

Lecture 1


250
Overview
1. The Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
2. Alternate Derivation of the RTT
3. Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
4. Summary
251
Two methods of analyzing the spraying of deodorant
from a spray can:
(a) We follow the fluid as it moves and deforms. This is
the system approach—no mass crosses the boundary,
and the total mass of the system remains fixed.
(b) We consider a fixed interior volume of the can. This
is the control volume approach—mass crosses the
boundary.
The relationship between

the time rates of change
of an extensive
property for a system
and for a control volume The Reynolds transport theorem
is expressed by the (RTT) provides a link between
Reynolds transport the system approach and the
theorem (RTT). control volume approach.
252
The time rate of change of the

property B of the system is equal to
the time rate of change of B of the
control volume plus the net flux of B
out of the control volume by mass
crossing the control surface.
This equation applies at any instant
in time, where it is assumed that
the system and the control volume
occupy the same space at that
particular instant in time.
A moving system (hatched region) and

a fixed control volume (shaded region)
in a diverging portion of a flow field at
times t and t+t. The upper and lower
bounds are streamlines of the flow. 253
254
255
Reynolds transport
theorem applied to a
control volume moving
at constant velocity.
Relative velocity crossing a control

surface is found by vector addition of
the absolute velocity of the fluid and
the negative of the local velocity of the
control surface. 256
An example control volume in which there is

one well-defined inlet (1) and two well-
defined outlets (2 and 3). In such cases, the
control surface integral in the RTT can be
more conveniently written in terms of the
average values of fluid properties crossing
each inlet and outlet. 257
A more elegant mathematical derivation of

the Reynolds transport theorem is possible
through use of the Leibniz theorem
The Leibniz theorem takes into account the

change of limits a(t) and b(t) with respect to
time, as well as the unsteady changes of
integrand G(x, t) with time.
258
EXAMPLE 4–10 One-Dimensional Leibniz Integration
Reduce the following expression as far as possible:
259
260
See Fig 4-62, in next page
261
Fig 4-62: The three-dimensional

Leibniz theorem is required when
calculating the time derivative of a
volume integral for which the volume
itself moves and/or deforms with time.
It turns out that the three-dimensional
form of the Leibniz theorem can be
used in an alternative derivation of
the Reynolds transport theorem.
262
The material volume (system)

and control volume occupy the
same space at time t (the pink
shaded area) but move and
deform differently. At a later time
they are not coincident.
263
EXAMPLE 4–11 Reynolds Transport Theorem in Terms of Relative
Velocity
Beginning with the Leibniz theorem and the general Reynolds transport theorem
for an arbitrarily moving and deforming control volume, Eq. 4–53, prove
that Eq. 4–44 is valid.
264
EXAMPLE 4–11 Reynolds
Transport Theorem in Terms of
Relative Velocity
Beginning with the Leibniz theorem and
the general Reynolds transport theorem
for an arbitrarily moving and deforming
control volume, Eq. 4–53, prove
that Eq. 4–44 is valid.
265
3. Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
While the Reynolds transport
theorem deals with finite-size
control volumes and the
material derivative deals with
infinitesimal fluid particles, the
same fundamental physical
interpretation applies to both.
Just as the material derivative
can be applied to any fluid
property, scalar or vector, the
Reynolds transport theorem
can be applied to any scalar or
The Reynolds transport theorem for finite vector property as well.
volumes (integral analysis) is analogous to the
material derivative for infinitesimal volumes
(differential analysis). In both cases, we
transform from a Lagrangian or system
viewpoint to an Eulerian or control volume
viewpoint.
266
4. Summary
 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions
 Acceleration Field
 Material Derivative
 Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization
 Streamlines and Streamtubes, Pathlines,
 Streaklines, Timelines
 Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
 Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
 Plots of Fluid Flow Data
 Vector Plots, Contour Plots
 Other Kinematic Descriptions
 Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements
 Vorticity and Rotationality
 Comparison of Two Circular Flows
 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
 Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
 Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
267
Week 7: Revision
Lecture 2


268
Example Problem 1
Nitrogen flows into a heat exchanger at steady-flow at 150 kPa, 10°C, and
100 m/s, and receives heat of 120 kJ/kg as it flows through it. Nitrogen exits
the heat exchanger at 100 kPa with a velocity of 200 m/s. Calculate the Mach
number of the nitrogen at inlet and exit of the heat exchanger.
269
Example Problem 1
Nitrogen flows into a
heat exchanger at
steady-flow at 150 kPa,
10°C, and 100 m/s, and
receives heat of 120
kJ/kg as it flows
through it. Nitrogen
exits the heat
exchanger at 100 kPa
with a velocity of 200
m/s. Calculate the
Mach number of the
nitrogen at inlet and
exit of the heat
exchanger.
270
Example Problem 2
A cylinder whose weight is 65 N is inverted and pressed into the water, as
shown in the Figure. Calculate the differential height h of the manometer
and the force F needed to hold the container at the position shown.
271
Example Problem 2
A cylinder whose weight is 65 N
is inverted and pressed into the
water, as shown in the Figure.
Calculate the differential height
h of the manometer and the
force F needed to hold the
container at the position
shown.
272
Example Problem 3
A steady, three-dimensional velocity field is given by
Calculate constants a, b, and c such that the flow field is irrotational.
273
Example Problem 3
A steady, three-dimensional velocity field is given by
Calculate constants a, b, and c such that the flow field is irrotational.
274
Week 9: Homework and Exam problems

