CE 141 - Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering PDF

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© 2008 by Ricardo G. Sigua

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written permission from the author and the publisher.
The National Library of the Philippines CIP Data
Recommended entry:
Sigua , Ricardo G.
Fundamentals of traffic engineering / Ricardo
—
G. Sigua. Quezon City: The University of the
Philippines Press, c2008.
346 p.; 23 cm.
1. Traffic engineering— Philippines.

2. Traffic safety— Philippines. 3. Traffic
—
regulations Philippines. I. Title.
HE365.5P5 388.312’ 09599 2008 P074000094

ISBN 978-971-542-552-0
Book Design by Zenaida N . Ebalan
Printed in the Philippines by EC- tec Commercial

(Oman
PREFACE XV
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.1.1 Road Transport Network 1
1.1.2 Public Transportation 4
1.1.3 Traffic Management 4
1.1.4 Pedestrian Facilities 6
1.1.5 Vehicle Registration 7
1.1.6 Insurance 8
1.1. 7 Driving License 8
1.1.8 Driver Apprehensions 10
1.1.9 Driving Schools 10
1.1.10 Traffic Enforcement 11
1.1.11 Legislative Framework 11
1.2 Transportation and Traffic Engineering Practice 12
1.2.1 Definitions 12
1.2.2 Traffic Engineering in the Philippines 14
References 14
vi A Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
2 TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Traffic Regulations 16
2.2.1 Effective Traffic Regulation 17
2.2.2 Three Elements of the Road System 18
2.3 Traffic Control Devices 19
2.3.1 Four Elementary Requirements of
Every Traffic Control Device 19
2.4 Traffic Signs and ' Markings 20
2.4.1 Elements of Design 21
2.5 International Standard Traffic Signs 24
2.5.1 Warning Signs 24
2.5.2 Priority Signs 26
2.5.3 Prohibition Signs 26
2.5.4 Obligatory Signs 28
2.5.5 Other Prescription Signs 29
2.5.6 Information Signs 30
2.5.7 Direction Signs 31
2.5.8 Additional Information 32
2.6 Pavement Markings 32
2.6.1 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings 32
2.6.2 Legal Authority 33
2.6.3 Standardization 33
2.6.4 Types of Markings 33
2.6.5 Materials 34
2.6.6 Color 35
2.6. 7 Types of Lines 35
2.6.8 Width of Lines 35
2.6.9 Messages 36
2.6.10 Symbols 36
2.7 Object Markings and Markers 37
2.7.1 Object Markings 37
2.7 . 2 Raised Pavement Markers 38
Contents A vii
Problems 41
References 41
3 TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Types of Flow 43
3.2.1 Major Traffic Variables 43
3.2.2 Other Traffic Variables 48
3.3 Relationship of Flow, Speed, and Density 50
3.3.1 Observed Relations 51
3.3.2 Empirical Relations 52
3.4 Capacity and Level of Service 58
3.5 Hydrodynamic and Kinematic Models of Traffic 61
3.6 Queuing Theory 66
3.6.1 D/ D /1 Queuing 68
3.6. 2 M / D /1 Queuing 70
3.6.3 M / M /1 Queuing 71
3.6.4 M / M / N Queuing 72
3.7 Shock Wave 75
Problems 78
References 83
4 TRAFFIC STUDIES 84
4.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Volume Studies 84
4.2.1 Types of Volume 84
4.2.2 Types of Data Collected 85
4.2.3 Time of Study 85
4.2 . 4 Methods 86
4.2.5 Presentation of Traffic Volumes 87
4.2 .6 AADT and ADT 89
viii ilk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
4.3 Spot Speed Studies 90

4.3.1 Time of Study 90
4.3. 2 Size of Samples 91
4.3.3 Methods 91
4.3. 4 Analysis and Presentation of Spot Speeds 92
4.4 Travel Time and Delay Studies 94
4.4.1 Methods 94
Problems 103
References 105
5 INTERSECTION DESIGN AND CONTROL 107
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Basic Intersection Design Principles 109
5.3 Intersection Design Elements 110
5.4 Methods of Control of Intersections 112
5.4 .1 Unsignalized Intersection 114
5.4. 2 Roundabout or Rotary 114
5.4.3 U -Turn Slots 115
5.4 . 4 Signalized Intersection 116
5.4.5 Grade Separation 117
5.5 Analysis of Unsignalized Intersections 118
5.5.1 Structure of Major Road Traffic 119
5.5. 2 Critical Gap 120
5.5. 3 Capacity 120
5.5.4 Passenger Car Equivalents 123
5.5. 5 Reserve Capacity 124
5.6 Analysis and Design of Roundabouts or Rotondas 128
5.7 Traffic Signal Control 132
5.7.1 Types of Signals 132
5.7.2 Data Requirements for Traffic Signal Setting 139
5.7.3 Phase 139
Contents & ix
5.7.4 Lost Times 141

5.7.5 Cycle 142
5.7.6 Allocation of Green Times 145
5.7.7 Capacity of Movement or Approach 146
5.7.8 Estimation of Delay 146
5.7.9 Timing Diagram 148
5.7 .10Intersection Degree of Congestion 150
5.7.11 Critical Movement Analysis 151
5.7.12 Treatment of Left Turn Traffic 155
5.7.13 Left Turn Lane Length 157
5.7.14 Effects of Left Turn Vehicles on
Saturation Flow Rate 158
5.7.15 Coordination of Traffic Signals 160
5.7.16 Graphical Method of Coordinating
Signalized Intersections 164
5.7.17 Offset 168
I ’ roblems 169
References 173
( . GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS 174
6.2 Design Requirements of Highways 175
6.2.1 Design Speed 175
6.2.2 Sight Distances 176
6.2.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature 179
6.2.4 Superelevation 180
6.2.5 Design Volume 182
6.2.6 Number of Lanes 183
6.3 Horizontal Alignment 185
6.3.1 Circular Curve 185
6.3.2 Compound Curve 190
6.3.3 Reverse Curve 190
6.3.4 Broken Back Curve 192
6.3.5 Easement Curve or Clothoid 194
x A Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
6.4 Vertical Alignment 200

6.4.1 Properties of Parabolic Vertical Curves 200
6.4.2 Types of Vertical Curves 201
6.4.3 General Equation of Vertical Curve 202
6.4. 4 Sight Distances at Vertical Curves 204
6.4.5 Sight Distances at Crest Vertical Curves 205
6.4.6 Sight Distances at Sag Vertical Curves 206
Problems 208
References 211
7 ROAD SAFETY AND TRAFFIC ACCIDENT ANALYSIS 213
7.2 Assessment of Road Safety 213
7.2 .1 Accident per Population 214
7.2.2 Accident per Registered Vehicles 214
7.2 .3 Accident Definition 216
7.2 .4 Road Accident Reporting 216
7.2.5 Present Situation 217
7.2.6 Key Socioeconomic Indicators 218
7.2. 7 Accidents at Intersections 222
7.2.8 Accident Rates for Intersections 223
7.2.9 Accident Rates for Road Sections 224
7.2.10 Accidents by Time of Day 224
7.3 Identifying Hazardous Locations or Blackspots 225
7.3.1 Classic Statistical Method 225
7.3. 2 Rate Quality Control Method 226
7.3.3 Setting Benchmark Method 228
7.4 Responses to Safety 228
7.4.1 The Inter-agency Road Safety Committee
and the National Road Safety Committee 228
7.4.2 Agencies and Institutions Involved in Road Safety 229
7.5 Initiatives on Road Safety 232
7.5.1 Imposing Motor Vehicle User’s Fee 232
7.5.2 Motor Vehicle Inspection System 232
Contents A xi
7.5.3 Seat Belt Law 232

7.5.4 Banning Use of Cellular Phones and
Handset Radios 233
7.5.5 Other Initiatives 233
7.6 Road Safety Issues 233
7.6.1 Legislative 233
7.6. 2 Institutional 234
7.6.3 Technical 235
7.6.4 Education and Campaigns 239
7.6.5 Sociocultural 239
7.7 Cost of Traffic Accidents 240
7.7.1 Uses of Accident Cost Estimates 241
7.7.2 Approaches to Estimating Cost of Accidents 242
7.7.3 Determination of Cost Components 243
7.7.4 Estimation of Cost Components 248
7.8 Estimation of Average Cost of Accidents 253
7.8.1 Estimation of Cost of a Single Fatal Accident 253
7.8.2 Estimation of Cost of a Single Serious
Injury Accident 253
7.8.3 Estimation of Cost of a Single Minor
Injury Accident 254
7.8.4 Estimation of Cost of a Single Property-
Damage-Only Accident 255
7.8.5 Summary of Average Cost of Each Type
of Accident 255
7.9 Estimation of National Cost 256
7.9.1 Data Availability and Quality 256
7.9. 2 Calculation of National Costs 259
Problems 260
References 262
8 INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL DEMAND FORECASTING 265
8.2 The Four-Step Forecasting Model 265
xii A Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
8.3 The Origin -Destination Table (OD Matrix) 266

8.4 Methods for Estimating Trip Generation and Attraction 268
8.4.1 Growth Rate Method 269
8.4.2 Category Analysis 269
8.4.3 Regression Analysis 272
8.5 Trip Distribution 273
8.5.1 Present Pattern Method 273
8.5. 2 Model Method 275
8.6 Modal Split 276
8.6.1 The Generalized Cost 277
8.6 . 2 Disaggregate Choice Model 278
8.7 Route Assignment 280
8.7.1 The Shortest Path 281
8.7.2 Network Assignment 284
Problems 286
References 292
9 INTRODUCTION TO INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 293
9.1 Background 293
9.2 Current Deployment of ITS in the Philippines 294
9.2 .1 Traffic-Responsive Signal System 294
9.2 . 2 The Metro Manila ETC Systems 296
9.3 Road Pricing 303
9.3.1 Time- Based Fees 303
9.3. 2 Phasing in Peak -Hour Road Pricing 304
9.3.3 Other Effects of Peak-Hour Road Pricing 305
9.3. 4 MMUTIS Studies on Road Pricing 305
9.4 Some Issues Related to Sustainable Deployment of ITS
in Developing Countries 306
Contents xiii
9.5 Conditions for Acceptable Deployment /Implementation

of ITS in Metro Manila 307
9.6 Conclusion 308
References 309
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 311
INDEX 321
THE AUTHOR 329
This work is dedicated to ...
My Lord God Almighty — the Way (John 10:35),

the light unto my Path (Psalms 119:105)
My wife, Helen — my faithful journey companion

(Proverbs 31: 25-28)
—
Our children, Karen, Paul, and Luke my arrows in my warrior hand
(Psalms 127:3-5)
“ And / will make all My mountains a road , and My highways will be

raised up. Behold, these shall come forth from afar; and lo, these will
come from the north and from the west . . . ”
(Isaiah 49: 11-12)
. -
NtEMG
T he scarcity of books on transportation , especially those particularly

relevant and appropriate to a Philippine setting, has loong been a
legitimate complaint of students, educators, and practitioners. While it is
true that transportation engineering is a young field relative to other civil
engineering disciplines, the demand for good education and training on
the field has escalated due to rapid urbanization . As cities and towns
grow and develop, the problems related to transport and traffic intensify
in geometric proportions. To avoid costly and , at times , irreversible
mistakes, a solid foundation in traffic engineering is a must . We cannot
continue to rely on reactionary or trial -and -error approaches to our road
and traffic woes. Only through a firm grasp and systematic application of
basic knowledge and theories could we truly come up with credible and
effective solutions. Only through systematic evaluation and research could
we discard ineffective designs, improve our skills , and upgrade our
systems .
The book includes basic concepts that a senior civil engineering
student is expected to thoroughly understand . Topics like queuing and
shock wave theories are rather advanced , but the basic formulations are
presented and conceptualized in simplified manner that even
undergraduate students can easily comprehend . It is likewise written as
a handy self - contained reference or easy guide for practicing traffic
engineers .
A notable recurring theme woven into all discussions is road order
and safety. In the quest for efficiency, sophistication , or cost effectiveness,
basic safety and orderliness must never be compromised . Accident
xvi & Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
prevention should always be the first and foremost concern in every

design . Preservation of human life remains the most important goal of a
good traffic engineer. We are faced with myriads of transportation and
traffic problems: congestion , pollution , energy, inadequate public
—
transportation the list is endless. Even more affluent countries are not
devoid of transportation problems , in varying degrees and forms. But ,
universally, there is nothing more gratifying than having the field of traffic
engineering help meet the needs of our communities toward acquiring
not only road efficiency but also a safer and more orderly road environment .
The completion of this book would not have been possible without
the valuable assistance of the following:
The University of the Philippines Office of the Vice President for
Academic Affairs, for the textbook writing grant;
The UP College of Engineering (COE) and the UP National Center
for Transportation Studies ( NCTS), formerly the Transport Training
Center, for having been the venue all throughout these years for
my teaching and honing the substance of the basic concepts;
Colleagues in the UP COE and NCTS, for their encouragement and
full support as I wrote the details of each chapter;
Civil engineering professors in other universities, for stressing the
need for a local book in transportation engineering;
Partners in national agencies and the private sector, for providing
statistics, photos, and other reference materials; and
The UP Press editorial staff , for the painstaking work of editing and
layouting the manuscript.
R . G. Sigua
KW
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1.1 BACKGROUND
rT^ he Philipp ines, a member of the Association of Southeast Asian

-L Nations, is an archipelagic country consisting of more than 7,100
islands. With a total land area of about 300,000 sq km, it has 81 provinces,
136 cities, and 1,494 municipalities ( NSCB 2007). Metro Manila is the
seat of the government and the primary center of business and trade.
Other urban centers include the major cities of Cebu and Davao (see figure
1.1). The population of the Philippines is about 80 million, with a growth
rate of 2.2 percent per annum . The population density stands at 227
persons /sq km.
Metro Manila comprises sixteen cities and one municipality ( NSCB
2007). Its land area is 636 sq km, and it has a population of 10.4 million.
This implies that about 14 percent of the country’s population is
concentrated in only 0.3 percent of the country’s land area. Its population
density is about 16,000 persons/sq km, one of the highest in Southeast
Asia . The population growth rate is about 3 percent , higher than the
national average ( ALMEC Corp. 1999).
1.1 . 1 Road Transport Network
Some 80 percent of domestic passenger traffic and 60 percent of
freight traffic currently use the road , and 75 percent of government
2 Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Source: Smartdraw 2007 clipart.
Figure 1.1
The Philippines (Metro Manila inset)
1: Introduction {fit 3
expenditures on transport infrastructure goes to road systems ( Abueva

2004). The Philippines has a total road length of about 161,000 km, with
an average road density of 0.53 km/sq km or 2.35 km per 1,000 people.
Philippine roads are mostly made of concrete pavement. Due to heavy,
overloaded trucks, pavements are often damaged, a factor that contributes
to traffic accidents. Due to a long rainy season , floods occur throughout
the Philippines. Floodwaters often cause damage to road pavement due
to inadequate drainage. There are about 11,500 bridges in the national
network ( measuring about 335,500 lineal meters), of which 1,700 bridges
are temporary ( DPWH 2004).
Metro Manila has a total road length of about 4,800 km. The major
arterial roads form circumferential and radial patterns, although road
expansion is seen toward the north and south directions , following
the development of Metro
Manila. Figure 1.2 shows the
major road network of Metro
Manila with daily traffic.
Many of the roads
have reached their capacity.
Due to traffic congestion, the
average travel speed is
estimated to be as low as Manila Bay
14 kph, with roughly one-third
of the travel time wasted as
idle time (Sigua 1997). A
typical urban travel in Metro
Ml***,*
'!
Manila is shown in figure
Lagunl <3(o flay
1.3. According to the 2000 .
Hm
study of the University of the

Philippines National Center
lor Transportation Studies ,
traffic congestion in Metro 1996
Manila has caused more Source: MMUTIS 1999.
than PT01 billion in losses. Figure 1.2
The condition of the Metro Manila major road network and
roads in Metro Manila is traffic volume
generally good while it is
poorer outside the metropolis.
4 A Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
70
60
50
-C
£ 40
8<v
"
30
&
CO
20
10
0
i
0 100 200 300
h
400 500 600 700 800
l\
900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Time, sec
.
Source: Sigua 1997
Figure 1.3
Typical urban travel in’Metro Manila
1.1.2 Public Transportation
The mode of public transportation in Metro Manila is predominantly
road - based , consisting largely of jeepneys and buses for primary and
secondary routes, and motorized tricycles and pedicabs for feeder routes.
There are about 330 bus routes and 600 jeepney routes. These routes
include those serving the adjoining areas of Metro Manila. The jeepneys
cover more than 610 km of roads while buses operate mainly on about
350 km of roads ( ALMEC Corp. 1999). Figure 1.4 shows the major bus
and jeepney routes.
During rush hours, the inadequate provision of public transportation
becomes apparent . Many commuters can be seen standing on the
carriageway while waiting for buses and jeepneys. Passengers clinging
to anything at the back of jeepneys are a common sight.
1.1.3 Traffic Management

Traffic control devices such as traffic signs and markings generally
follow the international standard , the Philippines being a signatory to the
Vienna Convention in 1968. However, many of the signs installed conform
neither to color nor shape as provided for in the standard. The number of
traffic signs installed is generally insufficient. In highly urbanized areas,
these signs can hardly be recognized , much less read , as they compete
with giant billboards in terms of visibility and craftsmanship.
1: Introduction A 5
/
/
I
w<
X
\
\
1
400 200 100
XN.. ..1
(000pax/day)
\
Jeepney
Bus
/ :
V / /
kk
Source: ALMEC Corp. 1999.
Figure 1.4
Major bus and jeepney routes
Photo shows inadequacy of public transport Photo shows stiff competition between buses
during peak hours. ( Photo taken by the and jeepneys. (Photo taken by Dr. Tetsuro
author.) Hyodo.)
6 fit Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Traffic signals are commonly installed at major intersections in many

cities and towns in the Philippines although the number is still inadequate.
Oftentimes , these signals do not provide display phase exclusive for
pedestrians. In Metro Manila, there is a growing concern about the safety
of pedestrians due to the closure of intersections and with the U -turn slot
scheme replacing the control of traffic signals. Pedestrians have practically
no opportunity to cross the road because of the “ uninterrupted ” flow of
traffic. Without traffic signals controlling the traffic flow at intersections,
driving has become riskier because of frequent swerving/weaving. There
is an urgent need to evaluate the effectiveness of the scheme, which has
the sole purpose of improving speed along the arterials without
consideration of safety.
1.1.4 Pedestrian Facilities
Sidewalks are in relatively good condition ; however, many
obstructions can be found on them such as illegal vendors, electrical
posts, police outpost, etc. With the sidewalk occupied , pedestrians have
to walk on the carriageway. There are still very few overhead pedestrian
bridges even in Metro Manila, and at places where these have been
constructed , pedestrians still prefer to risk their lives or limbs by crossing
the road at grade level. Moreover, pedestrian overpasses are often
inaccesible to the elderly and the handicapped.
Figure 1.5
A pedestrian overpass in Metro Manila
(Photo taken by the author.)
1: Introduction A 7
1.1.5 Vehicle Registration

The registration of vehicles in the Philippines is handled by the
Land Transportation Office ( LTO), a line agency of the Department of
Transportation and Communications ( DOTC). Table 1.1 shows the number
of registered motor vehicles in the Philippines in 2002. The number of
utility vehicles or jeepneys has a share of 37 percent . The number of
motorcycles has increased tremendously in the last three years due to
the influx of cheaper models into the country. It reached the 1.5 million
mark in 2002. However, this number accounts for both the motorcycles
( MCs) for private use and the tricycles (TCs) for public transport use.
There is therefore a need to separate the categories since they serve
completely different purposes.
Table 1.1
Total registration of motor vehicles for 2002
Type Number %
Cars 749,553 18.00

UV 1,554,619 37.34
SUV 97,695 2.35
Trucks 257,774 6.19
Buses 33,915 0.81
MC/TC 1,470,383 35.31
TOTAL 4,163,939 100.00
Source: LTO 2005.
About 40 percent of the total number of vehicles are registered in

Metro Manila.
Motor vehicles are classified as follows:
Private vehicles - refers to motor vehicles owned by private
individuals or companies and are not intended to be used for hire.
For hire vehicles - refers to motor vehicles authorized to be
used as public vehicles by virtue of a franchise granted by the
Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
—
Official/government vehicles refers to motor vehicles owned
by the Philippine government.
Diplomatic vehicles - refers to motor vehicles owned by a foreign
government or by their diplomatic officials in the Philippines.
8 & Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
1.1.6 Insurance
Motor vehicle owners are required to obtain insurance covering
third- party liabilities. The minimum insurance to be paid to victims of
traffic accidents (fatal) was P50,000 in 2002.
The Insurance Surety Association of the Philippines under the Office
of the Insurance Commissioner accredited 112 insurance companies all
over the Philippines by 2002. It regulates the industry to prevent the
proliferation of fly - by - night insurance companies.
1.1. 7 Driving License
The issuing procedure of driving license is provided for under
Republic Act ( RA) 4136. The LTO has the full responsibility for issuance
of, driving licenses.
There are three types of driving licenses: student driver’s permit ,
nonprofessional driver’s license, and professional driver’s license.
a . Student driver’s permit
The applicant must be at least sixteen years old and must

be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle. He or
she must be able to read and write in Filipino or English .
b . Nonprofessional driver’s license
New applicant must be at least seventeen years old and
must be a holder of a valid student permit for at least one month .
He or she must be physically and mentally fit to operate a
motor vehicle, and must not be a drug user or an alcoholic.
c . Professional driver’s license
New applicant for professional driver’s license must be at

least eighteen years old and is required to submit a valid
nonprofessional driver’s license or a valid student driver’s permit
that is used for at least five months. He or she must not be a
drug user or an alcoholic.
The requirement of having a medical examination and drug test
was introduced only very recently.
1: Introduction {2k 9
Driving license requirements

The holder of a student driver’s permit is only allowed to operate a
motor vehicle if accompanied by a licensed driver who is liable for any
damage caused by the student driver’s operation of the motor vehicle. A
student driver’s permit is good for only one year while the nonprofessional
and professional driver’s licenses are valid for three years, expiring on
license holder’s birth month . License holders are required to renew their
license before the expiry date.
Written and practical examinations
Applicants for nonprofessional and professional driver’s licenses
are required to pass both written and practical examinations.
The written examination is given to gauge the applicant’s knowledge
of traffic rules and regulations based on the Traffic Code, safe driving
practices , and the mechanics of motor vehicles . The written test for
nonprofessional driver’s license applicants has forty questions , and
candidates must be able to answer at least thirty questions correctly. In
I he case of the professional driver’s license applicants , sixty questions
are given , and applicants must be able to get at least forty -five correct
answers to pass the test .
The practical examination is given to test a candidate’s ability to
park a vehicle properly, to start on slope, etc.
The total number of professional licenses, nonprofessional licenses,
and student permits issued in 2002 was about 2.9 million . The breakdown
is shown in figure 1.6.
Professional Non-professional Student permit

.
Source: LTO 2005
Figure 1.6
Breakdown of driver licenses and permits issued in 2002
1.1.8 Driver Apprehensions

There seems to be an increasing trend in the number of drivers
apprehended ( table 1.2). This could be attributed to the concerted efforts
of the different agencies ( the Land Transportation Office, the Metro Manila
Development Authority [ MMDA], and the Philippine National Police-
Traffic Management Group [ PNP-TMG) in apprehending violators over
the past years.
Table 1.2
Number of apprehended drivers
Year Total
1999 480,122
2000 475, 626
2001 570, 748
2002 612, 477
Source: LTO 2005.
As to the type of apprehensions, most of these are fines for violating

traffic rules and regulations (table 1.3).
Table 1.3
Breakdown of types of driver apprehension (1999-2002 ) ,
Type Number %
Fined 594,126 92.89

Suspended license 345 0.05
Revoked license 4, 447 0.70
Impounded vehicle 5, 771 0.90
Others 34,933 5.46
Source: LTO 2005.
1.1.9 Driving Schools

Driving schools and driving instructors must have accreditation
from the LTO . In 1980 , the then Ministry of Transportation and
Communications ( MOTC ) issued an order covering the rules and
regulations governing the supervision and control over driving schools.
1: Introduction fill
Standard requirements were set forth for driving site, school building,
classrooms, library facilities, motor vehicles, instructors, and course of
instruction .
In 2002 , about 170 LTO - accredited driving schools were in
operation all over the country.
1.1.10 Traffic enforcement
Traffic laws are enforced by the Traffic Management Group (TMG),
the traffic division of each district police , and the LTO . In 1978,
Presidential Decree ( PD ) 1605 was issued to centralize enforcement
matters in Metro Manila to the Metro Manila Commission ( MMC ) , now
ihe Metro Manila Development Authority.
The TMG, being a national support unit of the PNP, has traffic
management offices scattered in the different regions and provinces
nationwide. In selected areas or provinces, especially in highly urbanized
cities/ municipalities, the TMG has traffic management teams (TMTs) that
are also capable of performing the functions of the TMG in their areas. In
Metro Manila, the National Capital Regional Traffic Management Office
is complemented by some of the TMG operational support units that are
likewise based in Metro Manila. In coordination and cooperation with
the MMDA for Metro Manila and the local police units in the different
regions, the TMG has at its disposal the traffic enforcement units. Each
Kegional Traffic Management Office ( RTMO) can dispatch personnel to
strategic choke points and major thoroughfares to conduct traffic direction
mid control to ensure the smooth flow of traffic.
In Metro Manila, the TMG and the MMDA assist each other in
traffic management , especially when ongoing infrastructure projects cause
heavy congestion . Alongside this function, the personnel of TMG render
the following tasks: traffic accident investigation , and traffic safety
education through seminars and conferences, etc.
1.1 .11 Legislative Framework
This section discusses some of the legislations pertinent to road
safety (Santiago 1980).
Republic Act 4136, otherwise known as the Land Transportation
and Traffic Code, provides for the system of registration of motor vehicles,
checks on accessories of vehicles, and defines road traffic rules and
regulations.
Commonwealth Act 146, otherwise known as Public Service Act ,

rests on the regulatory body ( LTFRB) the power to compel any public
service provider to furnish safe, adequate, and proper service as regards
the manner of furnishing the same as well as the maintenance of necessary
materials and equipment.
Executive Order ( EO ) 125 reorganized the then Ministry of
Transportation and Communications into a Department and defined its
powers and functions , including the establishment of the Land
Transportation Office as the sectoral agency responsible for implementing
and carrying out policies , rules , and regulations governing the land
transportation system of the country.
Executive Order 202 created the Land Transportation Franchising
and Regulatory Board with the main function of regulating the land
transport industry pursuant to the Public Service Act.
Republic Act 6975 established the Department of Interior and Local
Government ( DILG), including the creation of the PNP under which the
Traffic Management Group has been reorganized as the traffic enforcement
arm of the PNP covering national roads.
1.2 TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING PRACTICE
1.2.1 Definitions
Transportation engineering is a field or branch of civil engineering
that deals with the application of technology and scientific principles to
the planning, functional design , operation, and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid ,
comfortable , convenient , economical , and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods.
On the other hand , traffic engineering is that phase of transportation
engineering that deals with the planning, geometric design , and traffic
operations of roads , streets and highways, their networks , terminals,
abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation (Evans
1950).
In the United States, it was in 1921 when the title “ traffic engineer”
was first recognized , although a number of traffic engineering-related
activities were already going on. Table 1.4 shows some of these activities:
1: Introduction & 13
Table 1.4
Milestones in the developing profession of traffic engineering
Year Activity
1904 Traffic survey methods were being employed.

1907 Pedestrian islands were used in San Francisco.
1908 The first driver's license law was adopted.
1911 White-painted pavement center lines were first applied.
1915 Origin-destination studies and accident spot maps were first used.
1916 Speed and delay study was first made by observing traffic from a high
building; pedestrian regulation and "no left turns" were prescribed;
curb parking was prohibited to facilitate traffic movement.
Source: Evans 1950.
The use of traffic signals for controlling traffic came much earlier.
The first recorded use of traffic signals was in 1868 in Great Britain . The
signals were illuminated by town gas. However, the use of gas was
discontinued after an explosion incident . The development of traffic signal
technology is shown in table 1.5.
Table 1.5
Development of traffic signal control
Year Activity
1868 First traffic signal in Great Britain ( illuminated by gas)

1910 Manually operated semaphore signals
1922 Idea of timing signals for progressive movement
1926 First automatic traffic signals in Great Britain
1927 Earliest known application of time-space diagram for coordination
1928 First traffic -actuated signals
.
' utirce: Evans 1950.
In 1930, the Institute of Traffic Engineers (ITE) was founded , and

traffic engineering as a profession was finally officially established and
defined . The society played a key role in promoting the profession through
advanced training, research studies, standardization , laws, and application
of traffic engineering techniques (Evans 1950).
1.2.2 Traffic Engineering in the Philippines

The traffic engineering practice in the Philippines is still new. Most
intersections were previously controlled by traffic police officers or by
manually operated traffic signals. Outside Metro Manila , manually
operated semaphore signals displaying STOP or GO messages were
installed on top of police outposts located at the center of the intersection.
In 1977, the Traffic Engineering and Management (TEAM) Project first
implemented an area traffic control system in Metro Manila. It was almost
at the same period when the Traffic Control Center, later renamed as the
Traffic Engineering Center (TEC ) , was established . The center was
responsible for the implementation of various traffic engineering and
management measures such as traffic signalization , geometric
improvement of intersections, etc. In 1976, the Transport Training Center
(TTC) was established in the University of the Philippines with assistance
from Japan through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
TTC started its training program in 1978 in the fields of traffic engineering,
transportation planning, and traffic management for traffic law enforcers.
TTC was renamed as the National Center for Transportation Studies and
became a regular unit of UP Diliman in 1993, with research and support
to graduate programs in the fields of transportation engineering and
transportation planning as additional functions.
REFERENCES
Abueva , Jose V. , ed . 2004. The Macapagal - Arroyo presidency and

administration: Record and legacy ( 2001 -2004 ). Vol. 1. Quezon
City: UP Press.
ALMEC Corporation . 1999. Metro Manila Urban Transportation
Integration Study ( MMUTIS) final report.
Department of Public Works and Highways ( DPWH). 2004. Infrastructure
atlas 2004.
Evans, Henry K., ed . 1950. Traffic engineering handbook . Second ed .
New Haven, Connecticut: Institute of Traffic Engineers.
Land Transportation Office. 2005. Statistics. Unpublished.
1: Introduction A 15
National Center for Transportation Studies ( NCTS). 2000. A study on cost

of traffic congestion in Metro Manila. Quezon City: NCTS.
National Statistical Coordination Board ( NSCB). 2007. NSCB website.
http:// www. nscb. gov. ph .
Santiago, Mariano R ., ed. 1980. A compilation of edicts related to the
land transportation system of the Philippines . Quezon City: Bureau
of Land Transportation .
Sigua, Ricardo G. 1997. Development of driving cycle for Metro Manila.
Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies 2, no.
4 , Seoul: Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies (EASTS).
2
mm mflhflafn-CNT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
T raffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken

by a highway transportation agency to improve roadway system safety,
efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers and consumers of
transportation services. There are two distinct types of traffic management .
The first one utilizes traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices
to regulate and control traffic . The second relies more on advanced
technology through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems ( ITS) .
Advancement of ITS has been the primary goal of many developed
countries. The more conventional applications are common in developing
countries. However, it is not uncommon in both developed and developing
countries to have a combination of conventional methods and ITS
applications. An introduction to ITS is provided in chapter 9.
2.2 TRAFFIC REGULATIONS
Many individuals feel that traffic control measures are an encroachment

on their individual driving rights. It must be stressed , however, that driving
is not a right but a privilege . It is therefore necessary to show that
restrictions are for the general welfare , and it must be demonstrated that
regulations do not curtail the rights or actions of the majority.
2: Traffic Management & 17
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle
( registration , ownership , mechanical fitness, accessories , size, weight )
and driver (age, ability to operate specific types of vehicles, financial
responsibility).
Traffic regulations must be reasonable and effective. This can only
be achieved through careful study. Facts must be sought through the
conduct of traffic studies, accident analysis, keeping driver records and
other data .
All traffic regulations are dependent upon the laws of the states
and local governments, especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative
bodies and traffic authorities must keep in mind that unreasonable
restrictions or regulations are not likely to last very long.
2.2 .1 Effective Traffic Regulation
There are fundamental requirements for traffic regulation to be
effective. These are as follows:
a . Regulations should be rational.
Irrational regulations cannot be enforced except by
tremendous effort and expense. Social , economic , and human
problems must be considered . If the habits of a community are
greatly at variance with the regulations , success cannot be
attained for any substantial period of time.
b . Regulations should be developed progressively.
Regulations must be planned over a long period of time,
and the effects must be carefully observed so that alterations
can be made as experience dictates. Experience shows that
abrupt changes in regulation often lead to increase in the
occurrence of traffic accidents.
c. Regulations alone often are not enough .

Regulations constitute but one approach to the overall
traffic problem . When public acceptance is poor and
enforcement is lax , regulations may be totally ineffective. They
must be used in conjunction with control devices , overall
highway planning and design , and administrative policies.
18
^ Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
2.2 . 2 Three Elements of the Road System
The road system consists of the following:
a . The road
b . The vehicle
c . The driver
Figure 2.1 suggests a balance among the three elements, i .e., a

breakdown or deficiency in one can lead to the failure of the entire system .
Road/
Environment
Vehicle {= } Human/
Driver
Figure 2.1
Interaction of the three elements of the road system
The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and

improvement. However, in a given period of time, they may be considered
inflexible. The major portion of existing regulations are therefore aimed
at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has become the most effective way of
controlling the number of drivers on the road . It should be used , therefore,
to influence drivers to become familiar with the rules of the road. This is
especially true for the Filipino drivers, considering that most accidents
have been attributed to them.
For vehicles, a number of controls exist, the most effective of which
is vehicle registration . Others are checks on equipment and accessories
(lights, bells, mirrors, helmets, etc.), and vehicle’s dimension and weight .
Currently, the Motor Vehicle Inspection System ( MVIS) is being revitalized
and expanded to cover the whole country.
2: Traffic Management fit 19
2.3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised
ns todetailed requirements or conditions affecting road use at specific
places and times so that proper action may be taken and accident or
delay avoided .
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:
a. Regulatory devices
These have the authority of law and impose precise
requirements upon the actions of the road user.
b . Warning devices
These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous
roadway conditions or unusual traffic movements that are not
readily apparent to passing traffic.
c . Guiding devices
These are employed simply to inform the road user of route,

destination , and other pertinent information .
I Four Elementary Requirements of Every Traffic Control Device
To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet
I hr following requirements ( FHWA 1988):
a. It should compel attention.

b . It should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance.
c . It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d . It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is
intended .
Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical
' mquence . The effectiveness of a sign or marking normally depends on
IIH size, color contrast , shape (simple, regular shapes), relative position,
mid maintenance to compel attention . To convey a clear meaning, the
him pc, color, and message must be well understood . The message should
hr kept as short as practicable because not more than three familiar
words can be conveyed at a glance. After capturing the clear meaning of
the device, it should provide adequate time for response. Simpler message
like STOP or YIELD requires only a second , while multiple choice (as in
destination or guide sign ) may require three to four seconds. Finally, all
—
these requirements the design features of size and brightness, position
—
allowing time for response, properly maintained control device should
command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, ill- kept signs must be
discarded and replaced .
2.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS
Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices
to regulate, warn, or guide road users. Traffic markings normally consist
of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. They may be considered
as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in contrast
with the color and brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of
the United Nations on Road Traffic and Road Signs, which the country
officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes ,
directions, destinations, etc. Their function becomes more relevant when
used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any prohibitive action at
specific places and /or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly
authorized public body or official for the purpose of guiding, regulating,
and warning traffic . In case of temporary construction work , however,
special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to install
signs to protect the public provided that such signs conform to the set
standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/ permanent type although some
variable signs have been employed and have become useful in locations
where traffic and environment conditions often change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:
a. Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while they
are traveling.
b . Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special
obligations, restrictions, or prohibitions with which they must
comply.
2: Traffic Management 21
c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on

the road and to inform them of its nature.
2.4.1 Elements of Design
Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension , symbols,
wording, lettering, and illumination or reflectorization .
• Shape
Shapes of signs arse standardized as follows:
a . Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be
used for danger warning signs.
b . Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic.
c . Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs.
d . Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only.
e . Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs
only.
• Color
Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background
with black symbols and red border.
Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white
background with black symbols and red border.
Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs
shall have a blue background and white symbols.
STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols.
YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border.
Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on
a dark -colored ( blue or black ) background or a blue or dark -colored
symbol on a white or light-colored background.
• Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended
applications. Larger sizes are necessary at wider roadways and on
high speed highways. According to section 2.5 of the DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement
Markings Manual , regulatory signs are of four sizes based on the
speed of the facility as follows:
r
a. A for urban low-speed roads

b . B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph
c . C for high -speed rural highways
d . D for expressways
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table 2.1 below
should be followed:
Table 2.1 Recommended dimensions for STOP and YIELD signs
Size Dimension (mm)
A 600 x 600
B 750 x 750
C 900 x 900
Source: DPWH 2004.
The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the

—
dimensions of various traffic signs and for other details letter, symbol ,
border, bar sizes, etc.
• Illumination and reflectorization
Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime
and nighttime. During hours of darkness, this can be achieved
through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.
• Placement and height of signs
In general , signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles
to the direction, and facing the traffic they intend to serve. Mounting
signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially on roads
following the east and west directions as the sun ’s brightness
reflecting on the signs will be too glaring for the drivers. However,
there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each location
must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous
position. Signs are generally placed on the right side of the roadway.
On wider roads, overhead signs are often necessary. On roads with
medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be
placed on channelized islands.
2: Traffic Management
^ 23
a . Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be
at least 60 cm clear of the outer edge of the road shoulder, the
line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance should
not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the
traveled way, except for large guide signs on expressways where
ample clearance may be required (see figure 2.2).
In urban areas, signs should be located away from the face
of the curb not less than 30 cm but not more than 1 m. If curb
is mountable or semimountable, the minimum clearance should
be 50 cm . On uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural
areas shall be used.
b . Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be
between 1 m and 1.5 m above the nearest edge of the traveled
way. For intersection direction signs , the height should be
increased to 2 m . Final height is dictated by visibility factor as
the sign should be mounted clear of vegetation and it must be
clearly visible under headlight illumination at night (see figure
2.2 ) .
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should
be mounted at a minimum of 2 m above the top of the curb to
prevent obstructions to pedestrians.
2.0 m min.
r
i >0.30 m 5.0 m max.
3
0.6 min.
3
c - Q
E 2r,
1 a)
E ~o
P 1.5 m min.
CN LO
s <N 0
j Paved
! . .igewayifootpath
i mi
h
Urban location Rural location with guard rail
e
Source: DPWH 2004.
Figure 2.2
Height and lateral placement of signs
c. Location of advance warning signs

In urban areas, warning signs should be placed no less
than 30 m but no more than 100 m in advance of the hazardous
area, while in rural areas they should be placed no less than
75 m but no more than 225 m ahead of the hazardous area.
The final location shall be determined based on the nature of
the hazard , reaction time, and operating speed in the area.
2.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD TRAFFIC SIGNS
2.5.1 Warning Signs

The Vienna Convention allows two forms for the warning sign —
one is triangular in shape with a red border and the other is diamond in
shape (table 2.2). Upon signing the convention , the signatory has to state
which shape is to be adopted. In the Philippines, the first form is the one
being used although the second may still be found in rural areas. The
coloring may also differ in each form. However, the choice of color is left
to the discretion of the signing body. Examples of warning signs are shown
in table 2.3.
Table 2.2
Shapes and colors of warning signs
Aa. b. Some countries use this sign; some only for temporary messages.
d. Coloring is not approved by the convention but is generally used

for temporary messages.
L "1 1'
2: Traffic Management A 25
Table 2.3
Examples of warning signs
5
Sharp bend to the left Steep descend Sharp hump Slippery road
Falling rocks Pedestrian crossing Bicycle crossing Works ahead
t
1
Traffic lights ahead Dangerous junction Junction with minor Yield sign ahead
ahead road ahead
Stop sign ahead Roundabout ahead Two- way traffic ahead Level crossing without
barriers ahead
Level crossing with

barriers ahead
A\ A
Flying airplanes ahead Road forks to the right
ahead
Other dangers ahead
26 @i Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
2.5.2 Priority Signs

Priority signs have various forms. The two most commonly used
priority signs are the STOP and YIELD signs (table 2.4).
Table 2.4
Example of priority signs
V # '0
Yield the right of way Stop and yield the
right of way
(
Yield the right of way You have right of way
to oncoming traffic over oncoming traffic
2.5.3 Prohibition Signs

Prohibition signs are round with a red border and either a white or
a yellow background. Access restrictions signs can have a red bar from
low right to top left. Parking prohibitions have a blue background . The
signs that signal the end of a prohibition are white or yellow with a small
black border and a black bar from left below to right top. The bar can be
replaced by a series of small bars. In addition the symbol for which the
end of prohibition is intended is given in gray. Examples of prohibition
signs are shown in table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Examples of prohibition signs
No entry
J
( ) ( j) ( j)
No entry No access to motor
vehicles, except
motorcycles without
sidecar
No access to
bicycles
2: Traffic Management
^ 27
Table 2.5 (continued)
No entry for all motor ^^ z 2m |

Maximum width Maximum height
20T )
Weight at most
s>
vehicles 2 meters 3 meters 20 tons
Axle load at most Length at most Minimum separation No left turn

2 tons 10 meters between vehicles
70 meters
90
No U-turn No passing Limit is either 90 km/h No audible signals
or 90 mph
No parking No stopping No parking on odd No parking on even

numbered days numbered days
No parking during the No parking during the End of speed limit End of passing
first half of a month second half of a month prohibition
2.5. 4 Obligatory Signs

The obligatory signs are round and in blue color. Examples are
shown in table 2.6.
Table 2.6
Examples of obligatory signs
t
At next junction go
straight on
At next junction go
to the left
At next junction go
straight on or
to the right
At next junction go to
the right or to the left
Pass obstacle Pass obstacle Roundabout Obligatory

on the left either way bicycle path
Obligatory Minimum speed, Path shared by bicycles Path shared by

pedestrian path the speed is either in and pedestrians, bicycles and
kph or mph bicycles on the left, pedestrians without
pedestrians on the right further obligations
Start of bus lane

£
Seatbelts required End of obligatory
bicycle path
End of obligatory
pedestrian path
Eh
I nd of minimum speed End of shared path End of shared path End of bus lane
2.5.5 Other Prescription Signs

These signs are, in general, rectangular with either a blue base
with a white foreground , or with a light base with a dark foreground .
These signs give prohibitions, obligations, or danger messages for
particular lanes on a multilane road . Each lane is represented by an
arrow, to which the appropriate sign is affixed . Table 2.7 shows some
examples. The background color blue is used for major roads, white for
minor roads and within built- up areas, and yellow for road works.
Table 2.7
Examples of prescription signs
I here is a minimum All three lanes have a You will enter a You come at a
npeed requirement for maximum speed to be one-way street one- way street
the left lane observed
2.5.6 Information Signs

These signs are rectangular with a white or yellow plate with the
symbol that stands for the service involved . The signs can be either blue
or green. Examples are shown in table 2.8.
2: Traffic Management ® 31
Table 2.8
Examples of information signs
First aid post Help with mechanical Telephone Petrol

problems
Hotel or motel Restaurant Refreshments Swimming pool
2.5. 7 Direction Signs

A profusion of colors and forms is available. In general the forms
shown must be adopted , and in some cases even the color shown must
he used and not be changed .
Table 2.9
Examples of directional signs
Cabiao 12 -
)} NAIA
t SLEX
Arayat 2 Pateros
Makati
With information on distance Go right for Ninoy Aquino Multiple directions can be
of destinations International Airport placed on the same sign
32
^ Fundamentals of Traf fic Engineering
2.5.8 Additional Information
These signs are small and rectangular; they supplement the
information on the main sign (table 2.10).
Table 2.10
Examples of supplemental signs
250 m 30 m 10m 10m
Distance sign Restriction extends Restriction extends Only for vehicles

30 meters to the left 10 meters both to the with trailers
left and to the right
j i i
i
Priority road comes • Priority road Priority road
1 Priority road
from left and goes continues right continues left continues left
ahead ( T - intersection) (4- leg intersection)
2.6 PAVEMENT MARKINGS
2.6.1 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings

A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for
the guidance and control of vehicles and pedestrians. They take the
form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may be set into the
surface of , applied upon , or attached to the pavement . In some cases,
pavement markings are used as a supplement to other traffic control
devices, such as traffic signals and road signs. In other instances, they
may simply guide traffic or give advance warning, or they may impose
restrictions supported by traffic regulations. Pavement markings have
some definite limitations:
a . They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.
b . They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty (e.g.,
near shoulder edge or median ).
c . They may be obscured by traffic.

d . Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of
materials.
e . They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable

conditions of conveying warning message or information to drivers without
diverting their attention from the road.
^
<
f. 2
2.6. 2 Legal Authority
Markings shall only be applied and /or removed by the Department
i udof Public Works and
s
Highways ( DPWH) or an authority to which these
powers are delegated .
All line- marking plans must be approved by the DPWH before
u installation .
^—
•m
CL
r 2.6 .3 Standardization
.J^ As is the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative
ojlhat
markings be uniform so that they may be recognized and understood
instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from the DPWH , and on
0jkj
£ request , it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material suppliers/
manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of
*
J Jijthestandard designs and locations.
> 2.6 . 4 Types of Markings
H cz
£ Markings are classified into the following groups:
tr UJ • Pavement and curb markings
8> a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel . These
6
'
include Center Line, Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “ No-

Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity Lines,
and Transition Line .
b . Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel.
These include Stop Line, Yield (Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian
Crossing Markings .
c . Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted
Median Islands, and Bus & PUJ Lane Lines.
"'"
y
34 Ok Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
d . Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands

and Obstructions , Chevron Markings , Diagonal Markings ,
Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb Markings for
Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages,
and Symbols and Pavement Arrows.
• Object markings
a . Object within the roadway
b . Object adjacent to the roadway
• Reflector markings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers
b . Hazard markers
c . Delineators
2.6.5 Materials
Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not
protrude more than 6 mm above the level of the carriageway. Raised
pavement markings should not protrude more than 15 mm above the
level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used materials
for road markings:
• Paint
/1
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can

be applied either by hand or with line marking machines. For proper
-
reflectorization at night, the amount of glass beads used should be no
less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter of mixed paint.
• Thermoplastic materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective
properties is recommended at locations subject to extreme traffic
wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been
experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
• Precut sheeting
Precut materials both with or without reflective properties are
used. It is usually in adhesive tape form, with aggregate, pigment, and
plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on the other side.
® Raised pavement markers

These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron , etc.
that are embedded into the carriageway or attached to the road
surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or nonreflective.
2.6. 6 Color
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the
alternative uses of yellow in the following cases:
a. Double yellow “ no- passing” lines
b . Unbroken portion of “ no- parking” lines
c . Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d . On islands in line of traffic
e . Bus and PUJ lanes
•
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard
—
markers to warn drivers at locations where the protruding objects such
—
as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other permanent objects on or near
I he roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard
color for pavement marking.
2.6. 7 Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement ,
lines may be longitudinal , transverse, or oblique. And depending on the
use and meaning of such lines, they are either broken or solid lines.
A broken line shall consist of line segments of equal lengths
separated by uniform gaps. The speed of vehicles on the section of road
or in the area in question should be taken into account in determining
I he lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either
discouraged or prohibited . It is generally used to replace or supplement
u broken line where required , e.g., barrier lines, center lines, etc. Solid
lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line
is legally prohibited or not.
2.6 .8 Width of Lines

The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm,
Spending on the usage of the specified line. Transverse lines are usually
36
wider because of the angle at which the driver sees markings on the
carriageway.
2.6.9 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible,
never more than three . They shall only be used to supplement other
traffic control devices. The distance between words is variable, depending
on the message and location at which it is based . ( Usually twice the
length of the word if achievable.)
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural
roads. In urban low-speed areas, the order is optional .
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used on roads in
urban areas shall measure at least 2.5 m; on high -speed highways, they
may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR , SCHOOL,
PED XING, RAILROAD XING, SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT ( LEFT)
TURN , BUS LANE , and PUJ LANE.
2.6.10 Symbols
a . Give way ( yield ) symbol
The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists

of an isosceles triangle having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a
base of 1 m . Outline width is 450 mm at the base and 150 mm
for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line
is between 5 m and 25 m , depending on the location and
vehicle speeds on that road.
b . Pavement arrows
Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in
color, they are generally 5 m in length on urban roads and 7.5
m on high -speed roads.
For half - turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows
can be bent to suit the particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15
m from the stop bar, and the subsequent sets should be placed
at 45 m apart .
c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated
with speed limits at location to supplement speed limit signs,
which are continuously disregarded by drivers.
2.7 OBJECT MARKINGS AND MARKERS

2.7.1 Object Markings
Physical obstructions in or near a roadway that constitute serious
Iraffic hazard, including installations designed for the control of traffic,
shall be adequately marked . Typical obstructions of this character are
bridge supports, monuments, traffic islands, beacons, signal and sign
support , loading islands, railroads and draw - bridge gates, posts of narrow
bridges, underpass piers and abutments, culvert headwalls, poles, trees,
locks, and structures giving restricted and overhead clearance.
For additional emphasis it is also advisable to mark obstructions
rather than islands with reflectorized white paint with not less than five
alternating black and reflectorized white stripes. The stripes shall slope
downward at an angle of 45 degrees toward the side of the obstruction,
and shall be uniform and not less than 100 mm in width . A large surface,
wiich as a bridge pier, may require stripes of 300 mm (see figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3
Object markings (Courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the

roadway, warning of approach to the hazard shall be given by line markings
on the pavement.
Reflectorized yellow should be used on curbs of all islands located
in the line of traffic flows especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at T
and offset intersections.
2.7.2 Raised Pavement Markers
Raised pavement markers are small rectangular or dome-shaped
devices that are fixed to the pavement surface to simulate or supplement
painted pavement markings (figure 2.4 ). The markers can be reflective
or nonreflective.
Figure 2.4
Raised pavement markers ( The one on the right has built-in lighting.) (Left photo
courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.; right photo courtesy of Solarmarkers Inc.)
Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night and

under wet conditions. The reflective types are more brilliant than
reflectorized paint markings.
Because of the high cost of installation and maintenance, use of
raised pavement markings may be considered only in accident - prone
areas, e.g., on hilly areas where there is frequent fog and rain . Figure 2.5
shows the visual effect of raised pavement markers.
Figure 2.5
Visual effect of raised pavement markers in between reflectorized pavement
markings (Photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
Hazard markers
Hazard markers are rectangular and generally consist of a series of
nllernating black and white bands (figure 2.6). The white portion is always
rellectorized, but the reflectorized material may cover only the central
portion of each white band in order to achieve a balance between the
ureas of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands may
consist of either diagonal strips where only a target is required, or of
chevrons where directional as well as target properties are desirable.
I ) clineators
Delineators are small reflective panels or buttons mounted on guide

posts or guard fences as an effective aid for night driving (figure 2.7).
Delineators are made of reflective material capable of reflecting light
dearly visible under normal atmospheric condition from a distance of
. -
'100 500 m when illuminated by the upper beam of a standard automobile
head lamp.
Placement of delineators at the roadside of a circular curve is shown
m figure 2.8.
»»
Figure 2.6
Chevron markers (Photo courtesy of R. Rellosa of 3M Phil.)
Reflective I
i > © Button
buttons mounted
o on guide
post
o
Figure 2.7
Delineators made of reflective materials
3.65 m max.
O
* Useable
I
i
shoulder
i
I 4-
S' I I
Edge of i
pavement 0.6 m
Figure 2.8
Placement of permanent delineators along a roadway curve
PROBLEMS
1. Drive along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue ( EDSA ) or along any

major roads in your locality. Note if traffic signs are visible or if
they are obscured because of too many advertisement or billboard
signs. Must there be regulations on putting up advertisement signs?
2. Nowadays , many local government units have been able to get
support from private companies in fabricating and installing traffic
signs at locations under their jurisdiction , provided that the
company’s logo or identification is indicated in a certain area of
the sign (one-eighth to one-fifth of the total surface area). Would
you agree to this? Why or why not ?
3. In the town or city where you are residing, identify the different
traffic signs and see if they conform to the Vienna Convention as to
color and shape. Would you agree if these signs do not conform to
the international standards because they were fabricated at lower
cost in your locality ?
4. Most international signs consist mainly of symbols with minimum

or almost no words in them . Would you suggest putting words in
Tagalog or in any dialects in order to convey their meaning? Why
or why not ?
REFERENCES
Department of Public Works and Highways ( DPWH). 2004. Highway safety

design standards. Road Safety Design Manual . Manila: DPWH.
Planning and Project Development Office, Ministry of Public Highways.
1980. Manual on pavement markings .
Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ), US Dept , of Transportation .
1988. Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and
highways ( MUTCD).
Santiago, Mariano R . ed. 1980. A compilation of edicts related to the land
transportation system of the Philippines . Quezon City: Bureau of
Land Transportation .
3
TMPK fLOW fUHDflUMflU
3.1 INTRODUCTION
escribing traffic is considered very difficult due to several factors

D that cause its irregularity or unpredictability. These factors could be
attributed to several events which could happen on the road: accidents,
stalled vehicles , lane changing or swerving, parking maneuvers ,
indiscriminate loading and unloading of public utility vehicles, etc .
Without these events, traffic flow could be expected to be fairly regular
and predictable within a day or even within a week . However, the more
frequently these events occur along the road , the harder it is to predict
the traffic condition.
It is during the occurrence of a traffic event when more advanced
knowledge of traffic flow theory, like queuing analysis or shock wave,
becomes necessary. These topics will be introduced at the end of the chapter.
First , let us consider how we can best describe traffic condition
when congestion builds up simply due to continuous increase of traffic
density along a road . To illustrate, imagine the development of traffic
along the expressway. In the early morning, drivers can freely choose
their own speeds because there are only very few vehicles on the road .
As traffic density increases, the drivers are constrained to adjust their
speeds. Traffic condition becomes very unstable when the capacity of
the highway has already been reached , after which , a stop-and - go
condition will be experienced . If the situation worsens, traffic is brought
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals 43
—
to a standstill complete breakdown of the
a
of capacity. This condition
may
expressway because of lack
minutes or even hours.
last for several
However, we can expect a reverse process to occur when traffic flow ,
returns to stable condition.
3.2 TYPES OF FLOW
Traffic flow is usually classified as either uninterrupted or

interrupted . Flow occurring at long sections of road where vehicles are
not required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream is called
uninterrupted flow. On the other hand, flow occurring at intersections or
driveways where vehicles are required to stop by any cause outside the
—
traffic stream such as traffic signs (STOP or YIELD), traffic signal lights,
—
etc. is called interrupted flow. For each type of flow, we will discuss the
most commonly used traffic variables that best describe them.
3.2 .1 Major Traffic Variables

Uninterrupted flow can be described using any of the following
traffic variables:
a . Flow rate or volume
b . Speed
c . Density or concentration
Flow rate or volume
Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point
during a specified period of time. It is often referred to as volume when
measured over an hour. Figure 3.1 illustrates the trajectories of vehicles
traveling in a given section L of a one-way road . Consider a point on the
road ( represented by a line 1-1 drawn transversely ).
If /V vehicles (represented by trajectories crossing line 1-1) passed
this point in time 7\ flow rate q may be expressed as:
N
q (3.1)
T
Again if the observation period T is set to one hour, q is called
volume and will have a unit of vehicles per hour. In general , flow rate (or
volume, as used loosely ) will have units like vehicles per minute or
vehicles per day.
Distance
/
^
>f
I
T
^
• Time
Figure 3.1
Time-distance diagram
Example 3.1
Let us suppose a 15- minute count of vehicles bound for Manila
was conducted at a particular location on Quezon Avenue. A summary is
shown in the table below:
Type 1 5 -minute count
Car/van 420
Jeepney 300
Bus 16
Truck 28
Estimate the flow rate in vehicles per hour.