Lecture 1– Homework 1


275
Question 2. [2 marks]
• Nitrogen flows through a steady-flow heat exchanger at 150kPa, 10°C, and 100
m/s, and it receives heat in the amount of 120 kJ/kg as it flows through it.
Nitrogen leaves the heat exchanger at 100 kPa with a velocity of 200 m/s.
Determine the Mach number of the nitrogen at the inlet and the exit of the
heat exchanger. The gas constant of N2 is R = 0.2968 kJ/kg·K. Its constant
pressure specific heat and specific heat ratio at room temperature are cp =
1.040 kJ/kg.K and k = 1.4.
276
Answer:
Question 2. [2 marks]
• Nitrogen flows through a steady-flow
heat exchanger at 150kPa, 10°C, and
100 m/s, and it receives heat in the
amount of 120 kJ/kg as it flows through
it. Nitrogen leaves the heat exchanger at
100 kPa with a velocity of 200 m/s.
Determine the Mach number of the
nitrogen at the inlet and the exit of the
heat exchanger. The gas constant of N2
is R = 0.2968 kJ/kg·K. Its constant
pressure specific heat and specific heat
ratio at room temperature are cp =
1.040 kJ/kg.K and k = 1.4.
277
Question 3
The water side of the wall of a 70-m-long dam is a quarter circle with a radius of 7
m. Determine the hydro static force on the dam and its line of action when the
dam is filled to the rim. Water density is 1000 kg/m3 throughout.
278
• Question 3.
Answer:
The water side of the wall of a
70-m-long dam is a quarter
circle with a radius of 7 m.
Determine the hydro static
force on the dam and its line
of action when the dam is
filled to the rim. Water density
is 1000 kg/m3 throughout.
279
Question 4.
A cylindrical tank with hemispherical ends illustrated in the figure below, contains
a volatile liquid and its vapor. The liquid density is 800 kg/m3, and its vapor
density is negligible. The vapor pressure is 120 kPa(abs) and the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa(abs). Determine (a) the gage pressure reading on the
pressure gage and (b) the height, h, of the mercury manometer.
280
Question 4.
A cylindrical tank with
hemispherical ends illustrated in
the figure below, contains a
volatile liquid and its vapor. The
liquid density is 800 kg/m3, and
its vapor density is negligible.
The vapor pressure is 120
kPa(abs) and the atmospheric
pressure is 101 kPa(abs).
Determine (a) the gage pressure
reading on the pressure gage and
(b) the height, h, of the mercury
manometer.
281
Week 9: Homework and Exam problems

Lecture 2 – Mid-term Exam


282
SECTION 1 - Question 1. [6 marks]
Calculate the speed of sound in air at (a) 300 K and (b) 800 K. Also calculate the
Mach number of an airplane moving in air at a velocity of 330 m/s for both cases.
283
SECTION 1 - Question 2. [9
marks]
An elastic air balloon having a
diameter of 30 cm is attached
to the base of a container
partially filled with water at
14°C, as shown in the Figure on
the right . If the pressure of the
air above the water is gradually
increased from 100 kPa to 1.6
MPa, will the force on the
cable change? If so, what is the
percent change in the force?
Assume the pressure on the
free surface and the diameter
of the balloon are related by P
= CDn, where C is a constant
and n = -2. The weight of the
balloon and the air in it is
negligible.
284
SECTION 1 - Question 3 [6
Marks]
A cylindrical tank partially, filled
with oil, of radius rrim = 0.354 m
rotates about its vertical axis (see
Figure on the right). The speed of
the rim is 3.61 m/s in the
counterclockwise direction
(looking from the top), and the
tank has been spinning long
enough to be in solid-body
rotation. For any fluid particle in
the tank, calculate the magnitude
of the component of vorticity in
the vertical z-direction.
285
marks]
A manometer is used to
measure the air pressure in a
tank. The fluid used has a
specific gravity of 1.25, and the
differential height between the
two arms of the manometer is
28 inches. If the local
atmospheric pressure is 12.7
psia, determine the absolute
pressure in the tank for the
cases of the manometer arm
with the (a) higher and (b)
lower fluid level being
attached to the tank.
286
marks]
A vertical cylinder that is 1 m
in diameter and 2 m high, is
completely filled with gasoline
whose density is 740 kg/m3.
The tank is now rotated about
its vertical axis at a rate of 130
rpm (rotations (or revolutions)
per minute), while being
accelerated upward at 5 m/s2.
Determine (a) the difference
between the pressures at the
centers of the bottom and top
surfaces and (b) the difference
between the pressures at the
center and the edge of the
bottom surface.
287
SECTION 2 - Question 3 [6 marks]
A steady, 2-D velocity field is given by
Calculate the vorticity vector as a function of space (x, y, z).
288
Week 10: Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equations