Solution:
The total number of vehicles counted in 15 minutes is 420 + 300 +
16 + 28 = 764. This is expanded to one hour by multiplying by 4.
Therefore, the flow rate is
q = 764 x 4 = 3,056 vehicles per hour
( Note that the count within the 15-minute interval is assumed to be
the same for the other three 15-minute intervals.)
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals & 45
Speed
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit time. When
describing traffic stream, two types of speed are used: time mean speed
and space mean speed .
a . Time mean speed
Also called spot speed , time mean speed is simply the
arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point within
a given interval of time. Strictly speaking, distance or length of
road must be known in order to measure speed. However, with
the use of speed radar, spot speed can be measured at a certain
point on the road. Also, spot speed can be reasonably measured
if a point is approximated by a short distance, say 15-50 m of
road. This distance is normally called trap length in spot speed
studies. With the use of a stop watch , the time it takes for the
vehicle to traverse this trap length is measured . Individual
speed of vehicles is then computed by dividing this trap length
by this measured time . Figure 3.2 shows how spot speed is
approximated by the use of trap length , Ax .
Distance
t\
••••••••••
> f
I
T
^ Time
Figure 3.2
Measuring spot speed using trap- length method
Let u. - speed of vehicle i, in kilometer per hour

t . - time it takes for vehicle i to traverse the trap length, in seconds
Ax - trap length, in meters
Ax
then ui = — x 3.6
Knowing the individual speeds of n vehicles observed within time

T , the time mean speed or spot speed of the traffic stream is given by
(3.2)
ut = i =\
Example 3.2
The speeds of 25 cars were observed. 10 cars were noted to travel
at 35 kph , 8 cars at 40 kph , 2 cars at 50 kph , and 5 cars at 45 kph .
Assuming that each car was traveling at constant speed , determine the
time mean speed .
Solution:
Applying equation 3.2:
10 x 35 + 8 x 40 + 2 x 50 + 5 x 45 995
u
25 25
= 39.8 kph
It is a common practice among traffic engineers to report “ spot
speed ” for a given location . Spot speed is often used as basis for
establishing speed limits.
b . Space mean speed
Space mean speed is used to describe the rate of movement
of a traffic stream within a given section of road . It is the speed
based on the average travel time of vehicles in the stream within
the section. It is also called the harmonic mean speed. Consider
the time-distance diagram shown in figure 3.3. Only the speeds
of the vehicles intersected by the line drawn at instant time t
are measured. (The speed of a vehicle can actually be estimated
by dividing the length of the road section L by its travel time.)
Distance
/
^
> f
t
T
^ Time
Figure 3.3
Time-distance diagram for space mean speed
If n vehicles are observed at an instant of time t , the space mean

speed is computed as follows:
n
Us = ri
X1
1
(3.3)
-
r= ir u:
i
Example 3.3
Using the same example, determine the space mean speed .
Solution:
Applying equation 3.3:
25 25
Us = i o = 39.26 kph
+ JL + A + A
35 40 50 45 °-
637
Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of
road at an instant point in time. Using the same figure 3.3, the number of
vehicles counted at time t divided by the length of the section L gives a
measure of density in that section. Again, if n vehicles are found within
the section L, density k is computed as:
k =± (3- 4)
L
Among these three variables, density proves to be the most difficult
or expensive to observe. Aerial photography is the most commonly used
method to get its exact values. On the other hand , there are various ways
of conducting volume and speed studies. (These are discussed in chapter
4.) It will be seen latei that these variables are actually related to each
other and that density can be derived if volume and speed are known.
3.2 . 2 Other Traffic Variables
There are other variables used to describe traffic flow. These
variables, however, are simply variants of the three variables described
previously.
Time headway
Time headway is defined as the time interval between passage of
consecutive vehicles at a specified point on the road with a unit of time
per vehicle.
Referring again to figure 3.1 where N vehicles were counted to
pass line 1-1 within the observation time T, let h . be the time headway of
2 consecutive vehicles. The average headway representing all observed
vehicles is estimated using arithmetic mean. ( Note that if there are N
vehicles observed , then there will be TV - 1 headways that will be
measured .)
N -1
;= i
h, =
N -l
For longer observation period :
N- l
sLN
^
1 =1
hi — T ancl yy - 1 N , or h.
=
Therefore, the average time headway and flow rate are related as
follows:
1
K =~ (3.5)
9
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals A 49
Example 3.4
During morning peak hour, the average headway of UP-Katipunan
jeepneys is estimated at 5 minutes. If the passenger demand during the
same period is 240, determine whether there is a need to increase the
number of jeepney units (or shorten the headway) for this route. Assume
that passenger demand is evenly distributed within that period and the
average load / occupancy is 14 passengers per jeepney. ( Note: This
assumption may not necessarily be true due to fluctuation of passenger
demand and variability of passenger occupancy.)
Solution:
From equation 3.5, the number of jeepneys per hour is
60
— = 12 jeepney /hr
60
s
With an average load of 14 passengers per jeepney, the total number

of passengers that can take a ride is
12 x 14 = 168 passengers
Since the demand during morning peak hour is 240 passengers, it
can be said that there is a need to increase the number of jeepney units
during peak period.
Spacing
Spacing is the distance between two vehicles measured from the
front bumper of a vehicle to that of another. Similar to the estimation of
time headway, if there are n vehicles within a given road section L, the
—
sum of ( n 1) spacing s . will be almost equal to L. Average spacing,
therefore, may be computed as the inverse of density.
1
(3.6)
k
Example 3.5
During heavy traffic congestion , it was observed that the average
spacing of vehicles in queue in the innermost lane of EDSA is 6.5 m.
Determine the jam density or density of stopped vehicles.
Solution :
From equation 3.6, the jam density is
1,000
kj =
6.5
= 153.85 vehicles/ km
Time occupancy
Another useful measure of traffic flow is time occupancy. It can
only be measured , however, if a detector is installed at a specific point
on the carriageway. It is defined as the total time a detector is occupied
divided by the total time of observation . Figure 3.4 shows how a vehicle
is detected using ultrasonic detector.
^ Ultrasonic
detector voltage
pulse
* time
K *
the vehicle is detected
t ( time
underneath detector )
Detector 's output
Figure 3.4
Vehicle detection using ultrasonic detector
Assuming that n vehicles were observed during the total time of

observation 71, the time occupancy Ofis given by
0. =
z•
(
=1
t:
x 100% (3.7)
T
where t . is the detection time of the i‘h vehicle.
3.3 RELATIONSHIP OF FLOW, SPEED, AND DENSITY
A relationship exists among the three most important traffic

variables: flow rate, space mean speed , and density. A dimensional
analysis of the units will show that flow rate (veh / hr) is simply the product
of density (veh/ km) and space mean speed ( km / hr), or
q = k x u5 (3.8)
As mentioned earlier, density is the most difficult variable to
measure. It can be obtained indirectly using this relation.
3.3.1 Observed Relations

It is oftentimes useful to determine the relation between any two
variables. Surveys at the South Luzon Expressway were conducted .
Scattered plots of the data are shown in figure 3.5.
100
JZ
CL 80
60
"
O
40
$ 20
CL
a. speed-density
o
relation
Density, k (veh/km)
2500
o.
> 2000
V 1500
03
»
-
£
1000
_
o
500
b. volume-density
0
| Li
0 20 40 60 80
relation
Density, k (veh/km)
_c 100
Q. 80
60
>
- o
CD
40
20
0)
CL c. speed- volume
0
LT )
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
relation
Flow rate, vph
Source of Data: Tagapolot , 1997
Figure 3.5
Volume-speed-density relations for the inner lane of South Luzon Expressway
3.3. 2 Empirical Relations

Speed -density relation
Figure 3.5a shows that as density increases, speed decreases.
Looking at the scatter plot , it is easy to visualize that a linear relation
may be assumed between the two variables. ( Note that other highways
may exhibit a trend other than linear.) This linear relation was first
investigated by Greenshield ( Gerlough and Huber 1975). To describe
this line, the density corresponding to zero speed will be called jam
density ( ty and the speed corresponding to zero density will be called
free flow speed ( uj) . Theoretically, density is not zero since at least one
vehicle must be present .
Us
/\
> k
ki
The equation of the line that gives the relation between speed and
density can be easily determined by ratio and proportion.
us = Uj {1 - k/k j
Example 3.6 ^ (3.9)
Data on density and speed were obtained from a four-lane, two-way

rural highway (in one direction only):
Density, veh/km Speed, kph
75 45
15 85
142 10
100 30
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals & 53
Determine the relation between density and speed .

Solution:
A common way of analyzing relation of two variables is through
linear regression. The so-called best fit line represents the data points
with the least error. A scatter diagram of the data points would show that
a linear equation may be well suited for the analysis.
100
_c Q.
80
60
“
O
CD
CD 40
CL
to
20
0 4- '7
0 50 100 150
density, veh/ km
The regression line takes the form

u = a + bk
where u —speed
k —
density
a , b - constants to be determined
The constants a and b are determined using the following formulas.
(The reader is advised to refer to any statistics books for the derivation of
these formulas. See Ang and Tang 1975.)
k - U : - nku
b=
^
/
~
i
_2
- nk
a = u — bk
54
The correlation coefficient r is given by:
r = b h-
Su
where
1 _ U) 1
— 1X “ — 1 Yj
2 2
=n ( i and Sk =n (k
‘
are the variances of u and k , respectively.
The two variables will have a very good correlation if the absolute
value of r is close to 1.0.
To perform the regression analysis, it is convenient to prepare the
table as shown:
Point k u ku kA 2 ( k - 83 ) A 2 ( u- 42.5 ) A 2
1 75 45 3375 5625 64 6.25

2 15 85 1275 225 4624 1806.25
3 142 10 1420 20164 3481 1056.25
4 100 30 3000 10000 289 156.25
Sum 332 170 9070 36014 8458 3025 >
Mean k - 83 t- 42.5
i * Z(v f u Y -
.
b= HkLuL - nku _ 9070- 4(83)(42.5) = -0.5959

Y kf ~ nk 36014- 4(83)2
a = u ~ bk = 42.5 - (-0.5959)(83) = 91.96
s „2 =
1 _ u) 2 = 1
l
/i
Su = 31.75
— 4 -1
3025 = 1008.33
1
— J iki ^ k )2
2
h = /il
~
=-
3
8458 = 2819.33
sk = 53.10
r = b sk —Su — — 0.5959 53.10

31.75
= -0.9964
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals fit 55
—
This is almost close to 1.0, which means that the correlation
between the two variables is very high .
Therefore the regression line is
u = a + bk = 91.96 - 0.5959 k
The negative sign confirms that as density increases , speed
decreases.
Example 3.7
Using the results of the previous example, determine the free flow
speed and jam density.
Solution:
The density-speed relation obtained from the previous example is
u = 91.96 - 0.5959 k
Free flow speed occurs when density k = 0.
uf = 91.96 - 0.5959(6) = 91.96 kph
Jam density occurs when speed u = 0.
0 = 91.96 - 0.5959 k .
or
k . = 91.96 -f 0.5959 = 154.32 veh / km
Volume-density relation
Substituting equation 3.9 to the general relation (equation 3.8):
= kug = k Uj{1 — ktk ) = uf { k — k 2lk )
q
^ (3.10)
This equation expresses the relation of q and k as parabolic. This

can be drawn as shown:
km k
> k
Due to the symmetry of the figure, it can be said that the maximum
flow q max occurs when the density has a value k m equal to half of jam
1 J 1 J
density k .. However, when the relation cannot be easily identified , it is

useful to differentiate the function and equate to zero to get the value of
km corresponding to maximum flow, as follows:
dq
dk
—
uf (1 2 km Ikj ) = 0
- k j 12
Volume-speed relation
From equation 3.9, it can also be shown that
k = k ( 1 — uj uj)
. (3.11)
Substituting this in equation 3.8 gives a parabolic relation between
q and u :
q - kus — k ( us — ug /Uj
.
2
) (3.12)
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals {2k 57
This relation is illustrated below:

u
ur
um
> Q
Qnux
Again, it can be shown that maximum flow q occurs at speed u

equal to half of the free flow speed uf .
Therefore, the value of the maximum flow, also called capacity, is
q1 max - km X uin -4 —k2j x 2s

u kjUf
Going back to the speed -density relation , qmax is shown to be the

shaded area of the rectangle.
U
Uf
um = —u2
(
m > k
ks ki
km = —
2
Example 3.8
In the previous example, determine the capacity of the rural highway
in one direction.
Solution :
As already shown, the density-speed relation can be modeled by a
straight line. The formula for qmax can be used to compute for the capacity.
k; 154.32 91.96
Qmax
2
x —i 2i f 2
x :
2
= 3,547.82 vehicle/hr
3.4 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons

or vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform
section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing
roadway, traffic, and control conditions.
On the other hand , level of service ( LOS) is a qualitative description
of how a certain facility is performing.
Traffic engineers rely on capacity and level of service analyses to
determine the width and number of lanes when planning for new facilities
or when expanding existing facilities that are already experiencing
congestion problems.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual (PHPM) developed by
the Planning Service of the DPWH provides a methodology to carry out
the process of such analysis.
The LOS concept uses qualitative measures that characterize
operational conditions within a traffic stream and perception of these
conditions by motorists and passengers.
Six levels of service are defined for each type of facility and are
given letter designations from A to F, with A representing the best operating
conditions and F the worst . Each level of service represents a range of
operating conditions and is defined by quantitative factors known as
measures of effectiveness. In the PHPM method , LOS are defined based
on the computed volume and capacity ratio and the space mean speed of
the traffic flow. The volume referred to is the hourly demand volume.
This method was similar to the Highway Capacity Manual ( HCM) method
of 1965. The latest HCM now considers density as the main variable in
determining LOS. Nevertheless, both methods give the same description
of each level of service as shown in table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Levels of service
Level of service Description
A Free flow, with low volumes and high speeds. Drivers are virtually
unaffected by the presence of others. Little or no restriction in
maneuverability and speed.
B The level of comfort and convenience provided is somewhat less than

at LOS A. Zone of stable flow with operating speeds beginning to be
restricted somewhat by traffic conditions. Drivers will have
reasonable freedom to select their speed but there is a decline in
freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream from LOS A.
C Still in zone of stable flow, but speed and maneuverability are most
closely controlled by higher volumes. Most of the drivers are
restricted in the freedom to select their own speed, lane changing, or
overtaking maneuvers. The level of comfort and convenience
declines noticeably at this level.
D Approaches unstable flow. Speed and freedom to maneuver are

severely restricted, and driver experiences a generally poor level of
comfort and convenience. Small increases in traffic flow will
generally cause operational problems.
E Flow is unstable, and there may be stoppages of momentary condition.

Represents operating conditions at or near capacity level. All speeds
are reduced to allow but relatively uniform value. Freedom to
maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely restricted, and it is
generally accomplished by forcing a vehicle to "give way" to
accommodate such maneuver.
F Forced or breakdown flow. The amount of traffic approaching a point

exceeds the amount that can traverse the points. Queues form behind
such locations. Operation within the queue is characterized by stop-
and-go waves, and is extremely unstable. It is the point at which
arrival flow causes the queue to form.
Source: Transportation Research Board 2000.

60 {Sk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Under the PHPM method , these levels of service correspond to the

areas shown in figure 3.6.
speed
f
1.0 volume/capacity
Figure 3.6
Levels of service
Figure 3.6 is actually the same diagram as the volume-speed relation

but with the horizontal axis normalized by dividing volume by the capacity.
Table 3.2 shows the value of volume-capacity ratio for each LOS.
Table 3.2
Volume-capacity ratio and LOS
Level of service Volume-capacity ratio
A less than 0.20

B 0.21 -0.50
C 0.51 -0.70
D 0.71 -0.85
E 0.86-1.00
F greater than 1.0
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Highway 1982.

In the current US Highway Capacity Manual, the different measures

of effectiveness that most appropriately describe the LOS for different
types of facility are shown in table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Measure of effectiveness for different highway types
Type of facility Measure of effectiveness
Basic expressway segments density (passenger car/km/lane)

Weaving areas average travel speed (km/hr)
Ramp junctions flow rates (passenger car/hr)
Multilane highways density (passenger car/km/lane)
Two- lane highways percent time delay (%)
Signalized intersections average individual stopped delay ( sec / veh)
Unsignalized intersections reserve capacity ( passenger car /hr )
Arterials average travel speed (km/hr)
Source: Transportation Research Board 2000.
Example 3.9
From the example of section 3.3, if traffic volume in the same
direction where capacity was estimated was 2,050 vehicles per hour at a
particular period, determine the level of service of the highway (in that
direction ).
Solution:
The capacity computed in the previous example was q max = 3,547.82
vehicles per hour.
The volume-capacity ratio is
v .c 2,050
= 0.578
' 3,547.82
Comparing this volume-capacity ratio with the values provided in
table 3.2, the LOS is C.
3.5 HYDRODYNAMIC AND KINEMATIC MODELS OF TRAFFIC
Using fluid flow analogy, models that are used to describe traffic
flow will be developed in this section. Consider two points on a one-way
road assumed to be homogeneous:
62
1 2
<r AX
Let
N . - number of cars passing station i during time interval At
—
q . flow (volume) passing station i during At
Ax - distance between stations
—
At duration of simultaneous counting at stations 1 and 2.
By definition,
(
h = —At (3.13)
Suppose Nj > N 2 ( means traffic is building up).
Let AN = (N2 - N {
)
AN
With A q = ; AN = AqAt (3.14)
At ’
Let Ak : increase in density between stations 1 and 2 during period

At .
Then
(A - A ) - AN
Ak = ^ ^
Ax
~
—
Ax
; ( positive for buildup)
- AN = AkAx (3.15)
or equating equation 3.14 and equation 3.15:
— AqAt = AkAx
^« 3=
Ax
-
At
0 (3.16)
If the medium is considered continuous and finite elements are

allowed to become infinitesimal:
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals
^ 63
®i + * 0
= ; (3.17)
dx dt
This is well known as the continuity equation .
With </ = uk
( _
—d dx—uk -) + —dkdt = 0;
Recall that u - f ( k )
Expanding:
dk dk du
dt
+u + k
dx dx
= 0; — (3.18)
Applying chain rule:

du du dx du , dk
dk dx dk ’ dx
— =u dx
(3.19)
Substituting equation 3.19 in equation 3.18:
—dkdt +u —dxdk + ku' —dkdx = 0 -

dk dk
dt
+ ( u + ku )
dx — =0 (3.20)
Analogous to fluid flow, the equation of motion expressing the

acceleration of traffic stream at a given place and time is given by
du _ -c 2
dk
(3.21)
dt k dx
where c is a constant of proportionality.
If —dk is positive, then traffic flow has a tendency to slow down .
faster.
On the other hand , if —dk is negative, the traffic flow tends to go
64
Let us generalize the fluid -flow analogy equation:
du 2 in dk
dt
= ck
dx
— (3.22)
With speed u - f ( x , t ).
du du dx du dt du du
=— +
dt dx dt dt dt
= —dx .u H:
..
dt
Combining the above with the general equation ,
—du
dx
uH
du
dt
+c F — = 0
dx
2
but
du _ du dk , dk
=u
dt dk dt dt
du
dx
u+u
dk
dt
+ cV
dx ^= 0
using equation 3.19:
u —dxdk u+u —dkdt + c k —dxdk = 0

2
Dividing the above equation by u' :

dk c 2 k n\
4 *
u+ (3.23)
dt u' J dx
This has exactly the same form as equation 3.20. Equating equations
3.20 and 3.23:
dk c 2 k n\ dk dk
+ u 4- + ( u + ku’ )
dt u dx dt dx
c 2 k n\
u+
u
= ( u 4- ku ' )
du
( u i \)
( 2
—ck— 2/ n 1
; u' =
dk
= ck { n-l )l 2
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals fib 65
Considering that u and k always have an inverse relationship, the

negative sign is added on the right side of the equation.
du
dk
= -dt ( n-1) / 2 (3.24)
We can now consider some specific models, the first of which is the
Greenshield’s model ( n = 1).
du
~
dk — ~ ck o
,
—— c du - -cdk
^
u= — ck + a
When k = 0; u = uf . Therefore a = uf .
u = uf - ck
u
/
^
U,
* k
ki
Uf
c
also when u = 0, k = k .. Therefore j
kj
This gives the u-k relationship for Greenshield’s model:
k
U
— U
/ i
k J: J (3.25)
Two more models can be easily identified :

Greenberg’s model: n= -1
Parabolic model: n=0
Table 3.4 summarizes the different macroscopic models depending

on the value of n:
Table 3.4
Macroscopic models
Element n=1 n = -1 n=0 n > -1
Constant of
proportion- Ur ( n + 1 )u f
ality, c ki 2 k \J n 2 j< i n+ / 2
( ])
k (
k: \1/ 2 N ( n +1) / 2
u - k relation u = u< 1
1
rKi-
~
u = u m ln 17 k k
V k U - U f 1- u = uf 1-
ki ki j
Optimum ki ki ±9 k n+3 {
/ n+1)
density, km 2 e 1 k i:
2
Optimum uf n+1
c Uf
Uf
speed, um 2 3 n+ 3
3.6 QUEUING THEORY
Queuing at a gasoline station or at the toll gate, falling in line to

transact business at the bank or just to get a movie pass, queuing at a
busy parking lot, jet planes waiting before being given the signal to land
—
or takeoff these are everyday occurrences that would surely test one’s
patience.
Queuing analysis provides ways of assessing the impacts of these
activities by knowing the magnitude of vehicular delay and the extent of
queue propagated. The models that will be discussed in this section are
derived based on some assumptions related to arrival and departure
patterns, and the prevailing queue discipline. Consider the system shown
in figure 3.7.
The input is normally characterized by some form of arrival pattern
usually given by its arrival distribution . The output generally depends
on the queue discipline and the service mechanism at the service station.
The most common type of queue discipline is the so-called FIFO or first-
in first-out, i.e., the first one that arrives at the service station gets served
it
Service
station
Input i Output
Kmmi
Figure 3.7
Queuing system
first and therefore the first to leave the system as well. (Another type of
queue discipline, which has limited application to traffic flow, is the so-
called LIFO or last-in first-out . Typical examples of this discipline are
the following: the last rider of an elevator normally gets out first; the last
—
document piled on top gets signed first not a recommended practice!)
Service mechanism refers to the manner customers are served at the
station. For example, a toll booth that charges a single fee, accepts only
a fixed amount, and does not give back any change will have a fairly
uniform service rate compared to a booth that charges variable toll fees
and gives back change up to the last centavo.
Kendall’s notation is popularly used to describe a queuing system.
It takes the form
AIB/ C ( n )
where
A - represents the input or arrival pattern
B — represents the service mechanism
C - represents the number of servers
n - represents the limit of the queue or users
Arrivals and departures may either follow a random or deterministic

pattern . Markov ( M ) is used for random processes while Deterministic
( D) is used for processes that are characterized by regular or constant
arrivals or departures. Typical examples of these processes are:
M / M /1 ( oo) - random arrival and departure (service rate); one or

single server; infinite queue ( no limit)
M / M / N ( oo) - random arrival and departure; N or multiple servers;
infinite queue
D/ D/1 (100) - regular arrival ; regular service rate or departure;
single server; limit of queue is 100.
A combination of Markov and deterministic processes, say M / D/1,
may also be used.
3.6 .1 D/ D/1 Queuing
Due to the regularity of both arrivals and departures, it is more
convenient to analyze a D / D/1 queuing system graphically. Arrivals and
departures are easily represented by straight lines with the slopes
corresponding to their rates.
Example 3.10
Consider a temporary single lane on - ramp / entrance to the
expressway. While the entrance is open 24 hours, a fixed toll fee of PIO
is charged from 7 AM to 9 AM as a form of congestion pricing. On the
average, a vehicle is served for 7.5 seconds during which the teller receives
the fee and gives back the change. The flow rate is 600 vehicles/ hour
during the first 25 minutes after which , it is reduced to 360 vehicles/
hour and remains constant for the next hours as shown in figure 3.8.
/ v
360 vph
25 min
<D
> <s>
« >
to u
ZJ c _
E OJ 600 vph
u>
3
••
7 AM
>
Time
Figure 3.8
Graphical representation of D/D/1 queuing for example 3.10
Consider time t reckoned from 7 AM . The total number of vehicles

that have arrived and departed are estimated :
Arrivals:
600 veh / hr
For t 25 min: xt =\0 t
60
360 veh / hr
For t > 25 min: 10 x 25 4 x ( t - 25) = 250 + 6 x ( t - 25)
60
Departures:
60
For all t : xt =8t
7.5 s e c / ve/i
Queue is expected to dissipate at the intersection of the two lines.
At this point , the total number of arrivals will be equal to the total number
of departures.
250 + 6 x ( t - 25) =8t
or t = 50 min
Therefore queue dissipates at about 7:50 AM . After which , no queue
is expected to propagate since the departure rate (8 veh /min) is already
higher than the arrival rate (6 veh /min ).
The total number of vehicles delayed is 8 x t = 8 x 50 = 400 veh.
The longest queue occurs at t = 25 min with a value of
(10 — 8) x / = 2 x 25 = 50 veh
The total vehicular delay is estimated from the area of the triangle,
i.e., area between arrival and departure curves.
Total vehicular delay =
1/2 x 50 veh x 25 min + 1/2 x 50 veh x (50 - 25) min = 1250 veh /min
The average delay per vehicle is 1250 /400 = 3.12 min /veh .
3.6.2 M / D/1 Queuing

The M / D/1 queuing system assumes that the arrivals of vehicles
follow a negative exponential distribution , a probability distribution
characterized by randomness. Departure is assumed to be regular as in
the D / D /1. The reader is advised to refer to other books on queuing
theory for the derivation of the formulas.
Let X — arrival rate; and fi - departure rate.
X
Then P is the traffic density or utilization factor.
^
Note that if p < 1 then X < ju, which means that the system is stable.
Otherwise, queue becomes longer and longer ( unstable condition ).
Basic formulas for M / D/1:
a . Average length of queue
~ 2 p - p2
m= (3.26)
2(1 - P )
b . Average waiting time
P
w=
2M1 - P) (3.27)
c . Average time spent in the system
2 ~P
t- (3.28)
2p(l ~ P )
Example 3.11
At the exit of a toll gate with a single booth , vehicles arrive at
random at a rate of 20 vehicles per minute. The service has an average
rate of 22 vehicles per minute.
Estimate the following:
a . average length of queue formed at the toll gate
b. average waiting time of vehicles
c . average time vehicles spent in the system
Solution:
Arrival rate is A = 20 vehicles/minute.
Service rate is ju = 22 vehicles/minute.
Utilization factor is p - 0.909.

( Note that although p < 1, the condition may start to become
unstable .)
a. From equation 3.26, the average length of queue is
2 x 0.909 - 0.9092
m= = 5.45 vehicles
2(1 - 0.909 )
b . From equation 3.27, the average waiting time is
w — 2 x 220.909
(1 0.909 )
-
= 0.23 min /veh
or 13.62 sec / veh
c . From equation 3.28, the average time spent in the system is
2 - 0.909
t = 2 x 22 (1 - 0.909 ) = 0.27 min/veh
or 16.35 sec / veh
3.6.3 M / M /1 Queuing
The M / M /1 queuing system assumes negative exponential for both
arrival and departure distributions.
Basic formulas for M / M /1:
a. Average length of queue
m= (3.29)
M ( M - A)

A
w= (3.30)
- X)
c. Average time spent in the system
1
t= (3.31)
fd - X
Example 3.12
Consider the same problem in example 3.11. However, due to
variable toll fees, the service is also random with an average rate of 22
vehicles per minute.
Solution :
a. From equation 3.29, the average length of queue is
X2 202
m= = 9.09 vehicles
M( M ~ A) 22( 22 20 )
“

X 20
w = X) 22 ( 22 - 20 )
= 0.45 min/veh
ju ( ju -
or 27.27 sec / veh
c . From equation 3.31, the average time spent in the system is

1 1
t = = 0.5 min/veh
/d - X 22 - 20
or 30 sec /veh
It may be observed that with a stochastic service rate, estimates for

the M / M /1 are almost twice that of the M / D/1.
3.6. 4 M / M/ N Queuing
When there is more than one server, such as in a toll gate shown in
figure 3.9, an arriving vehicle will be able to proceed to a vacant gate, if
available .
_Ll
Figure 3.9
Toll plaza with Ngates
Otherwise the driver may have to wait in queue if all gates are full.
Again the arrivals are assumed with a rate of X and the service rate per
A
server is p. pis still defined as . However,
P
—
is defined as the utilization
factor. ^
For M/ M/ N , the value of p may be greater than 1 but —Np must be
less than 1 for stable condition.
Basic formulas for M / M / N:

a. Average length of queue
N +1
~
m= K P 1
(3.32)
NIN (1- p! N f
where
1
P0 = /V - l n
PN (3.33)
^=
n 0
n) N\ { l - p / N )
is the probability of no units in the system,
p+ m 1
w= (3.34)
X p
74 fib Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
c . Average time spent in the system

p + m,
t = X (3.35)
Example 3.13
If the operator of the toll road in the previous example wants to
improve the current condition at the toll plaza, determine the new queue
characteristics if the number of toll booths is increased to 2.
Solution:
The number of servers N = 2 . From the previous example, p = 0.909
and the utilization factor is p / N - 0.909 1 2 = 0.454.
The probability of having no vehicles in the system is computed
first using equation 3.33.
1 1 1
P
0 7V - 1 pn PN 1 Tl 2 „0 „1 2
„r 0 —n\
P P , P P
Z i /V!(l - p / N )
I 2\ ( l - p / 2 ) 0! 1! 2\ ( l - p / 2 )
n = 0 n'
1
Po = = 0.375
1 + 0.909 +
0.9092
2(1- 0.909 / 2)
a. Using equation 3.32, the average length of queue is
PoP
iV +1
1 0.375 x 0.9093 1
m — N .N (1- p / N ) 2 2!2 (1- 0.909 / 2) 2
'
m = 0.0704 x 3.361 = 0.236 vehicles
w=
p+ m
X
1
p
0.909 + 0.236
20 — = 0.057
22
- 0.045 = 0.012 min
or 0.72 sec
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals fit 75
c. Using equation 3.35, the average time spent in the system is
p+m 0.909 + 0.236

t= = 0.057 min or 3.42 sec
A 22
Increasing the number of toll booths to 2 will greatly improve the
operation of the toll plaza.
3.7 SHOCK WAVE
Stalled vehicles, traffic accidents, parades, or any other temporal

activities will cause abnormal traffic flow and will definitely reduce the
capacity of the roadway. Such occurrences lead to long queues extending
several kilometers that can only be dissipated long after the obstruction
has been removed. Analysis of this type of problem is done using shock
wave theory. Shock wave is simply the motion or propagation of a change
in density and flow. Consider two flow regions A and B as shown in figure
3.10. Region A has prevailing flow described by speed u ] and density k {
while flow in region B has speed u2 and density kr
,
A: k , u
B: k 2, u 2
* x, distance
Figure 3.10
Two flows with different properties
The following notations will be used for the derivation of formulas

for shock wave:
S — shock vertical line separating regions A and B.
wave;
uu — speed of shock S positive if line S

wave ; toward the moves
positive direction .
x
u } and u 2 - space mean speeds in regions A and B, respectively.
Url — speed of vehicles in region A relative to the moving line 5;

Url = K - “ J
Ur 2 — speed of vehicles in region B relative to the moving line S;
U = (u -u )
Let N be the number of vehicles crossing the line S at time t :
N = (£/ .,/1:,) x t
= ( Ur2k 2 ) x t
Substituting the values of Url and Ur2:
( ui - UJk1 = ( U2 - UJk 2
or U k
2 2 UA = U „ ( K - ki )
~
With qx = /CJUJ and q2 - k 2u2:

<
ll w = k? 2 (3.36)
2 —k l
This is the general equation for the speed of the shock wave . On uw
a q -kcurve, equation 3.36 is represented by the slope of the line
connecting points 1 and 2 as shown in figure 3.11.
q
/
^
K* M
q2 - q
i k2 - k i
(q , / k , )
> k
Figure 3.11
Representation of shock wave in q-k diagram
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals
^ 77
Example 3.14
During the last election campaign , a 500 m convoy of presidential
and senatorial candidates belonging to F4 Party was moving at a pace of
5 kph along Pan-Philippine Highway. At the tail of the convoy, it was
joined by a traffic flow with estimated volume of 1,800 veh /hr and density
of 30 veh / km. Since it was impossible to overtake, a platoon density of
200 veh/ km was formed . If the head of the convoy exited the highway
after moving 7 km:
1 .
a . Draw approximately the q - k diagram showing shock waves.
b . Estimate the length of queue after the convoy has cleared the
road .
c . Estimate how long it would take to disperse the platoon queue.
(Assume capacity of the road = 2400 veh/hr at density = 80 veh/km;

jam density is at 250 veh / km )
Solution:
a. q — k diagram
q
/ s.
2400 -
b . Length of queue after the convoy has cleared the road

1000 - 1800
Uwl = 200 - 30
—
= 4.706 kph
The rate at which platoon is growing: 5 - (-4.706) = 9.706 kph
Duration of 7 km trip ( Note convoy has length of 0.5 km, thus end
of queue clears after covering 7.5 km) = 7.5 / 5 = 1.5 hrs
Maximum length of queue: 1.5 x 9.706 = 14.559 km
c . Time to disperse the platoon queue
2400 -1000
Uw2 ~
80 - 200
= -11.667 kph
14.559
Time for platoon queue to dissipate = -
4.706 - (-11.667)
= 2.092 hrs
PROBLEMS
1. Passenger car unit ( PCU ) is used to convert mixed type of traffic

into a single unit, which is the car. If PCU values are given for the
different types of vehicles:
Vehicle type PCU value
Car 1.0
Jeepney 1.4
Bus 2.2
Truck 2.2
Determine the volume in pcu per hour for the given traffic
data .
Vehicle type Volume, vehicle/hr
Car 825
Jeepney 359
Bus 86
Truck 45
2. Five cars are traveling at constant speeds 24, 31, 28, 35, 19 kph ,
respectively, in a uniform section of highway 4 km long. Determine
the time mean and space mean speeds. Which one is higher, time
mean speed or space mean speed ? Can you think of the reason
why this is so?
r3. Using a surveillance camera, 15 vehicles were observed within

350 m section of the innermost lane of the North Luzon Expressway.
Determine the traffic density of the innermost lane. Also, estimate
the average spacing of these vehicles.
. 4. To measure the spot speed of vehicles on a certain accident- prone
location along MacArthur Highway, a trap length equal to 40 m
long was set . The times in seconds clocked by an observer for 24
vehicles were:
3.5 2.6 3.2 4.0 3.8 2.4 2.5 3.0

3.1 2.7 3.4 2.2 2.8 3.5 2.5 3.6
3.7 2.9 2.8 2.4 3.9 3.1 3.2 3.4
Determine the spot speed or time mean speed . If the maximum

speed limit at the location was set at 60 kph , determine the
percentage of drivers violating the regulation ? ( Note: This is just
an illustrative problem; more data are actually needed for this kind
of analysis.)
5. On the average, a UP Ikot jeepney arrives every 2.2 minutes at a
certain jeepney stop during peak hours. If the average load factor
observed is 16 passengers per jeepney, estimate the total passengers
carried in 1 hour.
s6 . The spacing of moving traffic in queue can be modeled by
s = 3.0 + 0.4 u + 0.0025 u2 ( in meters)
where u is the traffic speed in kilometers per hour. Determine the
maximum traffic flow and the speed and density at which this occurs.
7. Estimate the capacity of a given highway with density equal to 110
veh / km during jam condition and with a speed of 80 kph during
free flow condition. Assume a linear relation between density and
speed .
8. In problem 7 , if the density at one point in time is 90 veh / km,

determine the corresponding speed.
9. Before major rehabilitation , the daily traffic volumes of the section
along the South Luzon Expressway and national highway going to
Batangas are shown in the table below. Determine the level of service
of each section . Assume peak hour factor of 8 percent and a
directional distribution of 60 percent. Make other assumptions
based on your observations/experience.
Road Vehicle type

Length, No. of
name Section
(Link) km lanes Car Bus Truck Total
Jeepney
South Luzon Nichols-Bicutan 4.7 6- lane div. 59085 1770 5190 3503 69548
Expressway Bicutan-Sucat 3.6 4- lane div. 47404 757 5732 3776 57669
Sucat-Alabang 3.8 4- lane div . 31714 625 4920 2998 40257
Alabang-Susana Hts. 4.4 4 - lane div. 21930 816 2339 2703 27788
Susana Hts.-Carmona 7.1 4- lane div. 16041 551 2019 2226 20837
Carmona-Canlubang 14.2 4- lane div . 11459 49 1780 1589 14877
Calamba- Boundary-Sto. Tomas 4 2-lane undiv. 7661 1351 988 1184 11184
Batangas Sto. Tomas-Malvar 7.5 2-lane undiv. 4352 1095 521 855 6823
Malvar-Lipa 10.2 2-lane undiv. 4044 1127 582 325 6078
San Jose-Batangas 16.9 2-lane undiv. 4452 916 247 384 5999
10. Derive the relation between time occupancy and density for each
of the following cases:
a . Ultrasonic detector ( the detector emits an ultrasonic wave toward
the pavement at a single point).
b . Inductance loop detector (the detector is a magnetic wire loop
embedded on the pavement with dimensions d x d meters).
11. A square inductance loop detector embedded in the pavement has
a dimension of w meters on one side. This detector is used to estimate
time occupancy 0t of vehicles over observation time T . If the average
length of vehicles is l meters, determine the density k in terms of
O i.
12 . Data obtained from a survey are as follows:

Flow, veh/ hr Speed , km / hr
1600 80
3705 39
3900 65
2400 20
1000 15
4000 50
Perform regression analysis on speed - density relation and
estimate the maximum flow or capacity.
13. If the relation between speed and density is given by
u = ae ~ hk
where a and b are constants.

Determine the maximum flow.
14 . Estimate the capacity of a road with the given speed -density relation:
u — 90 — 1.125 k
where u is in kph and k in veh / km
15. A one-way road is found to have a capacity of 2000 cars/ hr. If a
traffic enforcer says that the traffic volume there is only 150 cars/ hr,
can you conclude that the traffic condition is not congested ? Why
or why not? Illustrate using diagram.
16 . Derive all the elements of the macroscopic models given in table

2.4.
17 . Consider a truck terminal with 2 platforms. Empty trucks’ arrival
follows Poisson process with average arrival rate of 2 trucks in an
hour. Each platform can load goods with a service time of 28 minutes/
truck ( negative exponentially distributed ). Assume that an arriving
truck can use any available platform.
Analyze the problem using queuing theory. If you are the
operator of the truck terminal, will you retain the 2 platforms, reduce
it to 1, or increase it to at least 3?
82
18. A provincial bus terminal operating 24 hours has 5 bays. On a
daily basis, about 200 buses arrive at the terminal. If no bay is
available, the arriving bus has to wait outside, thereby causing
problems for through traffic. On the average, a bus leaves a bay
every hour.
Assess the present operation of the bus terminal . Furthermore,
due to the projected increase in passenger demand , it is expected
that the arrivals of buses will increase by 5 buses every year.
Determine the required number of bus bays for better operation of
the terminal for the next 10 years.
- 19. Traffic flow at the rate of 1200 veh / hr and density of 20 veh / km
joined the tail of a 400 m long Santacruzan procession moving at a
pace of 3 kph . Since it was impossible to pass, a platoon density of
190 veh /km was formed. The head of the procession was expected to
exit the road after moving 1 km. (Capacity of the road = 2000 veh /hr
at density = 45 veh / km; jam density at 200 veh / km)
a. Draw approximately the q - k diagram to show the computation

of shock wave.
b . Estimate the length of queue after the Santacruzan procession
has cleared the road .
c. Estimate how long it would take to disperse the platoon queue.
20 . A public school holds its flag ceremonies every Monday from
7:00 AM to 7:15 AM . During the singing of the national anthem,
which lasts for about 2 minutes, all drivers stop in front of the
school as an act of respect. Determine the characteristics of the
shock waves formed by this activity. Estimate the time required for
the traffic flow to be back to normal.
300 m
q = 1 800 vph; k = 80 veh/km; v = 0 kph k = 40 veh/km; q = 1000 vph

v = 30 kph
school
m
3: Traffic Flow Fundamentals 42k 83
^ 21 . Traffic flow on a single lane is moving with a free flow speed of

40 kph and density of 50 veh/ km. This flow is stopped for 45 seconds
at an intersection controlled by signals. Assume jam density of
250 veh/ km .
a . What would be the speed and direction of the stopping wave?
b . What would be the length of cars stopped ?
REFERENCES
Ang, Alfredo H.S., and Wilson H . Tang. 1975. Probability concepts in

engineering planning and design. Vol. 1. New York : John Wiley &
Sons.
Gerlough, Daniel L., and Matthew J . Huber. 1975. Traffic flow theory: A
monograph. Special Report 165, Transportation Research Board ,
National Research Council.
Planning Service, Ministry of Public Works and Highways. 1982. The
Philippine highway planning manual . Vol . 2. Manila .
Tagapolot , Humprey Ariel P. 1997. Effects of lane blockage on the traffic
flow behavior at expressway. MA thesis, College of Engineering,
University of the Philippines Diliman.
Transportation Research Board . 1965. Highway capacity manual .
National Research Council.
. 2000. Highway capacity manual . National Research Council .
4
TMHK mm
4.1 INTRODUCTION
s everal variables have been discussed in the previous chapter. They

provide the basic information necessary for meaningful planning,
design , and analysis of highways and other road transportation
infrastructure. Equally important is the manner through which these data
are obtained or collected in the field . Traffic studies generally involve
time and may entail much cost. It is therefore necessary to plan carefully
all data collection efforts. This chapter discusses the methodology for
conducting surveys, how they are processed and analyzed .
4.2 VOLUME STUDIES
Traffic volume is the most basic data needed for any traffic study.
Volume studies are conducted to obtain factual information on the number
of vehicles and /or persons that pass at a specified point on the highway
system. The resulting volume data are expressed in relation to time.
4.2.1 Types of Volume
a. Annual traffic is used for determining annual travel , estimating
expected highway user revenue, computing accident rates.
4: Traffic Studies 85
b . Annual average daily traffic ( AADT) is used for measuring the

present demand for service by the road, programming capital
improvements.
c . Hourly traffic is used for evaluating capacity deficiencies ,
geometric design or improvement of streets and intersections.
d . Short - term count is used to estimate maximum flow rate and
determine the characteristics of peak hour volumes.
4.2 . 2 Types of Data Collected
a. Mid - block counts are used for preparing traffic flow maps and
determining trends.
b. Directional counts are used for determining directional
distribution for capacity analysis, signal timing, justifying traffic
control , etc.
c. Turning movement or intersection counts are used for signal
timing , designing or improving geometry of intersection ,
planning turning prohibition , analyzing high accident
intersections.
d. Classification counts are used for determining modal split ,
estimating effects of heavy vehicles on capacity, determining
correction factors for automatic counts.
e. Cordon counts are used to determine the number of vehicles
and / or persons entering and leaving an enclosed area.
f. Screen line counts are classified counts taken at some points
along a line that bisects a given area.
4.2 .3 Time of Study
The time and duration of a traffic volume study depends on the
type and application of the data to be gathered . Some of the typical
counts are as follows:
a . Twenty -four- hour counts from midnight to midnight

b . Sixteen - hour counts from 6 AM to 10 PM to represent most of
daily flow, including evening traffic
c . Twelve-hour counts from 6 AM to 6 PM to cover most of daytime
traffic
d . Peak period counts from 7 AM to 9 AM , 5 PM to 7 PM , or other

time intervals corresponding to very high level of traffic volume
e . Short counts of about one hour or less with intervals of 5-15
minutes to analyze characteristics of peak hours.
Abnormal conditions are usually avoided unless the purpose is to
obtain information concerning those conditions. These would include:
a . special occasions such as public holidays or fiestas
b . days with abnormal weather conditions
c. strikes or demonstrations.
4.2 . 4 Methods
a . By tallying
This is the simplest and sometimes most practical in the

absence of any mechanical or automatic counting device. Tally
sheets are used to record the number of vehicles. The method
may be used when traffic volume is generally low or when
observing a particular turning movement whose volume is
relatively low. A filled up sample form is shown in figure 4.1.
Vehicle class
Time Total
Car Bus Truck Jeepney Others
6:00 - 6: 15 30
18 6 5 0 1
6:15 - 6: 30 iII 40
22 7 9 2 0
6:30-6:45
1111 mi mi 37
13 9 6 5 4
Total
Figure 4.1
Form used for manual tally
4: Traffic Studies fit 87
b . Using manual counters

A manual counter is a mechanical device useful when
volume is high . Counters may be of single or multiple type.
c. Using automatic counters
When traffic count of very long duration is required , one
may resort to automatic counters through the use of detectors.
The simplest type of automatic counter is a pneumatic tube
laid transversely across the road . A counter is actuated when
tires pass over the tube. More sophisticated detectors make
use of ultrasonic waves or inductance loops.
d . Using video cameras
Video cameras may be used to take footage of the traffic
flow. Counts may then be carried out later through either tally
or manual method while watching the video. Automatic counts
can also be performed using equipment and commercially
available software for vehicle tracking. The cost , however, of
such equipment is still very prohibitive.
4.2.5 Presentation of Traffic Volumes
Traffic volume summaries may be presented in ways that should
be easily understood by the readers, some of which are as follows:
a. Variations
Figure 4.2
Sample daily variation of traffic volume within a week
b . Flow maps
Source: MMUTIS 2000.

Figure 4.3
Sample flow map of annual daily traffic
c . Intersection diagram
Figure 4.4
Sample intersection flow summary
4.2 . 6 AADT and ADT

The annual average daily traffic or AADT has been a common
measure of daily traffic at a given location. At a given point along a
particular highway, it is estimated as the total volume counted over one
year divided by the number of days in the year, or
AADT = sum of all vehicles passing the site in a year -5- 365 (4.1)
Doing counts throughout the year is a tedious task if done manually.

Automatic detectors are therefore used to do the count continuously. As
previously mentioned , the simplest type of detector to perform automatic
counting is the pneumatic tube laid transversely on the highway. A counter
connected to the tube is actuated by the passage of the wheels. It is the
vehicle axles that are actually counted . There is, therefore, a need to
conduct a separate traffic volume survey over a shorter period considering
the different mix of traffic. This will then be used to calibrate the counts
obtained from the detectors.
Another measure of daily traffic is the average daily traffic or ADT.
This is obtained by conducting traffic volume counts over a number of
days at least 2 days and less than 365 days. The Department of Public
Works and Highways is programming the conduct of such counts in such
a way as to have good estimates of AADT for all national highways by
applying some seasonal factors.
Daily volumes, AADT in particular, are useful in highway planning
or in prioritizing some maintenance or repairs of roads. However, they
cannot be used alone for design or operational analysis purposes because,
in many cases, the traffic volume varies greatly throughout the day.
4.3 SPOT SPEED STUDIES
The objectives of conducting spot speed studies are to

a. determine the range and magnitude of speeds as a basis for
formulating design standards,
b. establish maximum and minimum speed limits,
c. determine the need for posting advisory speed signs,
d. determine the need for school zone protection, and
e. evaluate the performance of a geometric improvement or traffic
control device through a “ before-and -after” study.
4.3.1 Time of Study
The period during which speeds are measured depends on the
purpose of the study. Abnormal conditions such as adverse weather
condition or unusually heavy traffic condition should be avoided . The
duration of the study should be around one hour. Short study period will
often lead to bias towards faster vehicles.
4: Traffic Studies fli 91
4.3.2 Size of Samples
—
Normally, the speeds of at least 50 vehicles preferably 100 —
should be measured. To cover all representative vehicles, measurement
,
of every n h vehicle may be applied . In this way, possible bias that may
be attributed to the following may be avoided:
a . Selecting mostly leaders of the platoon
b . Selecting mostly one particular type of vehicle
c . Selecting faster vehicles
4.3.3 Methods
A number of methods for conducting spot speed studies are
available. The lack of equipment does not pose any problem as long as
the procedure is done systematically.
Radar speed meter
When such instrument is available, the use of radar is a very
convenient way of conducting spot speed studies. The radar is positioned
at the edge of the roadway at an angle of about 15° with the centerline
and is directed toward the incoming vehicles. Radar may be difficult to
use when volume of traffic is high . Radar meters are often used by police
authorities for apprehending overspeeding drivers.
Manual method
A very useful and less expensive way of conducting spot speed
studies is called the “ trap length ” method . In this method , two lines,
30-50 m apart, are drawn transversely on the pavement . A stopwatch is
then used to measure the “ travel time” of the vehicle within the “ trap.”
The length of the trap is divided by the travel time to estimate the speed .
The observer must be well trained in order to reduce error attributed to
parallax , a common error in most visual methods of conducting surveys.
An alternative to conducting spot speed directly in the field is to
take video of the traffic flow and watch it at a later time in the office.
Markings on the pavement may be drawn before the video is taken .
Another way is to put markers on the roadside that will help draw the
“ trap” on the TV screen or monitor.
4.3. 4 Analysis and Presentation of Spot Speeds

Spot speed data are usually summarized in a frequency table. Data
are normally grouped together in predetermined class intervals, and
distributions are calculated.
There are no strict rules in deciding the number of speed class
intervals. However, the Sturgess formula
k = 1 + 3.322 logX ()
n ( 4.2)
where k - number of class intervals
n - total number of observations
may serve as a guide in determining the initial number of class intervals.
It may be further refined later. Preferably, the value of the midclass of
each interval should be an integer or a whole number to help simplify
computations .
Example 4.1
Table 4.1 shows how spot speed data are summarized . For the
estimation of the mean and standard deviation, the data were grouped .
The last two columns were added to facilitate computation of these
parameters.
Table 4.1
Spot speed summary for grouped data
Speed class, Midclass, Frequency, % Cumulative

kph x f Frequency frequency f*x fV
10 -19.9 15 1 0.9 0.9 15 225

20 -29.9 25 4 3.6 4.5 100 2, 500
30-39.9 35 8 7.3 11.8 280 9,800
40-49.9 45 11 10.0 21.8 495 22,275
50-59.9 55 20 18.2 40.0 1 ,100 60, 500
60-69.9 65 28 25.5 65.5 1 ,820 118,300
70-79.9 75 16 14.5 80.0 1 , 200 90,000
80-89.9 85 15 13.6 93.6 1 , 275 108, 375
-
90 99.9 95 5 4.5 98.2 475 45,125
100-109.9 105 2 1.8 100.0 210 22,050
TOTAL 110 100 6,970 479,150
Mean = 63.36 kph

Variance = 344.09
Std. deviation = 18.55 kph
4: Traffic Studies A 93
The mean and variance were obtained using the following formulas
for grouped data:
Mean,
x — t =l
if ,;= i
; ( 4.3)
Variance, 2 _ ( 4.4)
^ n( n - l )
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance, .

The graph of the spot speed frequency distribution is shown in
figure 4.5. It may be observed that spot speed distribution would likely
follow a normal distribution.
Figure 4.5
Spot speed frequency histogram
4.4 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES
Travel time studies normally give information on the performance

of a particular roadway. Independent measurements of stops and their
observed reasons may also be included to give information on delays.
4.4.1 Methods
Test car technique
The method makes use of a test vehicle that is driven over the road
section under study. The driver is instructed to travel at a speed that in
his opinion is representative of the speed of the traffic stream . The form
used for travel time and delay study is shown in figure 4.6.
Travel Time and Delay Survey

Tes!Car Technique Field Sheet
Route: Direction:
Date: Weather
Trip Started: Time: Trip Ended: Time:
Location: Location:
Recorder Driver
Intersection Midblock
Station Stops Slows Stops Slows
T1 T2 Ofay Cause Caue T1 T2 CMiy Caue Lora lion Caue
Symbols of DELAY CAUSE

PED Pedestrians LT Left Turn S Traffic Signal
BP Buses Loading/ Unloading PC Parked Vehicles SS Stop Signs
jP PUJ Loading/ Unloading . DP Double Parking T General Congestion
PM Parking Maneuvers
Figure 4.6
Sample travel time and delay field sheet
Example 4.2
A single test run along the national highway in Calamba, Laguna,
is shown in table 4.2. Determine the average travel speed and draw the
sectional travel time and speed diagrams.
Solution :
The travel speed of each section is computed in the last column of
the table. The two diagrams represent distance- time and distance-speed
diagrams, respectively.
Table 4.2
Summary of travel time and delay survey along national highway
in Calamba, Laguna
Run Number: 1
Route Name: South Luzon Expressway to Belarmino
Date: 9 November 2005 (Wed)
Weather: Fair
Start Time: 10:47:08 Starting Point: Gasoline Station
End Time: 11:15:05 Ending Point: Belarmino
Intersection delay
Travel Travel Travel
Distance
Station time time speed
(m) T1 T2
delay (mm:ss) ( sec ) ( kph )
(mm:ss) (mm:ss)
.
1 Gasoline Stn. 10:47:08 10:47:08 3.44
2. Bacnotan 600.0 10:48:12 10:57:35 0:09:23 0:10:27 627 9.29
3. Waltermart 400.0 11:00:02 11 :00:10 0:00:08 0:02:35 155 6.55
4. Intersection C 300.0 11 :01:04 11:02:55 0:01:51 0:02:45 165 4.80
5. Intersection A 100.0 11 :03:21 11 :04:10 0:00: 49 0:01 :15 75 7.06
6. Riles 300.0 11:06:08 11 :06:43 0:00:35 0:02:33 153 3.18
7. Y - junction 300.0 11 :08:42 11:12:23 0:03:41 0:05:40 340 2.98
8. Chipeco 100.0 11 :13: 37 11:14:24 0:00:47 0:02:01 121 4.39
9. Belarmino 50.0 11:15:01 11 :15:05 0:00:04 0:00:41 41
Total 2,150.0 0:17:18 0:27:57 1,677.0 4.62

.
( Ave )
Source: Sigua and Montalbo 2005.
License plate method

When details on delay are not important , the license plate method
may be conducted . The method basically consists of observing and
11 :16 AM
11 :09 AM
rtl
11 :02 AM
E
P 10:55
AM
10:48 AM
10:40 AM
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Distance, m
Figure 4.7
Time-distance diagram for Example 4.2
1
°9 ,
_c 8
Q . 7
'
§ 6
9r 5
a; 4
>
3
2
h - 2
1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Distance, m
Figure 4.8
Travel speed-distance diagram for Example 4.2
recording license plates of vehicles and time of arrivals at two points or

more on the road where the vehicles are expected to pass. The plate
numbers are then matched manually, or encoded in the computer for
automatic processing.
It may be convenient to divide the time of observation into 5- or
10- minute intervals. Within each interval the license plates of vehicles
passing the point of observation are recorded. If traffic volume is heavy,
it may be very difficult to observe and record the complete license plate
number. It may be more practical to just record the first letter and the last
three digits.
Example 4.3
Tables 4.3 below show filled up field sheets for a route origin -
destination survey using license plate method. Determine the travel times
of those vehicles that were observed at both survey stations.
Solution :
It may be observed that plate numbers XKR748 , TNU210 , and
888888 were recorded in both forms. The corresponding travel times are
55 minutes, 50 minutes, and 45 minutes, respectively.
Table 4.3
Sample filled up sheets for license plate method
ROUTE ORIGIN-DESTINATION SURVEY
LICENSE PLATE METHOD
Field Sheet
Location: I
Date: 29 MARCH 2004
Weather: Fine
1
o
2
Vehicle Type: Light vehicles
Time License Plates

0700 XKR748 TNU210 HUV438 QNT896 TUP319 SET 560 TJR 125 VAB245
IET356 UNC456 888888 5 EC999 8 KTY913 ART 222 PRC 101
CUT 146 TTC 110
0705 FEW 141 TUV 118 HNK274 SWEI 59 QAWT 77 FSD495 TSA 126 PNP345
OBB355 AAS 124 FETF78 SEF 999 CNC635 KPP911 ADS 122 AF3G675
0710
ROUTE ORIGIN- DESTINATION SURVEY

LICENSE PLATE METHOD
Field Sheet
Location: 2
Date: 29 MARCH 2004
Weather: Fine o
-
1
o
2
Vehicle Type: Light vehicles
Time License Plates

0745 ICV330 AVRI 20 PEX210 PXC989 777777 YEW 455 888888
0750 FRO102 WEB 120 \ TNU210 HEW345 OCT 555 IOY549 STE 156 LEM 789
IIN658
0755 WEB777 XKR748
Note: Data are hypothetical .