Lecture 1


289
Overview
1. Introduction
2. Conservation of Mass
290
1. Introduction
Wind turbine “farms” are being constructed all over the world to extract
kinetic energy from the wind and convert it to electrical energy.
The mass, energy, momentum, and angular momentum balances are
utilized in the design of a wind turbine. The Bernoulli equation is also
useful in the preliminary design stage.
291
1. Introduction
Objectives
• Apply the conservation of mass equation to balance the
incoming and outgoing flow rates in a flow system.
• Recognize various forms of mechanical energy, and work with
energy conversion efficiencies.
• Understand the use and limitations of the Bernoulli
equation, and apply it to solve a variety of fluid flow
problems.
• Work with the energy equation expressed in terms of heads,
and use it to determine turbine power output and pumping
power requirements.
292
1. Introduction
You are already familiar with
numerous conservation laws
such as the laws of
conservation of mass,
conservation of energy, and
conservation of momentum.
Historically, the conservation
laws are first applied to a fixed
quantity of matter called a
closed system or just a system,
and then extended to regions
in space called control
volumes.
The conservation relations are
also called balance equations
since any conserved quantity
must balance during a process.
293
1. Introduction
Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a
change is expressed as msys = constant or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the
statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a
process.
Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:
the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume
the rate of change of mass within the

control volume boundaries.
Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of

mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually
294
called the continuity equation.
1. Introduction
The Linear Momentum Equation
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a
body is called the linear momentum or just the momentum of the
body.
The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity V
is mV.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional
to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass,
and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to
the net force acting on the body.
Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a
system remains constant only when the net force acting on it is zero,
and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved.
Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second
law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
295
1. Introduction
Conservation of Energy
The conservation of energy principle (the energy balance): The
net energy transfer to or from a system during a process is equal to
the change in the energy content of the system.
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.
Control volumes also involve energy transfer via mass flow.
the total rates of energy transfer into

and out of the control volume
the rate of change of energy within the control volume

boundaries (change in the energy content of the system)
In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to

mechanical forms of energy only. 296
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property, and it
cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
Closed systems: The mass of the system remains constant during a
process.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.
Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.
Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other:
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 2.9979108 m/s

The mass change due to energy change is negligible.
297
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.
The differential mass flow rate
Point functions have exact differentials
Path functions have inexact differentials
The normal velocity Vn for a surface is

the component of velocity perpendicular
298
to the surface.
Average velocity
Volume flow rate

Mass flow rate
The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid

The average velocity Vavg is defined as the flowing through a cross section per unit time.
299
average speed through a cross section.
Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net mass transfer
to or from a control volume during a time interval t is equal to the net change
(increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during t.
the total rates of mass

flow into and out of the
control volume
the rate of change of mass within
the control volume boundaries
Mass balance is applicable to any control

volume undergoing any kind of process.
Conservation of mass principle for an

300
ordinary bathtub.
The differential control volume

dV and the differential control
surface dA used in the
derivation of the conservation of
mass relation. 301
(5–17)
The time rate of change of mass within the control

volume plus the net mass flow rate through the
control surface is equal to zero.
(5–19)
The conservation
of mass equation
is obtained by
replacing B in the
Reynolds A control surface should always be
transport theorem selected normal to the flow at all
by mass m, and b locations where it crosses the fluid
by 1 (m per unit flow to avoid complications, even
302
mass = m/m = 1). though the result is the same.
Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
303
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a
control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
For steady-flow processes, we are interested in

the amount of mass flowing per unit time, that is,
the mass flow rate.
Multiple inlets
and exits
Single
stream
Many engineering devices such as nozzles,

diffusers, turbines, compressors, and
pumps involve a single stream (only one
inlet and one outlet).
304
Conservation of mass principle for a two-inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system.
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when
the fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.
Steady,
incompressible
Steady,
incompressible
flow (single stream)
There is no such thing as a “conservation of

volume” principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume flow
rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain
constant since liquids are essentially incompressible
substances.
During a steady-flow process, volume
flow rates are not necessarily conserved 305
although mass flow rates are.
306
307
308
309
310
Week 10: Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equations

Lecture 2


311
Overview
1. Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
312
313
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.
Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:
Flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy
Mechanical energy change:
• The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if

its pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain constant.
• In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical energy
change represents the mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if
emech > 0) or extracted from the fluid (if emech < 0).
314
Mechanical energy is a useful concept

for flows that do not involve significant
heat transfer or energy conversion, such
as the flow of gasoline from an
underground tank into a car.
315
• Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an

ideal generator.
• In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced power is
proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the upstream to the
downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water pressure from just
316
upstream to just downstream of the turbine.
The available mechanical energy of water at the

bottom of a container is equal to the available
mechanical energy at any depth including the free
surface of the container. 317
Shaft work: The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a
rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and transfers
it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses).
A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft work.
Mechanical efficiency
of a device or process
The effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical work
supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,
(useful power)
(mechanical power extracted from

the fluid by the turbine) 318
The mechanical efficiency of a fan is

the ratio of the kinetic energy of air at
the fan exit to the mechanical power
input.
319
Motor
efficiency
Generator
efficiency
Pump-Motor
overall efficiency
Turbine-Generator overall efficiency:
The overall efficiency of a turbine–generator is

the product of the efficiency of the turbine and
the efficiency of the generator, and represents
the fraction of the mechanical energy of the
fluid converted to electric energy. 320
The efficiencies just defined range between 0 and 100%.
0% corresponds to the conversion of the entire
mechanical or electric energy input to thermal energy, and
the device in this case functions like a resistance heater.
100% corresponds to the case of perfect conversion with
no friction or other irreversibilities, and thus no conversion
of mechanical or electric energy to thermal energy (no
losses).
For systems that involve only mechanical

forms of energy and its transfer as shaft
work, the conservation of energy is
Emech, loss : The conversion of mechanical

energy to thermal energy due to
irreversibilities such as friction.
Many fluid flow problems involve mechanical forms of
energy only, and such problems are conveniently 321
solved by using a mechanical energy balance.
322
323
324
325
326
327
Week 11: The Bernoulli Equation