Moving observer method

One of the most common survey methods for obtaining information
on traffic volume, speed , and density of a given section of road is the so-
called moving observer method . Developed by the Transport Road
Research Laboratory in the United Kingdom , the method consists of one
or two test cars traveling back and forth within the section . A team is
composed preferably of at least two observers and one timer. The survey
—
is very easy to conduct one observer counts the number of vehicles
moving in the opposite direction; another observer counts the number of
vehicles that pass them as well as the number of vehicles that they pass;
the timer notes down the time it takes to traverse the section.
Figure 4.9 shows the time-distance diagram, which will help in the
formulation of the necessary equations to be used . The lines represent
the trajectories of the vehicles in the direction shown . The moving observer
vehicle is represented by the bold line. It is shown negotiating a U -turn
after traversing the road section L.
b
/
L
t /
a -t 4-
* *< *
t
Figure 4.9
Diagram showing how the moving observer travels back and forth
Consider the road section L as shown . Suppose we are to obtain

information on volume, speed , and density of the traffic flow from a to b.
Let t - travel time of test car when traveling with the stream
t i - travel time of test car when traveling against the stream
(
t - total travel time = tw + ta

m - number of vehicles met by the test car when traveling
against the stream
o - number of vehicles overtaking the test car when traveling
with the stream
p - number of vehicles passed by the test car when traveling
with the stream
If we consider, for example, the number of vehicles n that is
supposed to be counted at point a. Then n will be equal to the number of
vehicles m met by the test car when traveling against the stream less the
number of vehicles p passed by the test car plus the number of vehicles
o overtaking the test car.
n = m-p +o ( 4.5)
Note that p vehicles must be deducted because the test car will
meet them again when traveling back. Over the total time of observation
t , the flow rate q therefore is:
Q =
n
~
m —
p+o
( 4.6)
t t w + ta
To determine the traffic stream’s speed or space mean speed, it is

necessary to know the average travel time of the traffic flow over the road
section L.
If the test car is traveling at speed faster than the average speed of
the traffic stream , then there will be more passed vehicles than overtaking
—
vehicles, giving a net of ( p o ) vehicles (figure 4.10). Also, if the test car
is traveling at speed slower than the average speed of the stream, then
there will be more overtaking vehicles than overtaken vehicles, a net of
(o - p ) vehicles. In other words, the test car is supposed to be traveling at
average speed when the net of overtaken and overtaking vehicles is zero.
Another way of stating this is, when one vehicle overtakes the test car, it
must also overtake one vehicle but not necessarily the one that has
overtaken it.
( o - p) ( p - o)
b
L
I
a
w
* tave2
Figure 4.10
Test car traveling at average speed must have a net of ( o - p) = 0.
Assuming that flow rate is the same within any time period , then
o- p
9= (4.7)
tw — t avel,
or
p-o
t ai/el = *« + ( 4.8)
7
in case of the test car traveling at speed slower than the average speed.
Also,
p -o
7= (4.9)
t ave 2 ~
K
or
p-o
^ ave 2 ~ + (4.10)
9
in case of the test car traveling at speed faster than the average speed.
It can be seen that in both cases, the same result is obtained for
the value of the average travel time. Hence, in general,
4: Traffic Studies {£k 101
p -o
t ive
(
~ + ( 4.11)
7
The average speed of the traffic stream over the section L is obtained:
L
u= ( 4.12)
t ave
Finally, the density k may be computed as a derived quantity:
* = su. (4.13)
If information on both directions is desired , two teams are utilized
to do the same routine of going back and forth traversing the road section
L.
In conducting this survey, the ease in negotiating a U - turn is a
major factor that would affect the accuracy of the survey results. The
road section must be as homogenous as possible, i .e., uniform road width
all throughout the section; entry and exit points should be minimal; very
few jeepneys or buses stopping for loading and unloading, etc. In practice,
at least six round trips are performed to achieve good results .
Example 4.4
A survey on a 1.2 km highway was conducted using the moving
observer method . During the morning peak hour, the test car was able to
complete 6 runs for each direction . Determine the traffic volume, average
traffic speed , and density.
Eastbound trips:
Run # M O P T, min
E1 113 10 12 3.02
E2 118 13 9 2.9
E3 112 16 20 3.4
E4 99 9 11 2.7
E5 105 20 8 3.2
E6 110 17 7 3.3
102 fik Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Westbound Trips:
Run # M O P T, min
W1 120 12 15 2.8
W2 119 15 21 2.6
W3 112 12 9 3.05
W4 120 10 10 2.6
W5 115 25 13 2.9
W6 102 16 12 2.7
Solution:
The average of 6 runs is computed for each direction .
Run # M O P T, min
El 113 10 12 3.02
E2 118 13 9 2.9
E3 112 16 20 3.4
E4 99 9 11 2.7
E5 105 20 8 3.2
E6 110 17 7 3.3
Total 657 85 67 18.52
Ave. 109.5 14.17 11.17 3.09
Run # M O P T, min
W1 120 120 15 2.8

W2 119 119 21 2.6
W3 112 112 9 3.05
W4 120 120 10 2.6
W5 115 115 13 2.9
W6 102 102 12 2.7
Total 688 688 80 16.65
Ave . 114.67 114.67 13.33 2.78
The traffic volumes are computed using equation 4.6:
114.67 + 14.17 - 11.17

9* = 3.09 + 2.78
= 20.04 veh/min or 1202.4 veh/hr
109.5 + 15 - 13.33
= 3.09 + 2.78
= 18.94 veh /min or 1136.4 veh/hr
4: Traffic Studies Si 103
The average travel times are computed using equation 4111:
11.17 - 14.17 )
tE — 3.09 + ( 20.04 — 3.04 min
(13.33 - 15 )
tv — 2.78 +
18.94
= 2.69 min
With L = 1.2 km, the average speeds are computed using equation
4.12:
1.2
UE = x 60 = 23.68 kph
3.04
1.2
uw = 2.69 x 60 = 26.77 kph
Finally, the densities are computed from equation 4.13:
1202.4
K= 23.68 — 50.78 veh/km
1136.4
K= 26.77
= 42.45 veh/ km
PROBLEMS
1. Draw the intersection diagram for the given traffic volume summary
of a T-intersection:
Approach Direction Volume, vph
West Through 600

Right turn 250
South Left turn 640

Right turn 300
East Through 920

Left turn 210
2. The following spot speed data ( in kph ) were obtained from a city
road .
31.6 46.2 51.2 47.3 39.4 44.7 53.3 46.7 41.1 45.0 42.8 34.8 40.9 38.6 37.8 48.3 40.0
47.8 40.3 50.0 44.2 38.1 32.7 44.8 45.0 34.0 44.0 35.0 34.1 35.1 35.2 42.1 35.2 35.7
36.1 37.0 35.8 36.0 36.7 37.3 36.5 35.9 37.4 38.8 39.0 44.9 37.9 41.8 48.4 41.3 38.5
39.1 52.1 40.1 52.8 48.2 41.6 53.4 44.6 39.3 47.7 39.4 37.7 38.1 44.5 38.2 38.4 39.7
40.0 57.0 40.7 40.1 37.8 41.2 45.2 43.7 45.0 33.5 39.4 40.1 44.8 40.7 50.9 40.4 40.6
40.2 41.3 39.5 45.0 43.8 43.9 41.1 41.7 41.8 41.9 42.0 35.4 42.4 42.6 42.7 42.8 43.0
41.7 41.8 41.9 42.0 38.8 42.3 48.2 34.6 42.4 48.3 42.9 42.8 43.0 41.7 42.0 42.5 47.9
48.1 50.1 42.6 42.7 42.8 43.1 46.0 31.0 43.6 41.4 43.7 45.1 43.8 43.9 44.0 48.6 44.6
45.2 43.6 43.7 43.8 43.9 44.2 38.1 44.5 41.3 44.7 40.8 44.9 45.8 45.7 45.9 46.5 44.0
41.5 46.1 47.2 47.5 38.4 44.2 47.9 48.6 40.8 48.9 47.8 50.2 50.6 50.7 50.4 50.1 35.9
50.8 51.0
Perform the following:

a . Group the data and summarize in tabular form .
b . Determine the mean and standard deviation.
c . Draw frequency histogram .
3. In the determination of speed limits for roads, the 15th and 85th
percentile speeds are usually considered as the minimum and the
maximum speed limits , respectively. For problem 2 , draw the
cumulative frequency diagram and determine the minimum and
maximum speed limits.
4. While taking measurements using the moving observer method , a
test vehicle covered a 1.5 km section in 1.5 minutes going against
traffic and 2.5 minutes going with traffic. Given that the traffic flow
was 800 vehicles /hour and that the test vehicle passed 10 more
vehicles than passed it when going with traffic, find
a . the number of vehicles encountered by the test vehicle while
moving against traffic,
b . the speed of the traffic being measured , and
c . the density of the traffic stream.
5. A survey using moving observer method was conducted to obtain

information on volume, speed , and density. Five observations were
made at different times of the day and the results of the survey for
a particular direction of flow are as follows:
4: Traffic Studies ££k 105
No. of veh . .
No of veh. .
No of veh. Travel time Travel time
met when car passed by overtaking of car when of car when
Survey is traveling car when car when traveling with traveling
# traveling with traveling with the stream, min against the
against the
stream the stream the stream stream, min
1 378 29 5 4.9 6.0

2 228 18 14 3.0 2.5
3 67 27 30 2.5 2.0
4 485 70 57 8.5 9.2
5 201 30 21 2.5 3.4
Estimate the capacity of the highway section for the given

direction of flow.
6. Develop a survey methodology to determine the volumes and
average travel speeds of traffic that are using the bypass and the
national highway. Naturally, you would try to minimize the number
of surveyors so as to minimize the survey cost.
Bypass
/
/
/ Town proper \
\
/
National highway
REFERENCES
ALMEC Corporation . 1999 . Metro Manila Urban Transportation

Integration Study. Final report.
Sigua , R ., and C . Montalbo Jr. 2005. Calamba City Public Transport
Terminal Study Draft Report , December.
Institute of Transportation Engineers. 2000. Manual of transportation
engineering studies . Washington , D.C.: ITE.
Pline, James L., ed . 1992. Traffic engineering handbook . 4th ed . Institute

of Transportation Engineers and Prentice Hall.
Transport Training Center. 1983. Course notes on transportation and traffic
technology. Quezon City: University of the Philippines.
I
nmiON \>m AND CONTROL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
I ntersections play an important role in any network system . They are

the points where traffic flow converges and where direction of travel
changes. Intersections may he categorized according to shape, type of
structure, and type of operation .
Shape
This refers to the configuration of the intersection and would depend
largely on the number of legs. Carefully planned and properly designed
road networks often lead to intersections with simpler shape having lesser
number of legs. Some of the most commonly observed intersection
configurations are the following:
a . Three-leg: T or Y
b . Four-leg: normal crossing, oblique, or skewed /staggered
c . Multileg: intersections with more than four legs
d . Rotary or roundabout
Type of structure
Most of the intersections are either designed as at-grade intersection
or grade separation such as flyovers or interchanges . Almost all
intersections are initially designed at-grade and are planned to be grade-
separated in the future to cope with high traffic volume. The type of
grade separation depends largely on the extent of improvement it would
provide in terms of easing congestion or reducing traffic accidents.
Type of operation
Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection depend largely
on the type of control which is in operation at that intersection . The main
objective is to simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved by reducing the
number of conflicts of vehicles.
5: Intersection Design and Control
^ 109
An intersection operates as unchannelized or channelized , and
unsignalized or signalized . Channelization often leads to simplified
movements of vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at a time. On the
other hand , signalization greatly reduces crossing conflicts at the
intersection area.
5.2 BASIC INTERSECTION DESIGN PRINCIPLES
When designing or improving an intersection, it is very important

to follow some basic principles to avoid costly mistakes that lead to lack
of the intersection’s capacity or to its being accident - prone.
a . The maximum number of legs should be four. It has been shown
that the number of conflicts increases exponentially as the
number of intersection legs increases.
b . Staggered intersections should be avoided . Due to the proximity
of the two side roads, inadequate length of storage lane for left
vehicles often causes blockage of the through traffic.
c . Main traffic flow should be near straight as possible. Sharp
turns, such as left and right turns, cause unnecessary reduction
in traffic speeds.
d . Roads should not intersect at a small angle . Oblique

intersections pose potential hazards and cause high severity of
accidents due to the almost head -to-head collision of vehicles.
An angle of 60° must be considered as the minimum .
( optimum is 90°)
110 m Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
e . Two intersections should be as far as possible from each other.

In addition to the reason cited in (2), adequate weaving sections
may not be provided. As a rule of thumb, the distance between
the two intersections must be
distance = design speed ( kph) x number of lanes x 2
For instance, if the prevailing speed is 30 kph and there are four
lanes in one direction, the distance between the two intersections must
be at least 30 x 4 x 2 = 240 m.
5.3 INTERSECTION DESIGN ELEMENTS
Turning geometry
The primary purpose of an intersection is to provide change in the
direction of travel . As a vehicle approaches an intersection , the driver
has to decide whether to go straight or to turn left or right. For turning
movements, a number of turning geometries may be considered , the most
direct of which is highly preferred . Configurations of turning geometries
are shown below:
a. Direct
b . Semidirect
5: Intersection Design and Control 111
c . Indirect
These types of turning movements may be found as elements of the

interchanges shown below:
Trumpet Cloverleaf
The different elements of an intersection are shown in figure 5.1.

The adequacy in design of each element must be carefully checked ,
considering traffic flow and availability of right of way.
4
7
5.
1. Left turn storage bay
1t 2. Through lanes
3 . Exclusive right turn lane
1 4. Corner island
5 . Turning roadway
6. Median
7. Nose treatment
Figure 5.1
Design elements of an intersection approach
112
For the left turn storage bay, the recommended length is
= 2 x no. of left turners in one cycle X spacing in queue

The spacing in queue may range from 6.0 m to 7.0 m, depending
on the type of vehicles using the intersection . A factor of 2 is used to take
into account randomness of traffic flow.
The number of lanes for through , right, and left turn vehicles would
depend on traffic volume, saturation flow rates, type of operation , etc.
For smaller intersections, a simple circular curve may be adequate
for the design of the intersection corners and the turning roadway.
However, simple curve may not be enough for large intersections. The
most common type of geometry for these intersections is the three-centered
curve as shown in figure 5.2.
intersection angle
3 -centered curve:
For R ] = 10-30 m
TO
U>
,
R2 = 1.5 /?
P\ P R3 = 3.0 K,
/
.
For R >30 m
^
« = « = 2 R,
3
Figure 5.2
Three-centered curve
5.4 METHODS OF CONTROL OF INTERSECTIONS
Conflicts often occur at intersections. The more the number of legs

an intersection has, the more the number of conflicts it has. Figure 5.3
shows the number of conflicts of three-leg and four-leg intersections.
^ 113
Figure 5.3
Conflict diagrams for three-leg and four- leg intersections
Conflicts may be classified as merging, diverging, or crossing

conflicts. Table 5.1 gives a summary of these conflicts. The total number
increases exponentially with the number of legs of the intersection. Most
of the problems at intersections, like congestion and accidents, are caused
by crossing conflict.
Table 5.1
Types and number of conflicts
Intersection type
Type of conflict
Three-Leg Four-Leg
Diverging 3 8
Merging 3 8
Crossing 3 16
TOTAL 9 32
Depending on the traffic volume using the intersection and the

severity of conflicts, intersection control may fall under any of the following
categories:
a . Unsignalized
b . Signalized
c . Grade separation
114 fifc Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
5.4.1 Unsignalized Intersection

When two minor roads intersect , traffic may be assumed to arrive
at any approach of the intersection in random fashion . In this case, signals
may not be necessary but some form of control must be employed to
ensure safety. The simplest form of control is to have no control at all. At
least, there are no visible reminders such as signs or markings posted in
the vicinity of the intersection . There is actually a rule for minor
intersections where there is no clearly defined priority. The so-called
right-of -way rule governs. This rule states that when two vehicles arrive
at the same time at the intersection , the vehicle on the right has the
priority. This rule must be understood by all drivers and it does not depend
on the size of the vehicle! There is no such thing as “ right of weight .”
In the case of intersections where priority is clearly defined a —
—
major road crossing a minor road , for instance the traffic on the minor
road has to depend on available gaps at the major road to be able to
cross or turn . For this kind of intersections , reasonable controls for
unsignalized intersections may be done through the use of traffic signs
such as YIELD or STOP sign. The use of YIELD sign is to establish or
strengthen legal superiority of one traffic flow over another where most
traffic on all legs is able to proceed through without a full stop. With the
use of STOP sign, two-way stop control or four-way stop control may be
implemented. In a two-way stop control , the major approaches without
STOP signs have complete priority over the minor approaches with STOP
signs. In the four-way stop control , all approaches have equal priority.
Studies indicate that four-way stop control works to the best advantage of
traffic when flows on the two cross streets are approximately equal. In a
simulation study of four-way stop control by Wright , it has been found
out that the percentages of right , left, and through movements had little
effect on delays and queue lengths. This may be due to the fact that four-
way stop control offers flexibility, i .e., the driver is given the opportunity
to use his own judgment in deciding what movements are possible at a
given instant.
5.4.2 Roundabout or Rotary
This is another form of unsignalized intersection that works best
when the number of turning vehicles is almost equal to the number of
through vehicles. In a roundabout, all the vehicles move counterclockwise
5: Intersection Design and Control fit 115
in one-way fashion. Movement is characterized by merging at very small

angles, weaving, and diverging when leaving the intersection . When traffic
signals’ cost proved to be costly, roundabout is a good alternative.
Figure 5.4
Roundabout (all vehicles move in one-way fashion)
(Photo taken by author.)
5.4 . 3 U - Turn Slots

The U -turn scheme has been implemented at several intersections
within Metro Manila for a number of years now. Operation at U - turn slots
is very similar to that of a roundabout except that it favors a particular
road , which is assumed to be the major road .
Figure 5.5
A U-turn slot in Quezon City
( Photo taken by author.)
5.4. 4 Signalized Intersection

The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by
separation in time, i.e., conflicts between opposing or merging streams
are prevented by giving the right of way to a given direction. Section 5.7
provides an introduction to traffic signal control.
Consider a four-leg intersection with all movements allowed. Figure
5.6 shows the conflict diagrams for the different types of intersections
discussed previously.
Unsignalized intersection Signalized intersection
-»
P-1
P-3
<r <
*
^o- >
Roundabout/rotary U-turn slots
Figure 5.6
Conflict diagrams for different types of control for a four - leg intersection
5: Intersection Design and Control A 117
Table 5.2 shows a comparison in terms of the number of conflicts

and the applicable type of control or regulation for these four types of
intersection.
Table 5.2
Comparison of types of control for a four- leg intersection
No. of conflicts
Intersection type Applicable control or
( 4- leg only ) Crossing/ regulation
Merging Diverging weaving
a . Unsignalized 8 8 16 Major/minor priority

STOP/YIELD signs
Right -of -way rule

(vehicle on right has
priority )
b. Signalized 0 2 (max.) 0 Traffic lights (stop on red,

per phase go on green)
c . Roundabout 8 8 4 Priority rule: vehicles

inside the roundabout
have priority
d. U - turn 8 8 4 No clear control. U -turn

usually is not the major
flow but sign states
otherwise
5.4.5 Grade - Separation

Grade-separation eliminates the problematic crossing conflicts of
the different movements of vehicles. Flyover/overpass, underpass, or full-
blown interchanges are some of the examples of grade-separation. Some
of these grade separations or interchanges are shown in figure 5.7. They
provide the safest and most efficient method of control but definitely the
most costly, and sometimes unaesthetic.
Figure 5.7
Grade separation or. interchanges
5.5 ANALYSIS OF UNSIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
A large number of intersections all over the country are still without
traffic signals. It is therefore necessary to have a means of analysis of the
performance of this type of intersection so as to find appropriate measures
to minimize congestion and reduce the occurrence of traffic accidents.
The method presented in this section was the basis of the method
discussed in the US Highway Capacity Manual with some modifications.
In our case, it may be better to introduce the original method. As new
researches on the topic are conducted , modifications may be done to
suit local conditions.
5: Intersection Design and Control fli 119
The method calculates the maximum flow in any given minor road
traffic stream. It is then compared with the existing traffic flow to estimate
the reserve capacity. The probable delay and level of service are
determined based on this reserve capacity.
Consider the four-leg intersection below. Minor movements are
movements coming from the side road or minor road. In addition , the left
turn movements from the major road are also considered minor. But in
terms of hierarchy, these left turn movements have higher priority than
the movements coming from the minor road .
c V
Shown are minor movements from one
d b approach of the minor road and one left
turn off major road only.
The method requires that the traffic movements be dealt with in

the following order:
a. Right turns into the major road
b . Left turns off the major road
c . Traffic crossing the major road
d . Left turns into the major road
5.5.1 Structure of Major Road Traffic
Table 5.3 shows the different major road traffic streams, which have
to be considered when analyzing a particular minor road flow.
Note that for the traffic turning right from the major road { Mf which
actually does not have direct conflict with the minor flow being considered,
half of its volume is considered as inhibiting effect . If this inhibiting
effect is shown to be absent through actual observation of the condition,
Mx may be totally omitted.
Table 5.3
Major road traffic streams
a . Right turn into major road: b. Left turn off major road:
,
Mh = 0.5 A4 + M 2 Mh = M } + M2
M2 Mn
M. M2
t
I M
I n
c . Crossing major road: d. Left turn into major road:

M h. = 0.5 /Vf1 + M 2 + M 3 + M 4. + M 5„+ M 0 Mh = 0.5 /Vf, + M 2 + M 3 + M 4 + Ms + M ? +
Mj
M
<
M3
ui
^ 3
Ms
\ Mn
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 1978.
5.5.2 Critical Gap

The source of capacity of the minor road flows is the available gaps
between major road flows. The critical gap is used to describe the minimum
gaps needed by drivers of minor road vehicles. Values of critical gaps
are given in table 5.4 for different vehicle maneuvers, speed limits, and
highway type.
5.5.3 Capacity
In the estimation of capacity of the minor road flow, the basic
capacity is initially determined . Based on the major road flows given by
Mh and values of critical gap tg 9 the value of the basic capacity M is
read from the graph shown in figure 5.8.
Table 5.4
Critical gap tb for passenger cars, sec
Speed limit: 50 kph No speed limit

Vehicle Maneuver Major road Major road
2 lanes 4 lanes 2 lanes 4 lanes
Right turns Jnto major road:

YIELD sign control 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0
STOP sign 6.0 6.0 7.0 7.0
Merging lane on approach 3.0 3.0 4.0 4.0
Right turns into roundabout 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
Left turns off major road: 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.0
Crossing major road:

YIELD sign 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0
STOP sign 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0
Left turns into major road:

YIELD 6.5 7.0 8.0 9.0
STOP 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0
1200
noo
critical gap tg
1000
900
800
I 700
600
8
5 500
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 90U 1000110012001300140015001600
Mh ( veh/hr)
Figure 5.8
Basic capacity of minor road flow
The basic capacity is the maximum minor road flow, assuming that
the following conditions are true:
a . The traffic on the major road
Mh does not block the major road.
b . A turning lane is provided for the exclusive use of the minor
road traffic stream.
If these conditions are not met , correction factors have to be applied
based on the following considerations:
a . Congestion on the major road
If a traffic stream turning off the major road becomes congested
and thus interferes with the minor road traffic, then the basic capacity
is reduced. A p-value is obtained from figure 5.9 and is applied as
a reduction factor. The p- value defines the probability that this
minor road traffic stream remains unaffected . The ratio of the actual
flow and the capacity of the same flow is initially used to determine
the p- value.
1
0.9
o
c 0.8
o
in $ o- 7
O u
u Lc 0.6 \
“
o
(V >
~0 0.5
a> o
.E
_|0.4fO \
C £
3
tS 0.3
o o
c 0.2 X
£
0.1
\
03
-O Q
D _ 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Capacity used by minor road stream of vehicles
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 1978 .

Figure 5.9
Reduction factor due to possible congestion of movement off major road
^ 123
b . Shared lanes
Shared lanes on the minor road approach are lanes in which
two or more movements are confined in the same lane . When
corners of the intersection have a large turning radius, the effect of
shared lanes may be minimal or may be ignored since minor
vehicles can stop side by side at the near edge of the major road .
The capacity of the shared lane can be determined using the
equation
1 a b c
max Mn max M rui max Mnl max M
(5.1)
)
^
where Mn— capacity of all using the shared lane

streams
M , M M — capacity of individual
na 7 nir /i (
streams
a, b , c - contribution of the individual streams to the

total volume using the shared lane.
5.5. 4 Passenger Car Equivalents
Since the calculated capacity is in pcu / hr, the existing flow has to
be converted to the same unit. Table 5.5 may be used for this purpose.
Table 5.5
PCU values of different vehicle types
Vehicle type
Gradient, % Passenger Full trailer Motor
Motorcycles Lorries
combination
cars vehicle'
+4 0.7 1.4 3.0 6.0 1.7

+2 0.6 1.2 2.0 3.0 1.4
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1.1
-2 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.0
-4 0.3 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.9
i
Approximate value for estimation calculations .
5.5.5 Reserve Capacity

The difference between the existing flow and capacity is termed as
reserve capacity. The magnitude of delay and level of service are directly
related to this reserve capacity. Table 5.6 is used for assessment purposes.
Overall evaluation or generalization may have to be done after assessing
each minor traffic flow.
Table 5.6
Reserve capacity
Reserve capacity Level of

( pcu/hr ) Description service
> 600 Free flow, no traffic delay A

251 - 600 Stable flow, very short traffic delay B
176 - 250 Stable flow, short traffic delay C
126 - 175 Approaching unstable flow, average traffic delay C to D
76 - 125 Long traffic delay D
0 - 75 Unstable flow, very long traffic delay E
<0 Forced flow, congestion F
Example 5.1
Consider the channelized T- intersection with the minor road
controlled by YIELD sign. There is no prevailing speed limit. Evaluate
the performance of the unsignalized intersection.
A B 400 -
360
V YIELD
Ftourly traffic volume in vph
Solution:
Following the logical order of analysis as suggested:
a . Right turn into major road
i. Structure of major road traffic:

M n, = 0.5 M . + M .z
l y
(Since there is channelization , it can be assumed that the

inhibiting effect of M may be ignored .)
{
Mh = 360 veh /hr

ii . Critical gap, tg = 6 sec (table 5.4 )
iii M no = 640 pcu/hr (figure 5.8) — » max Mn = 640 pcu /hr
iv. Existing Mn = 1.1 x 120 = 132 pcu / hr
(Factor of 1.1 is used since no vehicle mix given .)
v. Reserve capacity = 640 - 132 = 508 pcu/hr
vi . Evaluation: very short traffic delay ; LOS B ( table 5.6)
b . Left turn off major road
i . Structure of major road traffic:
Mh = M ] + M2 = 0 + 360 veh /hr not considered )
ii . Critical gap, = 5.5 sec

= 740 pcu/hr — > max Mn = 740 pcu/hr
iii . M no
v. Reserve capacity = 740 - 165 = 575 pcu /hr
vi . Evaluation: very short traffic delay ; LOS B

( existing Mn -r max Mn x 100% = 165 -f 740 x 100% = 22%;
p-value = 0.83 from figure 5.9)
c . Left turn into major road
Mh = 0.5Mx + M2 + A#4 + A#s = 0 + 360 + 150 + 400 veh/hr

(Mj not considered )
ii. Critical gap, t r = 8 sec
—
= 150 pcu /hr » max Mn - 0.83 x 150 = 125 pcu /hr
iii. M no
iv. Existing M = 1.1 x 50 = 55 pcu / hr
v. Reserve capacity = 125 - 55 = 70 pcu / hr
vi. Evaluation: very long traffic delay; LOS E

Overall evaluation: The left turn traffic into major road experiences
very long delay. There are no problems with the other minor flows. The
left turn off major road is not likely to block the through traffic.
Example 5.2
Evaluate the unsignalized intersection with the two minor road
approaches controlled by STOP signs. The traffic volumes shown are in
vehicles per hour (vph). There is no prevailing speed limit .
STOP O
l
ft . 50
A B
70
70
380 >
60
u 45 | (7o
STOP
i 50
i
C Hourly traffic volume in vph
Solution:
Due to symmetry of traffic volume data, only the analysis of the
minor road approach C will be shown. The same condition is expected in
approach D.
a . Right turn into major road

M n, = 0.5M, 1
+ M 20
(Since right turn traffic is “ protected ” by left turn lane,

may be ignored .)
Mh = 380 veh / hr
ii. Critical gap, tg = 7.0 sec
iii . M no= 500 pcu /hr — > max Mn - 500 pcu/hr
( Factor of 1.1 is used since no vehicle mix given .)
v. Evaluation is deferred since shared lane
b . Left turn off major road
Mh = Mx + M2 = 60 + 380 veh/hr
ii . Critical gap, t = 6 sec
iii . M no= 580 pcu /hr — > max Mn — 580 pcu /hr
iv. Existing Mn = 1.1 x 70 = 77 pcu /hr
v. Reserve capacity = 580 - 77 = 503 pcu / hr
vi . Evaluation: very short traffic delay; LOS B
^
( existing M -r max M x 100% = 77 -r 580 x 100% = 13%;
p-value = 0.90)
c. Crossing major road
M . = 0.5M . + M ,+ M .. + M . + M ,+ M . = 0 + 380 + 70 + 70 +
380 + 60 = 960 veh /hr
ii. Critical gap, to = 9 sec
iii . M no - 100 pcu / hr. — > max Mn - 100 x 0.90 x 0.90 =
81 pcu / hr
128 m Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
iv. Shared lane capacity:
1 50 / 80 30 / 80
max M n 81 500 ; max Mn = 118 pcu /hr
v. ExistingMn = 33 + 55 = 88 pcu/hr
vi . Reserve capacity = 118 - 88 = 30 pcu /hr
vii . Evaluation : very long traffic delay; LOS E
(iexisting M + max M x 100% = 88 4- 120 x 100% = 73%;
p-value = 6.30
)
d . Left turn into major road
— —
M /. 0.5M 1 + M 2 + M 3 + M 4 + M.5 + M 7 + M8 30 + 380 + 70 +
i
70 + 380 + 50 + 30
= 1010 veh/hr
ii. Critical gap, /
A = 10 sec
iii . maxM no = 50 pcu
r —
/ hr > max M n - 50 x 0.90 x 0.90 x 0.30
= 12 pcu / hr
iv. Existing Mn = 1.1 x 45 = 50 pcu /hr
v. Reserve capacity = 12 - 50 = -38 pcu /hr
vi . Evaluation: congested ; LOS F
Overall evaluation: the intersection requires improvement . Traffic
signals and geometric improvement (channelization ) may be necessary.
5.6 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ROUNDABOUTS OR ROTONDAS
The elements of the roundabout are shown in figure 5.10.