Lecture 1


328
Overview
1. The Bernoulli Equation
2. Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
3. Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
329
330
Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid
mechanics.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside
of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by
the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.
The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate equation that is valid
only in inviscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to
inertial, gravitational, or pressure
forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers and
wakes.
331
In two-dimensional flow, the acceleration can be decomposed into two
components:
streamwise acceleration as along the streamline and
normal acceleration an in the direction normal to the streamline, which is
given as an = V2/R.
Streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed along a streamline,
and normal acceleration is due to a change in direction.
For particles that move along a straight path, an = 0 since the radius of
curvature is infinity and thus there is no change in direction. The Bernoulli
equation results from a force balance along a streamline.
During steady flow, a fluid may not

accelerate in time at a fixed point,
Acceleration in steady but it may accelerate in space.
flow is due to the change 332
of velocity with position.
1. The Bernoulli Equation Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Steady flow:
Bernoulli
Steady, incompressible flow:
The forces acting on a fluid equation
particle along a streamline.
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and The Bernoulli equation between any
flow energies of a fluid particle is two points on the same streamline:
constant along a streamline during
steady flow when compressibility and
frictional effects are negligible. 333
The incompressible Bernoulli equation is

derived assuming incompressible flow,
and thus it should not be used for flows
with significant compressibility effects.
334
• The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the
“conservation of mechanical energy principle.”
• This is equivalent to the general conservation of
energy principle for systems that do not involve
any conversion of mechanical energy and thermal
energy to each other, and thus the mechanical
energy and thermal energy are conserved
separately.
• The Bernoulli equation states that during steady,
incompressible flow with negligible friction, the
The Bernoulli equation various forms of mechanical energy are converted
states that the sum of the to each other, but their sum remains constant.
kinetic, potential, and flow • There is no dissipation of mechanical energy
energies of a fluid particle is during such flows since there is no friction that
constant along a streamline converts mechanical energy to sensible thermal
during steady flow. (internal) energy.
• The Bernoulli equation is commonly used in
practice since a variety of practical fluid flow
problems can be analyzed to reasonable accuracy
with it. 335
1. The Bernoulli Equation Force Balance across Streamlines
Force balance in the direction n normal to the streamline yields the following
relation applicable across the streamlines for steady, incompressible flow:
For flow along a straight line, R →  and

this equation reduces to P/ + gz = constant
or P =  gz + constant, which is an
expression for the variation of hydrostatic
pressure with vertical distance for a
stationary fluid body.
Pressure decreases towards the

center of curvature when
streamlines are curved (a), but
the variation of pressure with
elevation in steady,
incompressible flow along a
straight line (b) is the same as
336
that in stationary fluid.
Unsteady, Compressible Flow
The Bernoulli equation for unsteady, compressible flow:
337
338
The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow
energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change.
Multiplying the Bernoulli equation by the density gives
P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic effects; it

represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same
as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when the
fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It is not pressure in a real sense since its
value depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation
effects, i.e., fluid weight on pressure. (Be careful of the sign—unlike
hydrostatic pressure gh which increases with fluid depth h, the hydrostatic
pressure term gz decreases with fluid depth.)
Total pressure: The sum of the static, dynamic, and

hydrostatic pressures. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation
states that the total pressure along a streamline is constant. 339
Stagnation pressure: The sum of the static and dynamic pressures. It represents
the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought to a complete stop isentropically.
Close-up of a Pitot-static probe,

showing the stagnation pressure hole The static, dynamic, and
and two of the five static circumferential stagnation pressures measured
340
pressure holes. using piezometer tubes.
Careless drilling of
the static pressure
tap may result in an
erroneous reading
of the static
pressure head.
Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream of an airfoil; since
the flow is steady, the
streaklines are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.
The stagnation streamline
is marked. 341
342
1. Steady flow The Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow.
2. Frictionless flow Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small,
and frictional effects may or may not be negligible.
3. No shaft work The Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that
involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the
fluid particles. When these devices exist, the energy equation should be
used instead.
4. Incompressible flow Density is taken constant in the derivation of the
Bernoulli equation. The flow is incompressible for liquids and also by gases
at Mach numbers less than about 0.3.
5. No heat transfer The density of a gas is inversely proportional to
temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow
sections that involve significant temperature change such as heating or
cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation is
applicable along a streamline. However, when a region of the flow is
irrotational and there is negligibly small vorticity in the flow field, the
Bernoulli equation becomes applicable across streamlines as well.
343
Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that

disturb the streamlined structure of flow make the
Bernoulli equation invalid. It should not be used in any
of the flows shown here.
When the flow is irrotational, the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable

344
between any two points along the flow (not just on the same streamline).
Week 11: The Bernoulli Equation

Lecture 2


345
Overview
1. Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
346
347
It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically using
heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli equation.
Dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g gives
P/g is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column

that produces the static pressure P.
V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a
fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.
z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.
An alternative form of the

Bernoulli equation is expressed
in terms of heads as: The sum
of the pressure, velocity, and
elevation heads is constant
along a streamline. 348
Hydraulic grade line (HGL), P/g + z The line that represents the sum of
the static pressure and the elevation heads.
Energy grade line (EGL), P/g + V2/2g + z The line that represents the
total head of the fluid.
Dynamic head, V2/2g The difference between the heights of EGL and HGL.
The hydraulic
grade line (HGL)
and the energy
grade line (EGL)
for free discharge
from a reservoir
through a
horizontal pipe
with a diffuser. 349
• For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes, the EGL and HGL coincides
with the free surface of the liquid.
• The EGL is always a distance V2/2g above the HGL. These two curves approach
each other as the velocity decreases, and they diverge as the velocity increases.
• In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow, EGL is horizontal and its height remains
constant.
• For open-channel flow, the HGL coincides with the free surface of the liquid, and
the EGL is a distance V2/2g above the free surface.
• At a pipe exit, the pressure head is zero (atmospheric pressure) and thus the
HGL coincides with the pipe outlet.
• The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion to thermal
energy) causes the EGL and HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. The
slope is a measure of the head loss in the pipe. A component, such as a valve,
that generates significant frictional effects causes a sudden drop in both EGL and
HGL at that location.
• A steep jump/drop occurs in EGL and HGL whenever mechanical energy is
added or removed to or from the fluid (pump, turbine).
• The (gage) pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid. The pressure in a flow section that lies above the HGL is negative, and the
pressure in a section that lies below the HGL is positive. 350
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow,

EGL is horizontal and its height A steep jump occurs in EGL and HGL
remains constant. But this is not whenever mechanical energy is added to
the case for HGL when the flow the fluid by a pump, and a steep drop
velocity varies along the flow. occurs whenever mechanical energy is
removed from the fluid by a turbine.
The gage pressure of a fluid is zero at

locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid, and the pressure is negative
(vacuum) in a flow section that lies 351
above the HGL.
Example: Water Discharge
from a Large Tank
352
Example: Siphoning Out

Gasoline from a Fuel Tank
353
Example: Velocity Measurement
by a Pitot Tube
354
Example: The Rise of the Ocean Due to a Hurricane
The eye of hurricane Linda (1997 in

the Pacific Ocean near Baja
California) is clearly visible in this
satellite photo.
355
356
357
358
359
Week 12: Energy Analysis of Steady Flows

Lecture 1


360
Overview
1. The General Energy Equation
2. Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
361
362
The first law of The energy

thermodynamics (the change of a
conservation of energy system during a
principle): Energy process is equal to
cannot be created or the net work and
destroyed during a heat transfer
process; it can only between the
change forms. system and its
surroundings. 363
Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
Thermal energy: The sensible and
latent forms of internal energy.
Heat Transfer: The transfer of
energy from one system to another
as a result of a temperature
difference.
The direction of heat transfer is
always from the higher-temperature
body to the lower-temperature one.
Adiabatic process: A process
during which there is no heat
transfer.
Heat transfer rate: The time rate of
Temperature difference is the driving
heat transfer.
force for heat transfer. The larger the
temperature difference, the higher is
364
the rate of heat transfer.
Energy Transfer by Work, W
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance.
• A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.
• Power: The time rate of doing work.
• Car engines and hydraulic, steam, and gas turbines produce work;
compressors, pumps, fans, and mixers consume work.
Wshaft The work transmitted by a rotating shaft

Wpressure The work done by the pressure forces on the control surface
Wviscous The work done by the normal and shear components of
viscous forces on the control surface
Wother The work done by other forces such as electric, magnetic, and
surface tension
365
A force F acting through a moment
Shaft Work arm r generates a torque T
This force acts through a distance s
Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time:
Shaft work is proportional to the torque applied

Energy transmission through rotating shafts
and the number of revolutions of the shaft. 366
is commonly encountered in practice.
Work Done by Pressure Forces
The pressure force

acting on (a) the moving
boundary of a system in
a piston-cylinder device,
and (b) the differential
surface area of a
system of arbitrary
shape. 367
The conservation of energy equation is obtained by replacing
B in the Reynolds transport theorem by energy E & b by e.
368
In a typical engineering problem, the
control volume may contain many
inlets and outlets; energy flows in at
each inlet, and energy flows out at
each outlet. Energy also enters the
control volume through net heat
transfer and net shaft work.
369
370
net rate of energy transfer

The net rate of energy transfer to a control
volume by heat transfer and work during steady
flow is equal to the difference between the rates
of outgoing and incoming energy flows by mass
flow.
single-stream devices
A control volume with

only one inlet and one
outlet and energy
interactions.
371
Ideal flow (no mechanical energy loss):
The lost mechanical
energy in a fluid flow
Real flow (with mechanical system results in an
energy loss): increase in the internal
energy of the fluid and
thus in a rise of fluid
temperature.
372
A typical power plant

has numerous pipes,
elbows, valves, pumps,
and turbines, all of
which have irreversible
losses. 373
374
(5-74)
Mechanical energy flow chart for a fluid flow system that involves a pump and a turbine. Vertical
dimensions show each energy term expressed as an equivalent column height of fluid, i.e., head. 375
Week 12: Energy Analysis of Steady Flows