Roundabouts with large central island are known to operate better as
they provide ample weaving sections that normally dictate the capacity
of the intersection .
WIDTH OF
PAVEMENT
DIRECTIONAL
ISLAND
CENTRAL LENGTH OF
ISLAND WEAVING SECTION
Figure 5.10
Some design elements of a roundabout
For the analysis and design of roundabouts, British practice will

be discussed in this section (Salter 1976). The focus is the capacity of
the weaving section , which is given by the equation
160 w (l + e l w )
Q ,> = (5.2)
(1+ w l l )
where w — the width of the weaving section in meters

e - the average width of entries to the weaving section in
meters;
e\ + e 2
e=
2
/ - the length of the weaving section
These variables are defined in figure 5.11, which shows a typical

weaving section
/
^2 .
N
lx
Entry '. '
Exit
w
.angle Jt N angle
s
V
\ Internal
angle
s
X
Source: Salter 1976. Figure 5.11

Weaving section
The capacity formula is valid under the following conditions ,
although there is no reason to believe that the formula does not hold if
any variable lies a little outside the values given:
w = 9.1 - 18.0 m
e/w = 0.63 - 0.95
w/l = 0.16 - 0.38
e /e2 = 0.34 - 1.14
The design of roundabouts is usually done by trial and error. Weaving
width and length are assumed and then checked for adequacy of capacity.
As roundabouts have a tendency to lock when overloaded, it is important
that they have adequate reserve capacity.
Example 5.3
Consider the Y- junction with the given traffic volume to be designed
as a roundabout .
C
Table 5.7
Types and number of conflicts
Exit
Entry Total
A B C
A 150 400 550

B 100 700 800
C 500 450 950
It is usually convenient to draw the intersection diagram as follows:
1300 vph
B
A 100
700, 500
i
150
1250 vph 400 450
1100 vph
With the traffic volume superimposed , section AB is the weaving

section with a critical volume of 1,300 vehicles per hour.
Assuming the following:
e = 7.0 m; w = 9.0 m.; I = 40 m
e/w = 0.78
w/l = 0.225
The capacity of AB section is calculated:
160 x 9.0 x 1.78

x 0.85 = 1778 vph
1.225
132 (Sk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Computing for the reserve capacity :

1778 - 1300
1778 - 1300 = 478 vph or x 100 % = 36%
1300
The other sections ( AC and BC) may be designed with the same
parameters, thus providing larger reserve capacity.
5.7 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONTROL
For intersections with relatively low traffic volumes typically found

in rural and suburban areas, traffic may be assumed to arrive at the
intersection in random fashion . Likewise, the same randomness of arrivals
may be observed where spacing between intersections is of considerable
distance. In these situations , signals may not be necessary and the
intersection has to be controlled by traffic signs as discussed in the
previous chapter.
The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by
separation in time, i .e., conflicts between opposing or merging streams
are prevented by giving the right of way to a given direction. This separation
in time is termed as signal phasing. And it can be seen that the more the
number of conflicts, the more the number of phasing needed. However,
in some cases as in a major street-minor street intersection , or in
approaches where left-turning volume is relatively low, a separate phasing
for the minor flow may not be necessary. The number of phases employed
at any intersection must be kept to a minimum , compatible with safety
because with every phase added , there is a corresponding additional
loss of green time, which eventually leads to increased intersection delay.
5.7.1 Types of Signals
Nowadays, many types of traffic signals are being used to control
traffic flow. Depending on the distance and influence of one or more
signals over the other, the intersections may be classified as isolated,
coordinated , or area controlled.
Isolated
A particular intersection may be considered isolated if arrivals of
vehicles at its approach are random. Consider the traffic flow at the two
signalized intersections A and B as shown in figure 5.12. Supposing a

queue formed in A proceeds toward intersection B. If this queue has
dispersed and vehicles arrive at random at B, then B may be considered
as an isolated intersection. Naturally, this will happen only when distance
between the two intersections is far or when traffic volume is relatively
low. In highly built up areas such as the city or town centers, it is unlikely
to have this kind of intersection .
A B
Figure 5.12
Two intersections distant apart (Isolated intersections may be
controlled either pre-time or actuated.)
Pre-time signal
Pre- time or fixed time signals work best when there is not much
fluctuation in traffic flow. The pre- time signal controller may be of a single
or multiprogram type of controller. The single- program controller makes
use of one set of signal parameters to control traffic flow throughout the
day or during the period when the signal is in operation . On the other
hand , the multiprogram type makes use of a number of sets of parameters.
This offers greater flexibility and may be able to cope with the fluctuating
demand within the day (figure 5.13). Nowadays, a controller with five or
more programs is not uncommon .
Many sets of
Single set of parameters
Traffic parameters Traffic
demand demand
Time of day Time of day

Single program Multiple program
Figure 5.13
Programming pre- time signal control
The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and

Highways ( MUTCD) cites the advantages of pre- time control:
a . Consistent starting time and duration of intervals of pre- time
control facilitates coordination with adjacent traffic signals
especially when they are on two or more intersecting streets or
in a grid system . This coordination may permit progressive
movement and a degree of speed control through a system of
several well-spaced traffic signals. Pre- time control provides
more precise coordination that allows maximum efficiency in
the operation of two or more very closely spaced intersections
operating under capacity conditions , when the timing
relationship between intersections is critical .
b . Pre-time controllers are not dependent for proper operation on
the movement of approaching vehicles past detectors. Thus
the operation of the controller is not adversely affected by
conditions preventing normal movement past a detector, such
as a stopped vehicle or construction work within the area .
c . Pre-time control may be acceptable than traffic-actuated control
in areas where large and fairly consistent pedestrian volumes
are present , and where confusion may occur as to the operation
of pedestrian push buttons.
d . Generally the installed cost of pre- time equipment is less than
that of traffic-actuated equipment , and the former is simpler
and more easily maintained .
Traffic- actuated
For isolated intersections where randomness of arrivals is expected ,
traffic-actuated signals is very effective. In case of a priority road , a semi -
actuated type of signal control is appropriate (figure 5.14). In this system ,
detectors are located only on the approaches of the minor road . With this
set up , continuous green time may be given to the major road traffic flow.
Right of way is given to the minor road only when demand is detected. In
case of two roads where no clear priority is given to any direction , the
fully actuated type of control is sometimes utilized. In this scheme, all
approaches are provided with detectors.
When the interval of time between vehicles crossing the detector

becomes greater than the last unit extension period , the right of way is
transferred to the other directions. When there is heavy volume of traffic
in a particular direction, successive demand for extension period may
happen and this will lead to continuous green indication . Hence, a preset
maximum green period is necessary to limit the length of the green period .
It can be expected that when traffic demand is heavy in all approaches,
green period may always reach the maximum resulting in an almost fixed -
time operation .
i Detectors
Major flow
r
t
~
—
Semi -actuated Fully actuated
( Approaches in minor road are provided ( All approaches of the intersection are
with detectors ) . provided with detectors.)
Figure 5.14
Types of traffic-actuated signals
In general , a minimum green period or shortest period of right of

way is given to any phase. This minimum green period is long enough to
clear the vehicles waiting between location of the detector and the stop
line, and it may be extended for as long as continuous demand for the
right of way exists. Such extension periods are individually and not
cumulatively set. Figure 5.15 shows how traffic-actuated control works.
Min. green
unit
extension
period
I Max. green
T
Figure 5.15
Green time extensions for traffic -actuated control
The MUTCD gives the special advantages of traffic-actuated control,

which include the following:
a . Traffic-actuated control may provide maximum efficiency at
intersections where fluctuations in traffic cannot be anticipated
and programmed for with pre- time control.
b . Traffic-actuated control may provide maximum efficiency at
complex intersections where one or more movements are
sporadic or subject to variation in volume.
c . Traffic-actuated control will usually provide maximum efficiency
at intersections of a major street and a minor street by
interrupting the major street only when required for minor street
vehicular or pedestrian traffic , and also by restricting such
interruptions to the minimum time required.
d . Traffic-actuated control may provide maximum efficiency at
intersections unfavorably located within progressive pre- time
systems , where interruptions of major street traffic are
undesirable and must be held to a minimum in frequency and
duration .
e . Traffic - actuated control may provide the advantages of
continuous stop-and -go operation without unnecessary delay
to traffic on the major street , whereas isolated pre-time signals

are sometimes switched to flashing operation during periods of
light traffic.
f. Traffic-actuated control is particularly applicable at locations
where traffic signal control is warranted for only brief periods
during the day.
g - Traffic-actuated control tends to reduce any hazard associated
with the arbitrary stopping of vehicles.
Coordinated
Where randomness can no longer be ensured and there is a need
for continuous movement over an arterial , coordination or synchronization
of the timing of the signals in series is required. A number of methods
are used to achieve this. The methods are discussed at the last section of
this chapter.
It is also possible that within an arterial, subgroups consisting of a
number of intersections may be developed (figure 5.16). Each subgroup
is treated independently from another subgroup.
Subgroup 1 Subgroup 2
Figure 5.16
Subgrouping of intersections for efficient control
Area traffic control

In urban centers, links ( road sections) and nodes ( intersections)
often form a network (figure 5.17). Optimization techniques have been
developed to cope with such network . Nowadays, sophisticated software
run by powerful computers are used . Examples of these are the SCATS,
SCOOT, etc.
0 0 0 0
Figure 5.1 7
Road network in urban centers suited for area traffic control
At present , the Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System

(SCATS), a dynamic control system is installed in Metro Cebu and some
parts of Metro Manila. In Metro Cebu , it was claimed to have improved
the traffic situation in the city. It was also believed that the system has
helped inculcate discipline among the drivers , commuters , and
pedestrians.
SCATS and SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimization Techniques)
are considered as third -generation system , in which the signal timings
are free to evolve in response to detected traffic volumes and queues.
While demand - responsive systems are more expensive both to install
and to operate compared with fixed - time systems, when operated in the
correct environment they usually achieve benefits that compensate for
their capital expenditure within the first few years of operation. In the
SCAT system, small subareas of up to ten intersections share a common
cycle length , which can be altered by up to 6 seconds once per cycle
according to the degree of saturation of that subarea. It can strategically
combine certain subareas for varying lengths of time to improve on overall
network performance. It draws its data from stop line detectors. Each
subarea has five offset plans. These internal offsets between adjacent
intersections within a subarea are predetermined as part of the input
database. Internal offsets can vary according to the current cycle time
and an input parameter known as the progressive speed factor, which
governs the percentage change in offset. There are also five external
offset plans for the purpose of “ marrying” or merging two subareas. These
plans are selected by an algorithm that may be used to select internal
offsets. When two adjacent subareas are married , the common cycle time
for the combined area is the larger cycle time of the two separate subareas
before linkage.
5.7.2 Data Requirements for Traffic Signal Setting
In planning for phase pattern and for the determination of
appropriate timing of the signals, a number of data are required:
—
a . Traffic volume must include all types of vehicles (including
nonmotorized: bicycles, pedicabs, etc); directional
—
b . Pedestrian flows movement of pedestrians in all directions
c . Passenger car unit values ( PCU ) - PCU equivalent of the different
types of vehicles
d . Saturation flow rates - maximum flow rate occurring at the stop
line once traffic initially in queue is given green time indication
—
e. Physical characteristics of the road number of legs; width of
approaches; number of lanes; gradient .
Consider the flow of a single queue of vehicles once signal
indication turns to green as shown in figure 5.18. At the start of green, it
can be observed that the lead vehicle will take a second or two to react .
It will be after two or three vehicles crossing the stop line when the traffic
flow will be at maximum rate. This brings about what is called starting
loss. In the diagram , the starting loss is estimated as the time from the
actual start of green up to the point where the line representing the
maximum rate crosses the horizontal axis. The maximum flow rate that
corresponds to minimum headway is also known as the saturation flow
rate. The value of saturation flow rate depends on a number of factors:
vehicle mix , condition of the pavement , geometric characteristics of the
road ( width of the lane, gradient ), direction of movement, etc.
5.7 . 3 Phase
Phasing is a process by which right of way is given to particular
movements in a logical manner with the primary purpose of minimizing
the number of conflicts. The number of conflicts at an intersection depends
largely on the geometry of the intersection and turning prohibition . It
may be observed that as the number of legs of the intersection increases,
the number of conflicts increases exponentially.
Cum. A
Veh.
Saturation flow rate

Starting Loss
Time
H G
Figure 5.18
Y
Saturation flow rate determination
In planning for the appropriate phase pattern for a particular

intersection , the major factors to be considered are the traffic volume
and any turning regulation / prohibition. Oftentimes, it is the left turn
movement that gives the problem at an intersection as it complicates and
increases the number of the required phases. Nevertheless, the basic
principle is to minimize the number of phases commensurate with safety.
Given the geometry of the intersection and a set of traffic volume,
there are actually many possibilities of developing phase patterns. The
role of the traffic engineer is to find out the most appropriate one to meet
the requirements of meeting the traffic demand and providing safety to
all road users.
Some of the most common phase patterns are shown in figure 5.19:
4
j “
Phase 1
i
Phase 2
r a . Two-phase system
Phase 1 Phase 2
i
Phase 3
r b. Three -
phase
system
Figure 5.19
Typical phase patterns
Again, in developing appropriate phase patterns, each phase should

not combine any major conflicting movements. In the two- phase system
shown in figure 5.19a, for example, the through and the right turn traffic
may have some conflict. However, this is normally of diverging type and
may not pose a problem as long as the vehicles stay on their respective
lanes. Phase 1, for example, does not allow a left turn movement. This is
the situation when this movement is prohibited in the intersection or
when the number of left turn vehicles is so small that it does not warrant
a left turn phase . However, when left turn movement becomes
problematic, it is often necessary to provide a separate left turn phase as
shown in figure 5.19b. Here are some basic guidelines when planning
for the phase patterns.
a . Start with the most problematic / heavy movement . Add
movements one at a time and see to it that they are not in
conflict with the previous movements.
b . The number of phases must not exceed the number of legs of
the intersection ( Note: patterns with overlapping movements
will be discussed in a separate section . They are not really
counted as phases.)
c. Rearrange the phase patterns so as to follow a logical order.
5.7 . 4 Lost Times
In the previous section , it has been said that the number of phases
must be minimized commensurate with safety. The major reason for this
is that as the number of phases increases, the amount of lost time also
increases. The lost time is composed of the starting loss and the all-red
period . In figure 5.20, it can be observed that for every phase, there is a
corresponding starting loss and all -red period .
The generally accepted value of starting loss is 2 seconds. The
amount of all-red period depends on the size of the intersection . Together
with the yellow or amber period, they compose the clearance interval or
intergreen period. With the yellow or amber having a value of 3 seconds,
the all-red period has to be long enough for the last vehicle crossing the
road to clear safely.
Starting
All -red
Intergreen
< >
A R
\J
K2 c2 Y
<r
Cycle
Figure 5.20
Lost times consisting of starting loss and all - red period
5.7.5 Cycle
A cycle is one complete indication of green , yellow, and red . Its
length is constant for a pre-time or fixed time signals. It varies for traffic-
actuated signals depending on traffic demand.
The fundamental relation between intersection delay and cycle
length is shown in figure 5.21.
Delay
A
Cycle
c
Figure 5.21
Cycle and delay relation (Co provides the minimum delay.)
It can be seen that using either a long or short cycle will lead to
long delay, with very short cycle giving worse results. The objective of
signal timing is to minimize delay. There are other objective functions
—
travel speed , fuel consumption , emissions, etc. but they are all related
—
to delay. Reducing delay would lead to better speed , fuel savings, and
lesser emissions. The cycle corresponding to least intersection delay is
termed as the optimum cycle length. Webster’s formula is widely used to
estimate this cycle length . The equation is given by
1.5 L + 5
C0 = 1- Y
(5.3)
where L — total lost time

Y — sum of y- values
The computation of cycle will be illustrated by an example.

Example 5.4
Consider the traffic volumes and saturation flow rates for the different
movements:
Saturation flow
Movement Approach Direction Volume, pcu/hr rate, pcu/hr
1 North Through+Right 930 1800

2 South Through+Right 700 1800
3 East Through+Right 650 2000
4 West Through+ Right 420 2000
Compute for the optimum cycle time.

( Use yellow = 3 sec; All-red = 2 sec; Starting loss = 2 sec)
Solution:
Analyzing the different movements, directions, and traffic volumes,
a two- phase signal may be appropriate.
4 3 j “
4
*
(T
Phase 1 Phase 2
For all movements, the y-values are computed .
Phase Approach Volume, pcu/hr SFR, pcu/hr y- value
1 East 650 2000 0.325

West 420 2000 0.210
2 North 930 1800 0.517

South 700 1800 0.389
For phase 1, the critical y-value is 0.325 while for phase 2 , the
critical y- value is 0.517. This gives
F-value = 0.325 + 0.517 = 0.842
c
For this two- phase signal , the lost time L is:

L = 2 x starting loss + 2 x all-red = 2 x 2 +2 x 2 = 8 sec
From equation 5.1, the optimum cycle length is:
1.5 L + 5 _ 1.5 x 8 + 5
Co = 1- F
~
1- 0.842
= 107.37 sec, say, 110 sec
(The cycle length is normally rounded off to multiples of 5 or 10.)
5.7 .6 Allocation of Green Times
After the cycle length is computed , the total green time has to be
allocated to the different movements or phases. This is normally achieved
by dividing it in proportion to the y-values. For a particular phase t, for
example, its green time is estimated as follows:
g = Ji- x ( C 0 - l )
Example 5.5
Y ^ ( 5.4)
Consider the data in the previous example, allocate the green time
to phases 1 and 2.
Solution:
The computed optimum cycle is 110 sec and the total lost time is 8
sec. This results to total usable or effective green, g:
g
° = C - L = 110 - 8 = 102 sec
o
This effective green is allocated as follows:

7 0.325
For phase 1: g\ - ~i x g - x 102 = 39 sec
0.842
y2 0.517
For phase 2: g 2 ~~ x8 ~ x 102 = 62.6 sec, say 63 sec
Or simply
^
82 = 8 ~ 8\
0.842
= 1°2 ~ 39 = 63 sec
5.7 . 7 Capacity of Movement or Approach

Given the amount of green time allocated to an approach or
movement and its saturation flow rate, the capacity of such approach or
movement can be estimated as follows:
g
Capacity = sx — (5.5)
C
where
s — saturation flow rate
g — effective green
C - cycle length
Example 5.6
In the previous example, determine the capacity of the south
approach .
Solution:
The south approach has a saturation flow rate
s = 1,800 pcu / hr of green time
Its effective green is equal to the effective green of phase 2 (g 2 = 63
sec )
Therefore:
g2 63
Capacity of south approach = sx C
= 1,800 x 110 = 1,031 pcu / hr
5.7 .8 Estimation of Delay
The equation for the optimum cycle length was actually derived by
minimizing the delay function obtained by Webster. Webster’s formula
for delay consists of three terms. The first term is the major component of
the delay equation. It can be easily obtained by considering the area of
the triangle in figure 5.22. This is actually based on a D / D/1 queuing
where both arrival ( q ) and departure ( s ) patterns are assumed regular.
The second term based on Allsop was obtained by assuming an additional
queue interposed between the arriving traffic and the signal. The last
term is a correction factor obtained from simulation.
1
r2 x2
d= - 0.65(-y x 2+5 q )3 (5.6)
2C(l - y ) 2q{\ - x ) <1
The first term is the dominant term in the formula representing

90 95 percent of the total average delay. From figure 5.22, this component
-
of delay will be derived .
Cum.
Veh
/V
s
Delay, D t
>
r
^ Time
8
c
Figure 5.22
Delay representation per cycle
Assuming it takes to to dissipate the queue after the start of green:

q( r + t ) = st 0
0
(* - ?K = <7r
to = s - q
with r = 2s
yr
K = i~y (5.7)
148 Hfc Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
The total delay per cycle D is equal to the area of the triangle in
figure 5.22.
2
—21 r x q( r + t° .) = —21 (1gr—- y )
0 (5.8)
Therefore , the average delay per vehicle per cycle is
d= ±q c i
2C ( l - y )
(5.9)
Example 5.7
Using equation 5.9, estimate the average delay per vehicle per
cycle of movement 3.
Solution :
Movement 3 has a y - value equal to 0.325. Its effective green is 39
sec .
Therefore, its effective red is

r - c - g = 110 - 39 = 71 sec
{
Using equation 5.9, the average delay is
1 712
d= —2C (1- y ) 2 x 110 (1 - 0.325)
= 33.95 sec/veh /cycle
5.7 .9 Timing Diagram

After all the signal parameters have been computed , it is better to
produce the timing diagram where all the numerical values are displayed .
This is later applied to the signal controller. Figure 5.23 shows a sample
timing diagram for a two- phase signal system .
Intergreen
< >
C, R
R2 C2 Y
<
Cycle
Figure 5.23
Timing diagram for a two-phase system
Example 5.8
Draw the timing diagram for the problem in example 5.4.
Solution:
The timing diagram is normally drawn using the actual green ( not
the effective green). Actual green is computed as follows:
actual green + yellow = effective green + starting loss
( Note: yellow is considered usable and is part of the effective green)
Since yellow = 3 sec and starting loss = 2 sec
actual green = effective green - 1
For phase 1: Actual green, G , = 39 - 1 = 38 sec
For phase 2: Actual green, C2 = 63 - 1 = 62 sec
The timing diagram is shown with the different components in
seconds.
38 3
2
2
62
3
j
* Cycle =110 sec
5.7.10 Intersection Degree of Congestion

Although the F-value gives the indication whether to continue with
the computation or not , the degree of congestion A, is often used as the
measure of the performance of the intersection. For a given approach or
movement, the degree of congestion of that approach or movement is the
ratio of the demand over capacity.
Let x . be the degree of congestion of a particular movement or phase
h
then
volume -
xi =
capacity •
S 1: x Si
—C (5.10a )
On the other hand , the intersection degree of congestion X is given

by
CY
X = C-L ( 5.10 b)
It can be shown that the degree of the intersection is also the same
as the degree of any movement or approach if the allocation of green is
based on the proportion of y- values.
Example 5.9
Compute for the degree of congestion of the intersection described
in example 5.4.
5: Intersection Design and Control 42} 151
Solution:
With the cycle, y-value, and L computed previously, equation 5.10b
can be used to determine the degree of congestion .
CY 110 x 0.842
C-L 110 - 8
= 0.908 < 1.0
Equation 5.10a can also be used to compute for the intersection
degree of congestion since green times are allocated based on the
proportion of y-values.
Consider movement 1 with volume = 930 pcu / hr and saturation
flow rate of 1,800 pcu / hr. Based on y-value of 0.517, its green time was
computed as 62.6 sec. (This was rounded off to 63 sec in the previous
calculations) .
The degree of congestion of movement 1 based on equation 5.10a is
<7 £ 930
X; = gi 62.6
= 0.908
1800 x
C 110
which is equal to the degree of congestion X .
5.7.11 Critical Movement Analysis
When phase patterns become complex, cycle time and green times
needed by the different movements may be determined using the critical
movement analysis method . This is the same method used by Akcelik in
his Signalized and Unsignalized Intersection Design and Research Aid
(SIDRA ) program and by the US Highway Capacity Manual for the design
and analysis of signalized intersections.
For a given combination of intersection geometry and traffic volume,
a finite number of logical phase patterns may be identified . ( Logical phase
pattern is defined here as a phase pattern that is normally accepted in
traffic engineering practice in terms of safety and driver expectation .)
Let m - total number of possible phase patterns
P. — ith phase pattern
The best phase pattern P that is expected to result in minimum
delay is
P = minTOJ , P2( YJ ,...,Pm(YJ ) (5.11)

where Ycri is the sum of y-values of critical movements in P
Figure 5.24 shows the three typical “ stages ” for vehicles at a
T-intersection . The corresponding critical movement diagram is shown
in figure 5.25. The term “ phases” is not used because of the overlapping
movements ( defined as movements present in more than one stage) ,
namely: 1, 4, and 5. The cycle time and green time may be dictated by
the time requirements of any of the following sets: [1, 6], [3, 5], [ 2, 3, 6],
or [2, 4]. Each set consists of movements that form a complete cycle. The
set that gives the highest F-value forms the critical movements. In other
words:
Ycr = max ( T> -> T) (5.12)
where n is total number of possible sets.
Figure 5.24
Three stages for a T - intersection
Figure 5.25
Critical movement diagram for the T- intersection
Example 5.10
Consider the T-intersection with given traffic data:
Volume, SFR,
Movement
pcu/hr pcu/hr
1 750 2000
2 250 1800
3 650 2000
4 200 1600
5 240 1600
6 350 1800
Compute for the optimum cycle time.

Solution:
Based on the traffic flow, the phase pattern or stages shown below
may be considered:
The y-value of each movement is computed .
Movement Volume, pcu/hr SFR, pcu/hr y- value
1 750 2000 0.38

2 250 1800 0.14
3 650 2000 0.33
4 200 1600 0.13
5 240 1600 0.15
6 350 1800 0.19
The y- values are superimposed in the critical movement diagram
0.38 0.13
A B C 0.19 A B
0.33 0.14
0.15
Each of the following sets consists of movements that form a complete

cycle:
[1, 6], [3, 5], [2, 3, 6], or [2, 4]
The F-value of each set is determined.
[ 1, 6] Y = 0.375 + 0.194 = 0.569
[3, 5] Y = 0.325 + 0.150 = 0.475
[2, 3, 6] Y = 0.139 + 0.325 + 0.194 = 0.658
[2, 4] Y = 0.139 + 0.125 = 0.264
Therefore, the critical movements are [2, 3, 6] with F-value = 0.658.
Since there are three major movements involved , 3 starting losses
and all- red periods are expected, giving a total lost time L = 3 x (2 + 2) =
12 sec.
The optimum cycle is computed using equation 5.4.
c = 1.5 x0.658
12 + 5
= 67.25 sec, say 70 sec
1-
0
Allocating green time will be the same as in example 5.5.

5.7 .12 Treatment of Left Turn Traffic

If left turn traffic is allowed at the intersection, three types of control
may be considered: (1) without phase, (2) with fixed time left turiY phase,
and (3) with actuated left turn phase.
Without left turn phase
As a rule, multiple phases should be avoided whenever possible
because they generally require an increase in the overall cycle length .
Other options may be considered: left turn bays, shorter cycle lengths,
leading or lagging greens or both , and turn prohibitions. In the case of a
signal without left turn phase, it is apparent that the left turners have to
depend on the available gaps in the opposing through traffic.
Given a sufficient length of left turn bay, the interaction between
left turners and through traffic can be avoided. If there is no left turn bay,
the left -turning vehicles are mixed with straight-ahead and right- turning
vehicles ( in case of single lane) on the same approach . This may have
the following effects on the traffic flow:
a. Because they are delayed from turning left by other vehicles in
the traffic stream, they delay straight-ahead vehicles that may
be following them.
b . The presence of left- turning vehicles in a particular lane tends
to inhibit the use of this lane by straight-ahead vehicles.
c . Those left- turning vehicles that remain in the intersection after
the expiration of the green period delay the start of the next
phase until they have completed their left- turning maneuver.
With fixed time left turn phase
As the volume of left turn traffic increases, providing additional
phase for them seems inevitable. The simplest form is a fixed time left
turn phase.
For any given traffic condition with the signals operating under
fixed time control , the duration of the cycle affects the average delay of
vehicles passing through the intersection. Where the cycle time is very
short , the proportion of the cycle time occupied by the lost time in the
intergreen period and by starting delays is high , making the signal control
inefficient and causing lengthy delays.
156
On the other hand , when the cycle time is considerably long, waiting
vehicles will clear the stop line during the early part of the green period
and the only vehicles crossing during the latter part of the green period
will be those that subsequently arrive, often at longer headways. As the
discharge rate across the stop line is greatest when there is a queue on
the approach , this also results in inefficient operation.
With traffic-actuated left turn phase
For left turn traffic using traffic -actuated control , a special feature
is that prior to the beginning of green for left turn , the system checks
whether there is a vehicle waiting, and if none is found , left turn phase is
automatically skipped and the next phase begins. On the other hand , if
there is a vehicle waiting, then a minimum green period is given , and it
may be extended when there is continuous demand .
In the case of no exclusive left turn phase, there is usually enough
time for left turners during green if there is relatively light opposing traffic.
However, as opposing traffic increases, the long queue may not be able
to give the left turners the chance to clear the intersection through available
gaps. Even if the opposing queue ends, the green time left with random
flow may be too short to clear all left turners waiting for gaps. Observation
at the intersection will show that those left turners leading the queue
position themselves in the center of the intersection and turn during the
yellow period or the start of red interval . For high opposing traffic, this
intergreen period serves as the main source of left-turning traffic.
In the case of no exclusive left turn phase, it can be said that left
turn capacity greatly depends on the amount of traffic opposing the left
turn movement. The left - turning vehicles must cross the intersection
through gaps or lags. A simple representation of this phenomenon is
shown in figure 5.26.
The condition on the opposing approach is shown in a, b, and c
while the condition of the left turn movement is shown in d . Briefly, the
opposing traffic accumulates during red period; then, at the beginning of
green plus starting loss, the traffic starts to move . During normal
conditions, the queue can be cleared after some of the green time has
been utilized and later the flow on the opposing traffic returns to free flow
condition wherein the vehicles arrive and depart from the stop line in
random fashion. From this point of time on, until the green time ends, the
Saturation flow
a. Random flow
b.
veh. in queue
c. red green
a -c: conditions on opposing approach
d. red blocked turning
d: situation of left turning vehicles
Figure 5.26
Conditions for left turn without phase
waiting left turners assess the gaps available to them. Normally, the
decision whether or not to accept the available gap is made in the following
manner:
a. No driver will accept a gap in the opposing stream that he or
she believes will certainly lead to a collision .
b . No driver gains admittance through intimidation of the opposing
stream drivers.
In reality, assumption b is oftentimes violated. This may be due to

the driver’s irritation caused by the length of time he or she has been
delayed in the queue.
5.7.13 Left Turn Lane Length
The usual approach in determining the required length of the storage
lane or left turn bay has been to assume a Poisson arrival distribution
158
and to compute the probability of the facility failing through overloading
in not more than specified percentages of cycles. If the storage to be
provided is for k vehicles and the mean rate of arrivals in an interval of
time t is m, then
k -m r
P{ r > k ) = (5.13)
r =0 r *
expresses the probability of the number of arrivals r in time t being greater

than the storage capacity k . A design based on this approach assumes
that the storage provided allows through traffic to proceed without
interference and makes maximum use of the separate turning phase
through saturation flow away from the queue of vehicles in the storage
lane.
This design approach , which is frequently used by traffic engineers,
generally forms the basis for the storage length recommendation given
by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO) , which
states, “ At signalized intersections, the required storage length depends
on the cycle length, the signal phasing arrangement and the rate of arrivals
and departures of left turning vehicles. The storage length should be
based on 1.5 to 2 times the average number of vehicles that would store
per cycle, predicated on the design volume.”
Figure 5.27 shows a typical approach of an intersection where
exclusive left turn lane is provided , say, for /c, vehicles. If the ( k + l ) th
vehicle arrives with intention of turning left , then it has to occupy the
adjacent lane, thereby blocking the through traffic in that particular lane,
resulting in a considerable reduction of the saturation flow rate of the
through traffic. Also, the same thing happens when there is heavy through
traffic . If the through traffic queue length exceeds that of the storage
length , then these vehicles will block the use of the storage lane by
subsequent left - turning vehicles . And if this blocking of left - turning
vehicles happens prior or during the left turn phase for that approach ,
•then only those vehicles stored in the left turn bay can cross.
5.7 .14 Effects of Left Turn Vehicles on Saturation Flow Rate