Lecture 2


376
Overview
377
378
(5-74)
Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No

Mechanical Work Devices and Negligible Friction
When piping losses are negligible, there is negligible dissipation of
mechanical energy into thermal energy, and thus hL = emech loss, piping /g
≅ 0. Also, hpump, u = hturbine, e = 0 when there are no mechanical work
devices such as fans, pumps, or turbines. Then Eq. 5–74 reduces to
This is the Bernoulli equation derived earlier using Newton’s

second law of motion.
Thus, the Bernoulli equation can be thought of as a degenerate
379
form of the energy equation.
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, 
The kinetic energy of a fluid stream obtained
from V2/2 is not the same as the actual kinetic
energy of the fluid stream since the square of
a sum is not equal to the sum of the squares
of its components.
This error can be corrected by replacing the
kinetic energy terms V2/2 in the energy
equation by Vavg2/2, where  is the kinetic
energy correction factor.
The correction factor is 2.0 for
fully developed laminar pipe
flow, and it ranges between 1.04 The determination of the kinetic energy correction
and 1.11 for fully developed factor using the actual velocity distribution V(r) and
turbulent flow in a round pipe. the average velocity Vavg at a cross section.
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
Example: Hydroelectric Power Generation from a Dam
387
Example: Fan Selection for Air Cooling of a Computer
Energy equation between 3 and 4
Energy equation between 1 and 2
388
Example: Pumping Water from a Lake to a Reservoir
Energy
equation
between 1
and 2
For the
pump
389
Summary
• Introduction
• Conservation of Mass
• The Linear Momentum Equation
• Conservation of Energy
• Conservation of Mass
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates
• Conservation of Mass Principle
• Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
• Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
• Special Case: Incompressible Flow
• Mechanical Energy and Efficiency
390
Week 13: Momentum Analysis of Flow Systems

Lecture 1


391
Overview
1. Newton’s Laws
2. Choosing a Control Volume
3. Forces Acting on a Control Volume
392
1. Newton’s Laws
393
1. Newton’s Laws
Steady swimming of the jellyfish Aurelia aurita. Fluorescent dye placed

directly upstream of the animal is drawn underneath the bell as the
body relaxes and forms vortex rings below the animal as the body
contracts and ejects fluid. The vortex rings simultaneously induce flows
for both feeding and propulsion. 394
1. Newton’s Laws
Objectives
• Identify the various kinds of forces and moments
acting on a control volume (CV)
• Use CV analysis to determine the forces associated
with fluid flow
• Use CV analysis to determine the moments caused
by fluid flow and the torque transmitted
395
1. Newton’s Laws
Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces
acting on them.
Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in
motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path
when the net force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Therefore, the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on the
body taken as the system.
396
1. Newton’s Laws
Linear momentum or just the momentum of the body: The product of the mass
and the velocity of a body.
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
Conservation of momentum principle: The
momentum of a system remains constant
only when the net force acting on it is zero.
Linear momentum is the product

of mass and velocity, and its Newton’s second law is also expressed as the
direction is the direction of rate of change of the momentum of a body is
397
velocity. equal to the net force acting on it.
1. Newton’s Laws
The conservation of angular

momentum Principle: The total angular
momentum of a rotating body remains
constant when the net torque acting on it
is zero, and thus the angular momentum
of such systems is conserved.
The rate of change of the angular
momentum of a body is equal to
398
the net torque acting on it.
399
A control volume (CV) can be selected as any arbitrary
region in space through which fluid flows, and its bounding
control surface (CS) can be fixed, moving, and even
deforming during flow.
Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly fixed to
a stationary surface, and such systems are best analyzed
using fixed control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or deforming, it
is usually more convenient to allow the CV to move or
deform.
In deforming control volume, part of the CS moves relative to
other parts.
Examples of
(a) fixed,
(b) moving,
and
(c) deforming
control volumes.
400
401
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the CV (such as gravity, electric,
and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the CS (such as pressure and viscous forces and reaction
forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.
Total force acting on control volume:
The total force acting on a CV is composed of

body forces and surface forces;
body force is shown on a differential volume

element, and surface force is shown on a
differential surface element. 402
The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force
on every differential element of the control volume.
Surface forces are not as simple to analyze since they

consist of both normal and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of pressure (which

always acts inwardly normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely of viscous
stresses.
The gravitational force acting on a differential volume
element of fluid is equal to its weight; the axes have been
rotated so that the gravity vector acts downward in the
403
negative z-direction.
Surface force acting on a
differential surface element:
Total surface force acting

on control surface:
Total force:
When coordinate axes are rotated (a) to (b),

the components of the surface force change,
even though the force itself remains the same;
only two dimensions are shown here.
404
A common simplification in the application of Newton’s laws of motion is to
subtract the atmospheric pressure and work with gage pressures.
This is because atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and its effect cancels
out in every direction.
This means we can also ignore the pressure forces at outlet sections where the
fluid is discharged to the atmosphere since the discharge pressure in such cases
is very near atmospheric pressure at subsonic velocities.
Atmospheric pressure acts in all

directions, and thus it can be ignored
when performing force balances since Cross section through a faucet
its effect cancels out in every direction. assembly, illustrating the importance of
choosing a control volume wisely; CV B 405
is much easier to work with than CV A.
Week 13: Quizz 2

Lecture 2


406
Quizz 2
407

Lecture 1


408
Overview
1. The Linear Momentum Equation
2. Special Cases
3. Steady Flow
409
410
Newton’s second law can be stated as

The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the system.
This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves with a
constant velocity, called an inertial coordinate system or inertial reference frame.
411
412
The momentum equation is

commonly used to calculate
the forces (usually on support
systems or connectors)
induced by the flow.
413
2. Special Cases
414
2. Special Cases
Steady
flow
Mass flow rate across

an inlet or outlet
Momentum flow rate across

a uniform inlet or outlet:
In a typical engineering
problem, the control volume
may contain many inlets and
outlets; at each inlet or outlet
we define the mass flow rate 415
and the average velocity.
2. Special Cases
Examples of inlets or outlets in which the uniform flow

approximation is reasonable:
(a) the well-rounded entrance to a pipe,
(b) the entrance to a wind tunnel test section, and
(c) a slice through a free water jet in air.
416
2. Special Cases
Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
The velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform.
The control surface integral of Eq. 6–17 may be converted into algebraic form using
a dimensionless correction factor , called the momentum-flux correction factor.
(6-17)
 is always greater than or equal to 1.

 is close to 1 for turbulent flow and
not very close to 1 for fully developed
laminar flow.
417
2. Special Cases
For turbulent flow β may have an

insignificant effect at inlets and
outlets, but for laminar flow β
may be important and should not
be neglected. It is wise to include
β in all momentum control
volume problems.
418
2. Special Cases
For turbulent flow β may have an

insignificant effect at inlets and
outlets, but for laminar flow β
may be important and should not
be neglected. It is wise to include
β in all momentum control
volume problems.
419
3. Steady Flow
420
3. Steady Flow
The net force acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the rates of outgoing and incoming momentum flows.
The net force acting on the control

volume during steady flow is equal to
the difference between the outgoing
and the incoming momentum fluxes.
421
3. Steady Flow
Steady Flow with One Inlet and One Outlet
One inlet and
one outlet
Along x-
coordinate
The determination by vector

addition of the reaction force on
A control volume with only one the support caused by a change 422
inlet and one outlet. of direction of water.
3. Steady Flow
Flow with No External Forces
In the absence of external forces, the rate of change of the

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between
the rates of incoming and outgoing momentum flow rates.
The thrust needed to lift the space

shuttle is generated by the rocket
engines as a result of momentum
change of the fuel as it is accelerated
from about zero to an exit speed of
about 2000 m/s after combustion. 423

Lecture 2


424
Overview
1. Examples
425
1. Steady Flow (Continued from previous lecture)
426
427
428
1. Steady Flow
429
1. Examples
430
1. Examples
431
1. Examples
432
1. Examples
433
1. Examples
434
1. Examples
435
1. Examples
436
1. Examples
437
1. Examples
438
1. Examples
439
1. Examples
440

Lecture 1


441
Overview
1. Rotational Motion
2. The Angular Momentum Equation
3. Summary
442
443
Rotational motion: A motion during
which all points in the body move in
circles about the axis of rotation.
Rotational motion is described with
angular quantities such as the angular
distance , angular velocity , and
angular acceleration .
Angular velocity: The angular
distance traveled per unit time.
Angular acceleration: The rate of
change of angular velocity.
The relations between angular

distance , angular velocity  ,
and linear velocity V.
444
• Newton’s second law requires that there must be a force acting in the
tangential direction to cause angular acceleration.
• The strength of the rotating effect, called the moment or torque, is proportional
to the magnitude of the force and its distance from the axis of rotation.
• The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the
force is called the moment arm, and the torque M acting on a point mass m at
a normal distance r from the axis of rotation is expressed as
Torque
I is the moment of inertia of the body

about the axis of rotation, which is a
measure of the inertia of a body
against rotation.
Unlike mass, the rotational inertia of
a body also depends on the
distribution of the mass of the body Analogy between corresponding
445
with respect to the axis of rotation. linear and angular quantities.
Angular momentum
Angular momentum
equation
Angular velocity
versus rpm
Angular momentum of point mass m The relations between angular

rotating at angular velocity  at velocity, rpm, and the power 446
distance r from the axis of rotation. transmitted through a shaft.
Shaft power
Rotational kinetic energy