Given a sufficient length of left turn bay, interaction between left
turners and through traffic in the same approach is almost negligible.
However, if the tail of right turn queue exceeds that of the given storage
length , further usage of the through lane adjacent to the left turn lane is
M -
' J
ID
I
i o r i - left turn
- through
I
o
Figure 5.27
Blockage of through traffic due to inadequate length of left turn bay
stopped . If the number of lanes for one approach is 2, for example, it is

reduced to 1 and the saturation flow is greatly reduced , too. When there
is no exclusive left turn lane provided , the left turners greatly affect the
flow of the through traffic. Also, the effect becomes considerable the
more the number of left turners waiting at the approach. Once a through -
bound driver sees left turners in the innermost lane, he normally keeps
away from that lane.
This reduction of saturation flow rate of through traffic can also be
applied to the case where there is exclusive left turn lane provided .
However, the problem is a little different since blocking occurs at the
junction of the left turn lane and the adjacent through lane. If left turn
volume is high and the left turn lane is inadequate, it may be expected
that the left turn queue will pile up until the adjacent through lane is
blocked. Normally, at the start of through green , the leaders of the left
turn queue proceed to the center of the intersection and wait for available
gaps or leave the intersection immediately at the start of the left turn
phase. This somehow eases the problem of interblocking at the junction
of left turn and through lanes. After some time from the start of through
160
green, blocking may no longer occur as the left turners at the end of the
queue have proceeded to the left turn lane.
5.7 .15 Coordination of Traffic Signals
To provide progressive movement of traffic flow that has to pass
through a series of signalized intersections, some form of coordination
has to be introduced to minimize delay. Nowadays, a number of commercial
software packages are available to achieve this goal . Some of these
package programs are very sophisticated and can handle large numbers
of intersections within the city center. Two well- known computer software
are the SCATS and the SCOOT. The SCATS is currently being used in
Metro Manila and Metro Cebu .
While the said software are used for coordination of more elaborate
subgroups , a manual method can be used for simpler systems. Three
methods that make use of simple time-distance diagram will be presented
here.
Simultaneous system
All signals display the same color indication ; this is commonly
used when intersections are closely spaced , such as those along Espana.
Time
last vehicle
to clear w ( bandwidth) - the
thickness of the band
that represents the
platoon that will be able
w to cross the intersections
^
C-
in platoon Cycle
— Distance
1
Figure 5.28
Simultaneous system
^ 161
A disadvantage of this system is that drivers tend to increase speed
in order to pass as many intersections as possible.
Alternating system
At any given instant of time, the driver sees intersections ahead
with alternating green and red indications. This system normally works
well when the intersections are far apart.
Time
last vehicle to clear
first vehicle in platoon

w
v Cycle
* Distance
1
Figure 5.29
Alternating system
Progressive system
The starts of green are arranged in such a way that traffic flow is
uninterrupted and bandwidth is optimized. The method works well for
one-way systems or when one direction of flow is given more priority over
the other.
For coordination , it is better to use one common cycle for all the
intersections. However, if distances are irregular, some intersections may
use two times the common cycle. In practice, this common cycle time is
usually the cycle time of the key intersection (i.e., the intersection that
normally requires the longest cycle time ).
Time
J r last vehicle
to clear
first vehicle
y in platoon
w
CT- W -
Cycle
- Distance
1 2 3
Figure 5.30
Progressive system
Example 5.11
^
Consider the 4 intersections 400 m apart and with the given traffic
data. Determine the common cycle and the actual green times that will
be used for coordination.
North
*
A B C D
Intersection Approach Flow, pcu/hr Sat. flow rate Lost time, sec
A N 1250 3900 8
S 1450 3900
E 1000 2400
W 800 2000
B N 1350 3900 8
S 1550 3900
E 1200 2500
W 650 2000
C N 1100 3900 8
S 1500 3900
E 900 2000
W 550 2000
D N 1300 3900 8
S 1400 3900
E 1000 2500
W 600 2000
AR = 2 sec
Yellow = 3 sec
*
Each intersection will be controlled by two- phase signal in the

absence of left - turning vehicles. The cycle length required for ’ each
intersection is computed. The result is summarized in the table below.
Values of optimum cycle length are rounded off.
Flow, Lost time,

Intersection Approach SFR y- value Ycr Cop
pcu/hr sec
A N 1,250 3,900 8 0.321 0.788 80

S 1,450 3,900 0.372
E 1 ,000 2,400 0.417
W 800 2 ,000 0.400
B N 1,350 3,900 8 0.346 0.877 140

S 1,550 3,900 0.397
E 1 , 200 2,500 0.480
W 650 2,000 0.325
C N 1 ,100 3,900 8 0.282 0.835 100

S 1,500 3,900 0.385
E 900 2,000 0.450
W 550 2,000 0.275
D N 1,300 3,900 8 0.333 0.759 70

S 1,400 3,900 0.359
E 1 ,000 2,500 0.400
W 600 2,000 0.300
AR = 2 sec
Yellow = 3 sec
The key intersection is B, requiring the longest cycle (140 sec ).

For this intersection , green times are allocated as follows:
Total effective green :
g = 140 - 8 = 132 sec
Effective green for the N -S is
0.397
8 N -S ~ x 132 = 59.79 say 60 sec
0.877
Actual green for N -S is
GN S = 60 - 1 = 59 sec
$
For the other intersections, the maximum actual green for other
intersections depends on the minimum effective green for the side roads.
This minimum effective green is computed as
Yside X CYcle
(5.14)
0.90
The table shows how the required minimum green is given to the
side roads so as to maximize the green along the N -S direction .
Intersection y- sidemax Min. g Min. G .

Max G *
A 0.417 65 64
-B-
-
C
JT
0.45
0.4
70
62
69
61
66
2+
*Max G = C - Gmin Intergreen ( for N-S direction)

^
Finally, the actual green and red (in seconds) that will be used for
coordinating the N -S direction are as follows:
Intersection G+yellow Red
A 6r r
—
B 62 78
C 69 74
D 77 63
17
5.7.16 Graphical Method of Coordinating Signalized Intersections

The Institute of Traffic Engineers’ Traffice Engineering Handbook
has a graphical method of coordinating two-way systems when balance
of traffic flow in both directions is desired . The step- by-step procedure is
discussed:
a. Preparation of the time-distance diagram. The locations of the
intersections to be coordinated are drawn to scale on the
horizontal axis. A construction line is drawn parallel to this
axis.
Time
construction
line
>• Distance
t t
b . Knowing beforehand the common cycle time and its components
(effective green and red periods), a green or red is centered on
the construction line. (The figure shows a red [bold line] being
centered on this line.)
Time
construction
line
/
Distance
t I
166 (2k Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
c. A line (line 1) with a slope corresponding to an assumed desired

speed of progression is drawn . This line represents the first
vehicle in platoon that will cross the first intersection .
Time
initial line based on assumed

desired speed of progression 1
\
> Distance
l 1 t
d . Going to the next intersection, a red or a green is centered on the
construction line, with the start of green very close to the initial
sloping line. In the figure a green is centered on the line. The
sloping line is then adjusted. This gives the new line (line 2).
Time
2
1
Distance
t
^ 167
e . The steps are repeated for the next intersection.
Time
3
2
1
Distance
(
f. Finally, a line is drawn parallel to line 3. This line represents
the last vehicle in the platoon that will be able to cross all
intersections without stopping. Lines are also drawn to represent
the platoon going in the other direction. It can be seen that the
method produces a balanced flow in both directions. The final
desired speed can also be estimated from the diagram (inverse
of the slope of the line). i
Time
Distance
I 1
5.7.17 Offset
The difference in the start of green of two signalized intersections
is called the offset. Two types of definitions may be used:
a . Absolute offset
This would require one of the intersections to be defined
as the key intersection. Then , all offsets will be reckoned from
it.021 ( read as “ offset of 2 with respect to 1” ) and 0. are
absolute offsets when intersection 1 is defined as the^ key
intersection in figure 5.31.
b. Relative offset
The offset of an intersection is defined with respect to an
adjacent intersection . 0. 2 is a relative offset if intersection 1 is
{
the key intersection.
Time
o, o 32
3
K
— Distance
1 2 3
Figure 5.31
Offset definition
5: Intersection Design and Control & 169
PROBLEMS
1. Assuming that all movements are allowed in a five-leg intersection,

determine the number of vehicular crossing, merging, and diverging
conflicts.
2. Given the T-intersection below:
4 920 ( 2 ,000 )
200 ( 1 ,800 )
*
600 ( 2 , 000) >
250 ( 1 , 600)
^
o o
o o
00 VO
o
o o
o
vO ro
(The numbers shown are traffic volume in pcu / hr and saturation

flow rates in pcu / hr of green time, respectively.)
a . Design appropriate phasing and draw critical movement
diagram.
b . Determine optimum cycle.
c . Draw timing diagram.
d . Compute degree of congestion , X .
Use all-red = 2 sec
3. Show that the degree of congestion of any critical movement is
equal to the degree of congestion of the intersection given by
CY
X=
C-L
4. For each approach of the intersection , allocate lanes for through

and left and design appropriate phasing so that the degree of
congestion does not exceed 0.90.
N
A
Maximum no . Direction
Total volume .
Sat flow rate
Approach of lanes pcu/hr pcu/hr/ lane
E 5 Through 1,480 2,400

left 370 1,700
W 5 Through 860 2,400

left 586 1,700
N 4 Through 1,360 2 , 200

left 494 1,800
S 4 Through 2,030 2, 200

left 265 1,800
5. Two intersections are 400 m apart. Common cycle time used is

120 sec and green times used for each intersection is 50 percent
of the cycle. Determine if alternating or simultaneous system is
better if progression is desired for both directions. What will be the
recommended speed of progression ?
6. For the given intersection, arrange the lanes (i .e., allocate lanes for
through and left) of each approach and design appropriate phasing
so that the degree of congestion does not exceed 0.90.
N
A
Each approach can accommodate maximum of four lanes

( through and left).
Total volume Sat . flow rate

Approach Direction
pcu/ hr pcu/ hr/lane
N Through 900 1 ,900

left 380 1,750
S Through 1,500 1 ,900

left 190 1,750
W Through 1,300 1,800

left 150 1,600
E Through 1,050 1,800

left 420 1,600
a . Calculate optimum cycle time.

b . Draw timing diagram.
c . Compute average delay per vehicle of approach N .
7. Given the traffic data for the one-way road shown below:
N
/ \
A B C D
100 m 400 m 200 m
Intersection Approach Movement Volume .

Sat flow rate
A West TH + LT 1,200 2,000

South TH + RT 450 1,800
B West TH + RT 890 2,000

North TH + RT 600 1,600
C West TH + LT 920 2,000

North LT 480 1,750
D West TH + LT + RT 1,100 2,000

North TH 380 1,600
South TH 590 1,800
Assume the following for all intersections:

All-red : 2 sec Yellow: 3 sec
Starting loss: 2 sec Desired progression speed : 30 kph
Coordinate the 4 intersections. Draw time- distance diagram
using appropriate scale. Estimate bandwidth graphically.
8. A four-leg intersection has the traffic volume information as shown .
Due to the large number of pedestrians crossing in all directions
( including diagonal movements), a scramble phase ( i .e., exclusive
phase for pedestrians) of 20 sec after all phases are given to vehicles
has been planned .
Approach Direction Volume, pcu/hr SFR, pcu/hr IG, sec
N TH 1,400 4,200 5
LT 120 1,800 4
S TH 1,500 3,900 5
LT 140 1,800 4
W TH 750 4,400 5
LT 100 1,700 4
E TH 750 4,200 5
LT 110 1,600 4
Yellow = 3 sec
Starting loss = 2 sec
a. Determine the following:

i . cycle length
ii . green time allocation for each phase
b . Draw timing diagram.
9. A pedestrian crossing located at a mid - block has a cycle time c
and is provided with effective green g . Pedestrian arrival rate is q .
Saturation flow of pedestrians is considered to be very large in
comparison with the arrival rate , i .e., almost all pedestrians cross
at the same time at the start of green . Show that the average
pedestrian delay is
d = - ( I - A ) 2 , where X = S
—
2 c
REFERENCES
Akcelik , Rahmi . 1987. Traffic signal setting: Capacity and timing analysis .
Australian Road Research Board .
Allsop, Richard E . 1972. Delay at a fixed time traffic signal , I: Theoretical
analysis. Transportation Science 6, no. 3.
Drew, Donald R . 1968. Traffic flow theory and control . McGraw-Hill Inc.
Evans , Henry K., ed . 1950. Traffic engineering handbook . Second ed.
New Haven , Connecticut: Institute of Traffic Engineers.
Federal Highway Administration . 1988. Manual on uniform traffic control
devices for streets and highways . US Department of Transportation.
Japan Society of Traffic Engineers. 1988. The planning and design of at -
grade intersections .
Mannering, Fred L., and Walter R Kilareski . 1990. Principles of highway
engineering and traffic analysis . John Wiley and Sons.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 1978.
Capacity of at - grade junctions . Road Research Group, Paris.
Salter, R. J . 1976. Highway traffic analysis and design. Revised edition .
MacMillan Press.
Sigua , R . G. 1984. A study on control of right turn traffic at signalized
intersection . Master’s thesis , Department of Civil Engineering ,
University of Tokyo.
. 1991. An expert system for intersection design and analysis.
PhD diss., Department of Civil Engineering, University of Tokyo.
National Research Council .
Webster, Frederick V. 1958. Traffic signal settings . Road Research
Technical Paper No. 39.
Wright , Paul H. 1958. Simulation of traffic at a 4-way stop intersection .
Analysis of Traffic Flow symposium, Michigan .
c
mmm UMN OI mmw
6.1 INTRODUCTION
D esign of highways basically covers the geometry of the horizontal

and vertical alignments, geotechnical aspects , pavement design ,
provision of drainage facilities, and other civil structures, but the traffic
engineers’ main concern is the safety aspect of the design . Several factors
must be considered when designing a highway that is safe and pleasant
to drive on . One of these factors is the maximum speed that a certain
geometry may allow. Take the horizontal curvature of the road , for instance.
Without appropriate banking or superelevation, an overspeeding vehicle
will likely run out of the highway due to the centrifugal force that pulls it
away from the road . Another is the sight distance available to the drivers.
The driver must be able to see ahead in order to brake safely before
hitting an object on its path. Or when negotiating an overtaking maneuver,
a driver must be able to pass a slow-moving vehicle and return to its lane
safely without adversely affecting the vehicle on the opposite direction .
'
When driving at night, the headlight beam can only reach up to a certain
distance. The vertical and horizontal curves must be designed so as not
to cause undue reduction in speed of vehicles.
6: Geometric Design of Highways A 175
6.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAYS
6.2.1 Design Speed

The elements of a highway are designed according to certain
standards. One of these standards is the design speed , which is defined
as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design
features of the highway govern . It is the basis that will literally put shape
to the different elements of the highway. A very smooth curve will require
a very high design speed . In general, poor alignments are normally a
result of wrong choice in design speed . Nowadays, however, design speeds
are designated for different types of roadways , from high - speed
expressways to low -speed feeder or barangay roads. The International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD) provides guidelines
on the use of appropriate design speed for various terrain and traffic
volume. Table 6.1 shows this guideline.
Table 6.1
Design speed for various road classes and terrain conditions
Average Terrain
Class Description annual
daily traffic Flat Rolling Mountainous
1 Farm to market 0 -50

( feeder roads)
2 Local collector 50- 400 60 60 40
3 Major collector 400- 1,000 80 80 50
4 Major highway 1 ,000- 2,000 80 80 60
5 Expressway > 2,000 100 100 70
Design speeds for feeder roads would range from 30 kph to 60 kph.
Source: Ministry of Public Highways 1979.
Whenever possible, a certain design speed must be maintained all

throughout the highway. However, if terrain condition or some obstructions
would not allow it, the design speed may be reduced by 10-20 kph at
adjacent sections.
6.2 . 2 Sight Distances

When designing for the alignment of the road , two types of sight
distance are normally checked for adequacy : stopping sight distance
(SSD) and passing sight distance (PSD).
Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle
traveling at the assumed running speed to stop safely before reaching a
stationary object in its path.
Speed
/
^
:<• >!< »5
d d2 Distance
Figure 6.1
Stopping sight distance
As shown in figure 6.1, SSD is composed of two distances:

a. dp distance traversed during perception plus brake reaction
time. Brake reaction time consists of perception time of about
1.5 seconds and action time of 1.0 second .
(6.1)
3.6
b . d 2 , distance required for stopping after brakes are applied ,
Short distance is required when negotiating an uphill. This is
taken care of by the sign of the gradient G.
6: Geometric Design of Highways 4il 177
v2 V
2
d = - or d = (6.2)
2g/ (3.6) 2 2g(3.6) 2 ( / ± G)
where — running speed kph ,
£- reaction time, sec

g - 9.8 m/sec2
/ — coefficient of friction (0.29 0.40) -
G - gradient (+ for uphill; - for downhill)

Minimum stopping sight distance is normally computed for wet
pavement condition . Table 6.2 serves as guide for computation of SSD
for different design speeds. For design speeds greater than or equal to
80 kph , the running speed is taken as 85 percent of the design speed.
For design speeds less than or equal to 30 kph, full value of the design
speed is assumed for running speed.
Table 6.2
SSD and f-values for different design speeds
Design speed, v (kph) 120 100 80 60 50 40 30 20
Running speed, kph 102 85 68 54 45 36 30 20

(% of v) 85 85 85 90 90 90 100 100
f - value 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.38 0.44 0.44
SSD, m 210 160 110 75 55 40 30 20
Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1984.
Passing sight distance

For two - lane highways , passing sight distance is the shortest
distance required for a vehicle to safely pull out of a traffic lane, pass a
vehicle traveling in the same direction , and return to the correct lane
without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic.
Along curves, this is the length of the road that must be visibly free of
obstructions in order to permit a vehicle moving at the design speed to
pass a slower moving vehicle.
178 {Sb Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Opposing veh. appears when

A passing veh. reaches pt. A
-'ll
&£ a:
<
{T ]>
>
id 2
>4
< 11 d2 4
Figure 6.2
Passing or overtaking maneuver
As shown in figure 6.2, PSD is composed of four distances:

a. dv distance traveled during perception and reaction time and
during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on
the left lane
at {2
,
d , V1
3.6 2
(6.3)
b. d 2, distance traveled while the overtaking vehicle occupies

any part of the left lane (opposing lane)
il vh .,t
d2 — 3.6
2 = 7.6 ~ 11.4 sec (6.4)
c . d3, distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its

maneuver and the opposing vehicle
d3 = 15 ~ 80 m (6.5)
d . d4, distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of
the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane
d = -d2 (6.6)
* 3
In many cases, it is very difficult to meet the full PSD requirement .

Table 6.3 shows the summary of PSD values for various design speeds.
Minimum PSD is often taken as the sum of d 2 + d . + dv Comparing
^
^
these values with SSD, the requirement for passing sight distance is about
two to three times that of SSD. While it is absolutely necessary to provide
SSD all the time, it will be very expensive to provide PSD all the time as
this would mean very gentle horizontal and vertical curves. In practice,
PSD should be provided in long sections of roads so that drivers will
have the opportunity to overtake one- third of the time.
Table 6.3
Passing sight distance values for different design speeds
v ( kph) 100 80 60 50 40 30 20
vo(kph) 80 60 45 37.5 30 20 15
a, m/sec 2 0.66 0.65 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.60
t ] 7 sec 4.5 4.2 3.7 3.4 3.1 3.1 2.7
d,< m 113 82 51 34 28 28 10
t 2 sec
/ 11.4 10.4 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.5 7.6
d2, m 317 231 159 125 95 95 42
dy m 80 60 40 30 25 25 15
d4 m. 211 154 106 81 63 63 28
Total PSD 700 550 350 250 200 150 100
Min. PSD 500 350 250 200 150 100 70
where v - velocity of passing and opposing vehicles equal to design speed

vo - velocity of overtaken vehicle
Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1984.
6.2 . 3 Minimum Radius of Curvature

Smooth -flowing curves are often preferred when designing
highways. However, the cost of providing such curves may be too
prohibitive. Existing structures or terrain may prevent the designer from
providing gentle curves . It is therefore necessary to determine the
minimum radius of curvature that may be required for any given desired
speed .
180
2
<§) W V
g R
e
1
Section A -A
W
Figure 6.3
Vehicle negotiating a curve and forces acting on it
Considering all the forces acting on the vehicle when negotiating a

horizontal curve (figure 6.3) , it can be shown that the required minimum
radius of curvature is given by
2
V
nun (6.7)
127 ( e + / )
where v — design speed, kph

e — superelevation
/ — side friction
Table 6.4 provides the values of / for different design speeds. Values
may be interpolated depending on the design speed used.
Table 6.4
Values of side friction f
Design speed, kph 48 64 80 96 104 112 120 128
Side friction , f 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.130 13 0.12 0.11 0.11
Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1984 .
6.2.4 Superelevation
Banking or superelevation is necessary to counteract the centrifugal
force that is acting on the vehicle. The value of maximum superelevation
e may range from 6 percent to 12 percent.
6: Geometric Design of Highways 181
Depending on the terrain of the area where the highway will

traverse, superelevation can be attained by any of the following methods
(figure 6.4):
Normal Tangent Length of runoff Fully superelevated

crown
4
runout ^ >^
curve
o
CL
i
Profle control
A B C D E
a . Pavement revolved about the centerline
Normal Tangent Length of runoff Fully superelevated

crown
>^ ^ >^
runout curve
o
CL
~
CL'
i
\ Profile control
A B C D inside edge
b . Pavement revolved about the inner edge of the pavement
c . Pavement revolved about the outside edge
Figure 6.4
Methods of attaining superelevation
6.2.5 Design Volume

In designing roads , the 30th highest peak hour volume has been
found to be the most reasonable hourly volume that provides the best
result (see figure 6.5). The 30th hourly volume is exceeded only twenty -
nine times in a year. Beyond this value on the right , the distribution of
hourly volumes is relatively flat . Another characteristic of this 30th hourly
volume is that its value as a percentage of AADT does not vary much
over the years. Depending on the type of highways, the value of K may
range from 7 percent to 15 percent.
% of AADT
30th hourly volume arranged from

highest to lowest
Figure 6.5
The 30th hourly volume
Normally, highways do not have balanced flow in both directions

during peak hours. One direction is usually heavier than the other. It is
therefore necessary to consider the direction of heavier flow for design .
The directional distribution D, is defined as the percentage of the heavier
volume over the total highway volume. This directional distribution is
relevant only when designing or analyzing highways with two or more
lanes in one direction. For two-lane or three-lane, two-way highways, the
directional distribution is not considered. In the case of two-lane, two-
6: Geometric Design of Highways fli 183
way highways, the heavier movement will tend to use the other direction
for overtaking. For three-lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement
will tend to occupy the extra third lane.
Given the AADT, the design hourly volume is computed as follows:
DDHV = AADT* K* D ( for multilane highways ) (6.8)
or
DHV = AADT* K (for 2-lane or 3-lane, 2-way highways ) (6.9)
where DDHV — directional design hour volume
DHV - design hourly volume
AADT - average annual daily traffic
K - proportion of daily traffic occurring during peak hour,
expressed as a decimal
D - proportion of peak - hour traffic traveling in the peak
direction , expressed as a decimal
6.2 .6 Number of Lanes
The basic task in designing highways is the determination of the
number of lanes needed to meet the given design volume under a
specified level of service.
The procedure may follow trial and error. Initially the number of
lanes is assumed. With this assumption, the corresponding capacity is
obtained from lookup tables. If the desired level of service is known,
then its corresponding volume/ capacity ratio will be known . This v / c
ratio should be greater than the value of the ratio of the design hourly
volume over the estimated capacity. If the inequality is satisfied , then
the assumed number of lanes is okay; otherwise it is modified depending
on the result of the initial computations. In some cases, correction factors
are applied that would reduce the capacity if some substandard values
(width of lane, presence of gradient , etc.) deviate from the ideal ones.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on
basic capacity for various road types in tables 6.5a and 6.5b.
Table 6.5 a
Basic capacities for highways and urban streets
Basic hourly capacity in

Road type Carriageway width, m Roadside friction
pcu in both directions
Highway < 4.0 None or light 600

4.1 - 5.0 None or light 1,200
5.1 - 5.5 None or light 1,800
5.6 - 6.1 None or light 1,900
6.2 - 6.5 None or light 2,000
6.6 - 7.3 None or light 2,400
2 x 7.0 None or light 7,200 (expressway)
Urban street ~ 6.0 Heavy 1,200

6.1 - 6.5 Heavy 1,600
6.6 - 7.3 Heavy 1,800
2 x 7.0 Heavy 6,700
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Highways 1982.
For multilane highways in flat terrain , such as expressways, the

lane capacities (if lane width is at least 3.5 m) are estimated as follows:
Table 6.5b
Basic capacity for multilane highways
No. of lanes per direction 2 3 4
Hourly capacity, pcu/lane 1,800 1,750 1,700
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Highways 1982.
Example 6.1
A proposed highway is to be designed with adequate shoulder and
clearance in a level terrain with the following:
AADT = 40,000 pcu /day
D% = 65%
K = 9%
Estimate the number of lanes that will provide LOS B.

Solution:
Try a two-lane, two-way:
v. 40000 x 0.09
c 2400
= 1.5 (LOS F from table 3.2)
Try a four-lane, two-way:
v. 40000 x 0.09 x 0.65

c 2 x 1800
= 0.65 ( LOS C)
Try a six-lane, two-way:
v. 40000 x 0.09 x 0.65

c 3 x 1750
= 0.44 OK
A six-lane, two-way highway is needed to provide LOS B.

It must be noted in the previous example that the design volume
( AADT) is already given in terms of pcu. If the traffic volume provided is
in mixed type, passenger car equivalent factors (PCEFs) have to be applied
to obtain the volume in pcu. The reader is advised to refer to the PHPM
for the details of these PCEFs. Also, the procedure discussed in the PHPM
( which was used in the previous example) is slightly different from the
procedure in the US HCM . Both methods have capacities in pcu but in
the PHPM , the design volume in mixed vehicles is converted to pcu for
the calculation of v /c ratio while in the US HCM , mixed vehicles are
retained but the value of capacity is modified or converted to mixed
vehicles by applying reduction factor due to heavy vehicles. The v / c
ratio, therefore, is computed based on volume and capacity having the
same unit of mixed vehicles.
6.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
6.3.1 Circular Curve

For large radius (as in railroad practice), distances along the arc
are considered to be the same as along the chords.
186 ISk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
For highways, usually the distances are considered to be along the

arcs, and the corresponding chord lengths are computed for measurement
in the field.
Sharpness of curve
The so-called sharpness of curve can be expressed by using two
measurements:
a. Radius, R
b . Degree of curvature, D°
Furthermore, two definitions are used. The arc definition is the one
being followed in highway practice while the chord definition is used for
railroad practice. Figure 6.6 shows the relations of R and D° for both
definitions.
Arc definition Chord definition

R = 1145.92/D0 R = 10/sin( D°/2)
Figure 6.6
Arc and chord definitions
Stationing
In metric system, the length l used is 20 m for both arc and chord
definitions. In English system, the length l used is 100 ft for both arc and
chord definitions.
i
Example 6.2
Rewrite the following in station notations:
a. Stake located 10,682.325 m from beginning
b. Stake located 2,345.21 ft from beginning
Solution:
a. For metric system, Sta. 10 + 682.325
b . For English system, Sta. 23 + 45.21
Simple curve
Simple curve is defined as a circular arc between two tangents
(figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7
The simple curve
The following notations are used for a simple curve:

PI : point of intersection of two tangents
PC : point of curvature or beginning of curve
PT: point of tangency or end of curve
A: external angle of deflection between tangents

T: tangent distance
L \ long chord connecting PC and PT
E : external distance
M : middle ordinate
L : length of curve from PC to PT
R : radius of curve
From the geometry of the simple curve, the following elements can
be derived :
T = /?tan(zl/2) (6.10a )
L = 2/?sin(zl/2) (6.10b )
E = l?[sec( 4/2) - 1]
/ (6.10c )
M = /?[1 - cos(zl/2)] (6.10d )
The length of curve can be computed by ratio and proportion as
follows:
Using the degree of curvature D° :
LH = AID° (6.11a )
where / is one full station
Or by using the radius R:
L/ A° = 2 ^/360° (6.11b )
Example 6.3
Bushes grow near a two-lane highway circular curve with R = 160
m ( measured from centerline of the highway). Minimum stopping sight
distance is 150 m . Total width of pavement is 7.0 m. How near from the
edge of the pavement can you allow the bushes to grow ?
Solution:
Using equation 6.11b:
L/ A° = 2 ^R/360°
With L = 150 m and R = 160 - 1.75 = 158.25 m
150Ad° = 2;z(158.25)/360o
or A° = 54.31°
From the figure, M = 158.25 (1 - cos 54.31/2) = 17.44 m
Therefore, the distance of bush from edge of pavement should be
at least
Af -1.75 = 17.44 - 1.75 = 15.69 m

in order to provide a stopping sight distance of 150 m
Computations of stationing:
The stationing of PC can be obtained by working backward; i.e.,
after obtaining the tangent distance 7\ it is deducted from the stationing
of PI:
Sta. PC = Sta. PI —T (6.12)
The stationing of PT can be obtained by adding the length of curve
L to the value of Sta . PC, or
Sta. PT = Sta PC + L (6.13)
6.3.2 Compound Curve

This is defined as a two-arc simple curve having its centers on the
same side of the common tangent (figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8
The compound curve
The elements of a compound curve can be computed depending

on the given information. If Sta. PI, Av A2 , Rv and R2 are known , then
the solution will be the same as that of two simple curves. The compound
curve has seven important parts: Tv T 2, Av A2, Rv /?2, and A. However,
A = Ax+ A2 ; therefore there are only six independent variables: four lengths
and two angles. For rigid solution, four parts must be known, including
at least one angle and at least two lengths.
6.3.3 Reverse Curve

A reverse curve is a two-arc simple curve having its centers on
opposite sides (figure 6.9). This type of curve is usually inadmissible on
high -speed routes because superelevation at the point of reversal cannot
be provided.
Two types of reverse curve may be employed if speed is not critical.