During rotational motion, the direction of velocity changes even when its magnitude remains
constant.
Velocity is a vector quantity, and thus a change in direction constitutes a change in velocity with
time, and thus acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal acceleration is directed toward the axis of rotation (opposite direction of radial
acceleration), and thus the radial acceleration is negative.
Centripetal acceleration is the result of a force acting on an element of the body toward the axis
of rotation, known as the centripetal force, whose magnitude is Fr = mV2/r.
Tangential and radial accelerations are perpendicular to each other, and the total linear
acceleration is determined by their vector sum:
447
448
Many engineering problems involve the moment of the linear momentum of flow
streams, and the rotational effects caused by them.
Such problems are best analyzed by the angular momentum equation, also called the
moment of momentum equation.
An important class of fluid devices, called turbomachines, which include centrifugal
pumps, turbines, and fans, is analyzed by the angular momentum equation.
A force whose line of

action passes through
point O produces zero
moment about point O.
The determination
of the direction of
the moment by the
449
right-hand rule.
Moment of momentum Moment of momentum (system)
Rate of change of
moment of momentum
Angular momentum
equation for a system
450
Special Cases
During steady flow, the amount of angular momentum within the control
volume remains constant, and thus the time rate of change of angular
momentum of the contents of the control volume is zero.
An approximate form of the angular momentum equation in terms of

average properties at inlets and outlets:
The net torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the outgoing and incoming angular momentum flow rates.
scalar form of angular

momentum equation 451
Flow with No External Moments
In the absence of external moments, the rate of change of the angular

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between the
incoming and outgoing angular momentum fluxes.
When the moment of inertia I of the CV remains constant, the first term on
the right side of the above equation becomes simply moment of inertia times
angular acceleration. Therefore, the CV in this case can be treated as a solid
body, with a net torque of
This approach can be used to determine the angular acceleration of space

vehicles and aircraft when a rocket is fired in a direction different than the
direction of motion.
452
Radial-Flow Devices
Radial-flow devices: Many rotary-flow devices such as centrifugal pumps and
fans involve flow in the radial direction normal to the axis of rotation.
Axial-flow devices are easily analyzed using the linear momentum equation.
Radial-flow devices involve large changes in angular momentum of the fluid
and are best analyzed with the help of the angular momentum equation.
Side and frontal views of a typical centrifugal pump. 453

The conservation of mass equation for steady incompressible flow
angular momentum equation
Euler’s turbine formula
When
An annular control
volume that encloses
the impeller section of 454
a centrifugal pump.
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
The variation of power produced with angular

speed for the turbine of Example 6–9.
462
3. Summary
463
3. Summary
• Newton’s Laws
• Choosing a Control Volume
• Forces Acting on a Control Volume
• The Linear Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
• Steady Flow
• Flow with No External Forces
• Review of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
• The Angular Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Flow with No External Moments
• Radial-Flow Devices
464
Week 15: Revision

Lecture 2


465
Revision
Problem 1
At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily
at 8 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of
air per unit mass and the power generation
potential of a wind turbine with 50-m-diameter
blades at that location. Also determine the
actual electric power generation assuming an
overall efficiency of 30 percent. Take the air
density to be 1.25 kg/m3
466
Revision
Problem 1
At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily
at 8 m/s. Determine the mechanical energy of
air per unit mass and the power generation
potential of a wind turbine with 50-m-diameter
blades at that location. Also determine the
actual electric power generation assuming an
overall efficiency of 30 percent. Take the air
density to be 1.25 kg/m3
467
Revision
Problem 2
Water at 20°C is siphoned from a reservoir as shown in
Figure here. For d = 10 cm and D = 16 cm, determine
(a) the minimum flow rate that can be achieved without
cavitation occurring in the piping system and (b) the
maximum elevation of the highest point of the piping
system to avoid cavitation.
468
Revision
Problem 2
Figure here. For d = 10 cm and D = 16 cm, determine
(a) the minimum flow rate that can be achieved without
469
Revision
Problem 2
Figure here. For d = 10 cm and D = 16 cm, determine (a)
the minimum flow rate that can be achieved without
470

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MEC 353 Fluid Mechanics

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

Week 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

1 07/12/2022 No lecture Registration week

Mid-term Exam quizz; 1 -

4 Final Examination Exam 40

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

Week 1: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

 This is convenient, but the same name for two dimensions is

 Note the algebraic cancellation units

 Note the algebraic cancellation units

Week 2: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

Lab Associate: Eng.Mr. Abdulmajid Alaliw

Unlike a liquid, a gas

A fluid flowing over a stationary

Boundary layer: The flow

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each A mine hoist powered by

Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the

The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.

The Oklahoma Wind Power Center

The flow of an originally

• Water flow in a pipe is

Schlieren image of a small model of

Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by

Oscillating wake of a blunt-based airfoil

Week 2: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

Lab Associate: Eng.Mr. Abdulmajid Alaliw

The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its

The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal

 A large  for a fluid  large change in density with

coefficient of volume expansion

Control volume moving with the

For an ideal gas,

The Mach number depends on the

The speed of sound

The viscosity of a fluid is a

A fluid moving relative to

The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow Shear force

Variation of shear stress with the

Some consequences of surface tension.

Attractive forces acting on a liquid

The meniscus of colored water in a

The capillary rise of water and the

 Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the

Week 3: Introduction to Fluid Statics and Manometers

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

Lab Associate: Eng.Mr. Abdulmajid Alaliw

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

The pressure of a fluid at rest Free-body diagram of a rectangular

The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a

The area ratio A2/A1 is

The length or the

At high altitudes, a car engine generates

The variation of gage

Week 3: Introduction to Fluid Statics and Manometers

Lecturer: Professor Apostolos Pesyridis

Lab Associate: Eng.Mr. Abdulmajid Alaliw