The first type is the case of having parallel tangents as shown in figure
6.9.
Figure 6.9
Reverse curve with parallel tangents
The elements of a reverse curve having parallel tangents are

computed:
p= AE + FB = Rx( l - coszl) + R ( 1 - coszl) = ( Rx + R ) (1 —
2 2
coszl)
AD = EC + CF = /? jsinzl + R sinA = ( Rx + R ) sinzl
2 2
Usually, p is known and two or more variables must be assumed.

Example 6.4
Find the flattest common - radius reverse curve (equal radii ) that
can be inserted between parallel tangents 35 m apart without the distance
AD exceeding 250 m.
Solution:
p = ( /? j + R2 ) (1 - coszl) = 2/?( l - coszl) = 35 m
AD = (R { + R2 ) sinzl = 2 R sinzl = 250 m
or
1- cosA 35
sin d / 250
Solving for A:
A = 16°
And , therefore:
250
R= = 453.5 m
2 sin16°
The other type of reverse curve is the case of nonparallel tangents
as shown in figure 6.10. The solution is similar to that of compound
curves.
Figure 6.10
Reverse curve with nonparallel tangents
6.3. 4 Broken Back Curve

A broken back curve is characterized by a short tangent between
two curves in the same direction (figure 6.11). This type of curve should
be avoided in design since most drivers do not expect succeeding curves
to be in the same direction.
Short
tangent
Figure 6.11
Broken back curve
Example 6.5
The broken back curve shown is to be replaced by a compound
curve with R2 = 1.8 Rv
45 m
30° \ \
20°
J?/s
\
'K O
A
Determine:
a. new values of radii
b . new values of tangents
Solution:
250 45 350 \
T, = 250 m
T2 = 350 m
a = 45 m
For the compound curve:

Let m - new tangent of curve 1
n — new tangent of curve 2
m + n = T } + a + T 2 = 645 m
tanl 5 = — ; m = R ] tan 15
«^2
tan 10 = - -; n = R9 tan 10
m+n =R }
tan 15 + R2 tan 10 = 645
With R2 = 1.8Rx
R } (tan 15 + 1.8 tan 10) = 645
Rl = 645/(tan 15 + 1.8 tan 10)
R.I =1101.928 m
R2 = 1.8/?, = 1.8 x 1101.928 = 1983.470 m
New values of tangents:
m = Rl tan 15 = 1101.928 tan 15 = 295.261 m
n = R2 tan 10 = 1983.470 tan 10 = 349.739 m
6.3.5 Easement Curve or Clothoid
An easement curve or clothoid is usually a spiral that serves as a
transition path as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve (figure
6.12). This type of curve follows a natural path as the driver turns the
steering wheel.
x
TS
*y
y
v ' sc
*c
Figure 6.12 /
Clothoid or easement curve
One property of the clothoid is that its curvature increases in

proportion to the length of curve, or
l/R = kl or Rl = 1/k (6.14)
where R - radius of curve
/ — length of curve
k - a constant
to be dimensionally correct , let A 2 = 1/ k ( A is called the clothoid

parameter).
From this property:

R/ Rc = 1s /lorR = lRll
s c
(6.15)
where / s is the length of clothoid and R is the radius of the circular
curve.
Also,
dl
dG = — (6.16)
R
Hence
Idl
de = (6.17)
lA
Integrating:
/2 K
e= and °
c (6.18)
2I A A
For dx and dy\
dx - dl cos 0 (6.19)
dy = dl sin 6 (6.20)
Substituting the expansions of cos 9 and sin ft
dx — dl (1 - — + - ...) (6.21)
2! 4!
ft 3 ft 5
dy = dl ( 9 - (6.22)
3! 5!
Substituting the value of ft
Z4
— X -
dx dl (1 + )
8l 2 F
l2 l6
dy = dl {
l AJ -
+ )
'
2 A 48
Integrating:
z 4 - + higher ordered terms
x=l — 8l s R ]
2 (6.23)
l3 Z7
7= + higher ordered terms
And
6 lsRc 3361* R* ^ 24)
X = l,(1 Is ) (6.25)
40 R 2 :
( omitting the higher ordered terms .)
r = zf (1- if / 56 )
(6.26)
6« c
Elements of symmetrical clothoid
Figure 6.13 shows a symmetrical clothoid , i.e., a circular curve
having two clothoids at each end serving as transition paths. The two
clothoids have exactly the same properties.
Tc
hi
Xm W
H
TS
\
Y
Nc
Sc
R = oo Lc AR
Cs
e
a
e
ST
A<b
Figure 6.13
Symmetrical clothoid
Xm = X - Rc sin e
AR = Y + Rc cos 6 — Rc
W = ( Rc + AR ) x tan —2
Tc = X m + W
(6.27)
Nc = T
cos —2
a = x - 2 6c
k = Rrna
180
For good design , Zs « L . Also, clothoid is necessary when AR >
0.2 m .
Standards for the length of clothoid
1. Based on travel time (enough time for reaction )
l 5
3 sec travel time (6.28)
2 . Based on rate of change of acceleration , p:
a= —
Is
V
a
P =-
t Ms
therefore:
i v
(6.29)
KP
Equation 6.29 is also known as the Shortt’s formula.
Range of values of p :
p = 0.35-0.50 m/sec3 for expressways
p = 0.60-0.75 m/sec3 for rural and urban highways
3. Based on aesthetics
The longitudinal gradient of the superelevation runoff should not
exceed 1/200.
w
Is
j1 h <- w/2 -> *

h
200
Longitudinal section
center
line
*
100
ls ~_ 200 ; ls = 200 h e h h=
— ;h
exw
h 1 100 w/2 200
Therefore, ls = e x w (e in % )
Example 6.6
Given: design speed = 100 kph (/ = 0.13)
p - 0.4 m/sec 3
Sta. PI = 5 + 105.000
Road width = 14.0 m (4-lane, 2-way)
Normal crown = 1.5%
Intersection angle = 27°
Design the section of highway.
Solution:
Assume e = 3.5%
2
V 1002
R min
127( e + / ) 127( 0.035 + .13)
= 477.21 say 480 m
For the length of clothoid:

a . Based on 3 sec travel time:
100
K = 1.2 = 83.33 m
b . Based on riding comfort:
3
V 1003
K = 46.656 Rcp 46.656 ( 480 )( 0.4 )
= 111.633 m
c. Based on aesthetics:
= 100 x e x w = 100 x 0.035 x 14 = 49 m

ls
Therefore, Zs = 111.633 m, say 112 m
Is 112
= 0.117 radians or 6.68°
2 Rc 2( 480 )
Checking if clothoid is required:
i] 112 1122
Y= 1 = 4.351 m
6 Rc 56 R 2 /
C
6( 480 ) 56(480) 2
A R = Y + R cos 6 C C
- R = 4.351 + 480 cos ('6.68) - 480 = 1.088
C /
Therefore, provide clothoid.

a= T - 2 9c = 27 - 2 x 6.68 = 13.631°
Length of curve:
—
Lc = Rca 180 = 480 x 13.631 x 180 = 114.194 m —
L and ls are almost equal. Okay. (Otherwise, assume another e. )
Computing for the final superelevation:

1002 - 0.13 = 0.034 or 3.4%
^ final 127( 480 )
The other elements of the symmetrical clothoid can be obtained

from the set of formulas given by equation 6.27.
6.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Parabolic vertical curve has been used to design the profile of

highways. It has properties that make it easy for laying out the alignment
of a roadway in the field .
6.4.1 Properties of Parabolic Vertical Curves
a . The rate of change of grade on a vertical curve is constant .
Consider the general equation of the parabolic curve:

y - ay? + bx + c ; (6.30)
where a, b, and c are constants.
The first derivative dy / dx is the change of grade. The second
derivative gives the rate of change of grade:
d2y
dx 2
— —
2a constant
b . Tangents drawn from any two points on a vertical axis parabola

always intersect midway between the points of tangency.
6: Geometric Design of Highways
^ 201
L
4
*
4
c . Vertical offsets from a tangent to a parabola are proportional to

the squares of the distances from the point of tangency.
x2
hx = kx *\ h2 = kx 22
d . If a tangent to the parabola is drawn between the main tangents,
the horizontal projection of the intercept cut off on this new
tangent by the main tangents is equal to one - half of the
horizontal projection of the long chord of the parabola.
6.4.2 Types of Vertical Curves

There are two types of vertical curves: crest and sag curves. Figure
6.14 shows some examples.
Figure 6.14
Types of vertical curves
6.4.3 General Equation of Vertical Curve

Consider the vertical curve of length L with gradients G { and Gr
The beginning and end of the curve are denoted by BVC and EVC ,
respectively. The point of intersection of the two gradient lines is denoted
by VPI. If the rectangular coordinates x and y are chosen arbitrarily as
shown , then Z?Bvr is the elevation of Sta. BVC (figure 6.15).
The equation will then be:
y = lA r x 2 + G ] x + E BVC (6.31)
where r = ( G — Gx )/ L
2
III M
L/ 2 L/2
4
* >
Gi
EVC
BVC
c2
E BVC
VPI
o x
Figure 6.15
Elements of vertical curve
Example 6.7
Given: Sta. VPI = 20 + 265.000; Elev. VPI = 40 m above sea level
Gx = 4.5%; G2 = -3.8%; L = 250 m
Compute the station and elevation of the highest point on the crest
vertical curve.
Solution:
Using equation 6.31:
y = I/2 rx2 + GJx -\- E BVC
G2 - G I - 0.038 - 0.045 - 0.083
r = L 250 250
,
Elev. BVC = Elev. VPI - C x - = 40 5.625 = 34.375
2
Substituting in equation 6.31:
1 (-0.083) 2
y= X + 0.045% + 34.375
2 250
Taking the first derivative and equating to 0 to get maxima:
2 = o = - 0.083 x + 0.045
dx 250
x = 135.542 m
Sta. BVC = Sta. VPI - U 2
= 20 + (265 - 125)
= 20 + 140
Station of highest point = 20 + (140 + 135.542) = 20 + 275.542
Elevation of highest point:
1 (-0.083)
y highest (135.542) 2 + 0.045 (135.542) + 34.375 = 37.425 m
2 250
6.4.4 Sight Distances at Vertical Curves

Two sight distances have been discussed in connection with
horizontal alignments: the stopping sight distance and the passing sight
distance . Similarly, these two sight distances are the major factors in
determining the required length of vertical curves.
In measuring sight distances, the following heights are assumed in
the development of standards:
a . For SSD, pertains to the driver’s eye height and h2 is the
height of the object ( hazard ) seen along the path of the vehicle.
I h
"
h
h, = 1.14 m (3.75 ft); h 2 = 15.24 cm (6 in)
Figure 6.16
Estimation of stopping sight distance
b . For PSD, h2 is taken as the height of the roof of the vehicle

coming in the opposite direction when the first vehicle initiates
its overtaking maneuver.
,
h = 1.14 m; h 2 = 1.37 m (4.5 ft)
Figure 6.17
Estimation of passing sight distance
6: Geometric Design of Highways fit 205
6.4.5 Sight Distances at Crest Vertical Curves

Given the requirements for sight distances ( tables 6.2 and 6.3),
the required length of the crest vertical curve may be obtained by
considering the following two cases:
a . The sight distance is shorter than the required length of curve
(figure 6.18).
AS 2
(6.32)
+ fih2
A
Line of sight
/
h2
h
C2
s
L
Figure 6.18
Sight distance less than length of curve
b . The sight distance is longer than the required length of curve

(figure 6.19).
L = 2S (6.33)
A
A
Line of sight
/
h2
h
S
G
L
Figure 6.19
Sight distance greater than length of curve
In sight distance formulas , A is used as a positive number ( in

decimals) equal to the change in gradient from G , to G2
6.4.6 Sight Distances at Sag Vertical Curves
Along an open highway, the length of sag vertical curves is usually
based on the length of the road illuminated by the headlight beam at
night . Likewise, two cases have to be considered.
a . Sight distance is shorter than the required length of curve (figure
6.20) .
AS 2
L= (6.34)
2(S tan /? + // ) ’
S <L
Q ;; H
s
L
Figure 6.20
Sight distance shorter than length of curve
b . Sight distance is longer than the required length of curve (figure

6.21) .
2( H + 5 tan J3 )
L = 2S - ; /? = r (6.35)
/1
S> L
p tr
L
Figure 6.21
Sight distance longer than length of curve
The determination of the required length of vertical curve may

follow a trial-and-error method . The designer may initially assume one
case. If the outcome of the computation using the specified equation is
consistent with the assumption, the computed length of curve is correct.
Otherwise, if the outcome contradicts the assumed case, the other equation
must be used .
Example 6.8
Given : Design speed = 80 kph
G{ = 2%; G2 = - 2%
Ss = 110 m
S = 550 m
Determine the length of vertical curve.
Solution:
For stopping sight distance requirement:
Assume S > L:
From equation 6.33,
~
L = 2S -
2( v7i + VM
A
with hx = 1.14 m and h2 - 0.15 m
4.26
L = 2S -
A
A= \- 0.02 - 0.02| = 0.04
4,26
= 113.5 > 110
L = 2(110) -
0.04
Assumption is incorrect. S should be less than L.
Using equation 6.32
AS 2 ( 0.04 )(110 ) 2
= 113.615 m. Okay.
yj 2 h ] +
^ 2 /^2 4.26
Therefore, to satisfy SSD , the length of vertical curve must be at

least 113.615 m.
For passing sight distance:
Assume L > S:
With /ij = 1.14 m and h2 = 1.37 m, equation 6.32 becomes
AS 2 ( 0.04)(550 ) 2
= 1,205.179 m
, fih
^/
2A + 2
10.04
The assumption is correct and the required length of curve is
1,205.179 m if PSD is to be satisfied. This is more than ten times the
required length for SSD. In actual design, it is almost impossible to provide
100 percent PSD throughout the whole stretch of highway. Good design
would provide PSD at least one- third of the time.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the number of lanes required to provide LOS B (v / c =

-
0.21 0.50) for the following cases:
a. Case 1: b . Case 2:
1 : T i : t
30 ,000 20 ,000 2,300 2 , 500
pcu / day pcu / day pcu / day pcu / day
III!1
PHF = 7% PHF = 15%
2. A two-lane, two-way highway has a volume-capacity ratio of 0.75
during peak hours. If AADT is expected to increase at a growth
rate of 1 percent per annum, when should the highway operate as
four-lane, two-way ? six-lane, two-way ? Peak hour factor is 10 percent
and directional distribution is 65 percent . ( Hint: Improve the
highway when volume-capacity ratio reaches 0.90.)
3. A two-lane, two -way highway has an AADT of 18,000 pcu / day.
The estimated traffic growth rate is 4.5 percent per year. Determine
the level of service at the end of 3, 5, 10 years. Will the highway be
6: Geometric Design of Highways & 209
adequate after 10 years ? When should the highway operate as

four-lane, two -way ? six-lane, two-way ? ( Assume PHF = 8 percent
and directional distribution of 65 percent ).
4. A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is designed with a 610 m
radius , 3.5 m lanes , and 80 kph design speed . Determine the
distance that must be cleared from the inside edge of the inner
lane to provide sufficient stopping sight distance. ( Note: Curve
radius is typically reckoned from the centerline of the roadway,
and driver location is assumed to be at the middle of the traveled
lane .)
5. A section of a two-lane highway ( 7 m wide) on a horizontal curve as
shown has a posted speed limit of 80 kph .
Sta. 2 + 000
5.5 m
Sight
>
obstruction
-
Sta. 2 + 510
A recent daytime accident involved a driver traveling along the

inner lane and striking a stationary object in his path . The accident
resulted in a fatality and a lawsuit , alleging that the posted 80 kph
speed limit was unsafe for the curve in question . Evaluate and
comment on the road design (assuming that there is no problem
with the vertical alignment). Intersection angle, D = 80°.
6. For the compound curve in figure 6.8, if Ar A , Tv
2
and R2 are
known , find T ] and /? , .
7. A reverse curve is to be inserted between parallel tangents 50 m
apart with AD = 350 m and R2 = 1.5/? , . Determine /? , , /?2, and A.
8. Derive equation 6.7 for the minimum radius of curvature.
9. Determine the length of tangent runout and length of runoff for a
four-lane highway if the pavement is revolved about the centerline
in order to achieve fully superelevated cross section .
Maximum allowable longitudinal gradient is 1/200.

Superlevation = 8%
Total carriageway width = 13 m (6.5 m per direction)
Normal crown = 1.5%
10 . Given: Design speed = 100 kph; emax = 6%; p - 0.5 m/sec3
Sta. PI at 200 + 100.000 and A = 20°
a . Determine the parameter A for the symmetrical clothoid.
b . Determine the stationing of TS, SC, CS, and ST.
c . Draw l / R from station TS to ST.
11 . A section of a two- lane, two-way highway (2 @ 3.5 m) is to be

designed with a circular curve with transition (clothoid ). The design
requirements are the following:
Design speed: 60 kph
Intersection angle: 40°
Superelevation rate: 7 %
Rate of change of acceleration: 0.5 m/sec3
Longitudinal gradient of superelevation runoff: 1/200
Determine the following:
a. Radius of the circular curve
b . Length of clothoid
12 . Show that tangents drawn from any two points on a vertical axis
parabola always intersect midway between the points of tangency.
13. Show that
L = 2S - 2(
^ ^
Jh + Jh
for crest vertical curves with S > L.
)2 / A
14. Show that
\ AS 2
L=
2( S tan J0 + H )
for sag vertical curves with S < L

15. A new road is being proposed to intersect an existing highway at
location P. Determine the length of vertical curve of the new road.
G { = - 4%; G2 = 2%; Sta. P = 5 + 850.000; Elev. P 200 m; Sta.
=
BVC = 5 + 680.000; Elev. BVC = 205 m
16. A 1.5 km straight tunnel is being constructed with work beginning

at both ends. Unfortunately, due to an engineering mistake, it will
not meet at the center. This would require a change in the vertical
alignment ( horizontal alignment is okay). The most efficient vertical
design will use the horizontal distance in the profile view. Design
the connection using the highest common speed possible.
190 m
REFERENCES
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 1984.

A policy on geometric design of highways and streets. Washington,
D.C .
Hickerson , Thomas Felix . 1964. Route location and design . Fifth ed .
McGraw - Hill Co.
Mannering, Fred L., and Walter P. Kilareski. 1990. Principles of highway -

engineering and traffic analysis . New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Ministry of Public Highways 1979. Highway Design, BCEOM (Third IBRD
Highway Project-Technical Assistance Services), Manila .
Planning Service, Ministry of Public Works and Highways. 1982. The
Philippine highway planning manual . Vol. 2. Manila .
National Research Council .
Transport Training Center. 1983. Course notes on transportation and traffic
technology. University of the Philippines.
Wright , Paul H., and Radnor J . Paquette. 1987. Highway engineering.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
I
7
m\> m m TMHK mmMAWM
7.1 INTRODUCTION
0 ne undesirable reality that comes with development is the increase

in traffic accidents concomitant with increased motorization and
infrastructure. Every year, worldwide, at least one million people are
killed on the road , 70 percent of whom are from countries classified by
the World Bank as low- or middle- income. This apparently worse scenario
among developing countries, like the Philippines, may be explained in
that priorities are geared toward infrastructure development , improving
mobility, and addressing the need for a better public transportation system .
Conscious efforts to ensure road safety then take a back seat .
7.2 ASSESSMENT OF ROAD SAFETY
The state of road safety of a country or a region is normally gauged

by the frequency of accident occurrence. Key indicators are the number
of accidents (fatal, injured , or property damage) and the rates of accidents.
For comparison studies, the rates are normally used instead of the actual
numbers.
7.2.1 Accident per Population

One measure of accident rate is per 100,000 population . For
instance, if a town , city, or region has N accident occurrences in one
year and has a population P, then
N
Anp = —P x 100,000 ( 7.1)
Example 7.1
A town has a population of 350,000 in 2005. In the same year, the
number of accidents was 620. Determine the accident rate.
Solution:
Using equation 7.1,
620
x 100,000 = 177 accidents per 100,000 population
350,000
7.2 . 2 Accident per Registered Vehicles

Another measure of accident rate is per 10,000 registered vehicles.
Again, if there are N accidents in one year and the number of registered
vehicles for the same year is F, then
N
Av = —V x 10,000 (7.2)
Example 7.2
The town in example 7.1 has 122,400 registered vehicles in 2005.
Determine the accident rate per registered vehicles.
Solution:
From equation 7.2 ,
N 620
Av = —y
V
x 10,000 = AVV = 122,400 X 10,000
= 51 accidents per 10,000 vehicles
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis rfSk 215
Example 7.3
Given the number of accidents , population , and . number of
registered number of vehicles for each region in the Philippines, the
accident rates are computed and shown in table 7.1. Most number of
accidents ( 72.44 percent) occurred in the National Capital Region ( NCR)
or Metro Manila. In terms of rate per population, Metro Manila still has
the highest rate, followed in distant second by Region 10 ( Northern
Mindanao). However, in terms of rate per registered vehicle, Region 10
has the highest, followed by Metro Manila. It is recognized that the level
or accuracy of reporting traffic accidents varies from region to region.
Table 7.1
Distribution of accidents by region
Population Accident Accidents

No. of Vehicle
('000) per per
Region accidents % registration 10,000
( 1999) as of May 100,000 ( 1999 )
2000 population veh.
registration
NCR 10,595 72.44 10,492 100.98 1,271,227 83.34

CAR 299 2.04 1,352 22.12 45,004 66.44
1 Ilocos Region 27 0.18 4,174 0.65 177,129 1.52
2 Cagayan Valley 55 0.38 2,756 2.00 11 2,660 4.88
3 Central Luzon 328 2.24 7,797 4.21 415,090 7.90
4 Southern Tagalog 91 0.62 11,321 0.80 458,621 1.98
5 Bicol Region 672 4.59 4,629 14.52 92,315 72.79
6 Western Visayas 101 0.69 6,147 1.64 190,461 5.30
7 Central Visayas 267 1.83 5,404 4.94 277,509 9.62
8 Eastern Visayas 252 1.72 3,589 7.02 65,305 38.59
9 Western Mindanao 429 2.93 3,045 14.09 83,783 51.20
10 Northern Mindanao 690 4.72 2,276 30.32 79,206 87.11
11 Southern Mindanao 118 0.81 2,601 4.54 170,132 6.94
12 Central Mindanao 433 2.96 2,494 17.36 61,466 70.45
13 ARMM 268 1.83 2,076 12.91 33,824 79.23
Total 14,625 27.56 70,153 20.85 3,533,732 41.39
— —
Sources: Number of accidents TMG/PNP;Population and vehicle registration 2000 Philippine statistical yearbook.
7.2 .3 Accident Definition

The UN Organization (Geneva) defines traffic death as that which
occurs within thirty days of the event, i .e., a road accident victim who
died within thirty days of the incident is still considered a casualty of the
accident. The Philippines defines fatality as “ death at the scene.” Serious
injury and slight injury are defined based on the extent of injury sustained
and the length of time required by the injured to recover. However, there
is no exact definition of the seriousness of the injury. Property damage-
only accidents involve vehicles colliding with publicly or privately owned
structures, equipment , and facilities located by the road . It also includes
collision of vehicles with other vehicles without causing physical injury
to the driver, passenger, or any pedestrian.
7.2 . 4 Road Accident Reporting

There are no specific steps in accident reporting in the country. In
many cases, the accidents reported to hospitals are referred to the medico-
legal department of the hospital , with the local policeman from the accident
site in attendance. In the absence of local police, the reporting of an
accident from the hospital to the police headquarters and to the PNP is
seldom done.
In Metro Manila, the Traffic Enforcement Unit is composed of three
to five investigators working round the clock by shifts. Each accident
case has a corresponding investigator from each reporting police station .
It is a common practice for each investigator to be responsible for keeping
the records of cases he or she has investigated, regardless of the type of
accident .
The TMG used to handle all cases of traffic accidents within Metro
Manila, but when the Traffic Enforcement Group (TEG) was formed , both
groups became involved in reporting and record keeping of traffic
accidents. Although the TEG is supposed to be responsible for reporting
traffic accidents while the TMG takes care of anticarnapping and
antihijacking campaigns, the functions of the two are still unclear as far
as traffic accident reporting is concerned .
The hospitals are usually the first ones to get involved with traffic
accident victims. The police are then informed by a call from the hospital .
At present , the practice of record keeping in hospitals varies considerably.
Most of the hospitals do this manually. The Department of Health intends
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis & 217
to promote an integrated hospital information system designed to

computerize medical records.
Several government projects on road safety are funded by
international organizations. One relevant project is the DPWH Sixth Road
Project ( C 08 Road Infrastructure Safety Project). One of the outputs of
I his Asian Development Bank ( ADB) funded project is the development
of a handbook on accident cost estimation and updating. Another ADB-
funded project implemented through the Metro Manila Development
Authority and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources
( DENR ) , the “ Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Project ,” has a
major component on road safety. It is interesting to note that both projects
have developed traffic accident database and analysis system . The Traffic
Accident Reporting and Analysis System or TARAS is housed at the
DPWH . The TARAS is composed of computer software and associated
procedures for recording and analyzing road accidents in the Philippines.
On the other hand , the Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis
System or MMARAS is the computer software being used by the MMDA.
The MMARAS is used for recording and analyzing road accidents in
Metro Manila. Although the proponents of the two projects may assert
that it is best to have two separate systems as they have different objectives
to meet , in the end , what matters most is whether the two systems can
give the overall picture of traffic safety in the Philippines. In the case of
the MMARAS, only fatal and serious injury accidents are considered for
reporting and analysis. This leaves the traffic investigation reports on
minor injury accidents and property - damage-only accidents on the
shelves of the different police districts in Metro Manila. If integration of
the two systems is not possible, at the very least coordination of tasks
between the two agencies concerned is absolutely necessary.
7.2 . 5 Present Situation
Most developed countries have been successful in reducing
accident rates, but the rates remain unchecked in many developing
countries. Relative to other countries, the Philippine accident rate of
about 6.0 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles appears to show a better image
of road safety condition . However, this figure may be misleading,
considering the high incidence of severe accidents that have been reported
in the newspapers. Are all these accidents accounted for ? Do we have a
good system of recording accidents? For what purposes are we compiling

accident records ? How are the data kept ? Are these data readily available
to traffic engineers and planners responsible for analysis and for improving
our transportation infrastructure ? The lack of definite answers to these
questions reflects how little priority is given to road safety.
When the Philippine situation is compared with that of other ASEAN
countries, again statistics may be deceiving and tend to make us
complacent about our situation . In reality, there is much discrepancy
between statistics and the actual situation.
7.2 .6 Key Socioeconomic Indicators
Three key socioeconomic indicators are used to assess a country’s
road safety condition:
a. Population
b . Gross domestic product (GDP)
c . Vehicle registration
Population and number of registered vehicles have been discussed

in sections 7.2 .1 and 7.2 . 2. Figure 7.1 shows the trends of these
socioeconomic indicators of the country. As of 2003, Philippine population
stood at about 80 million with a 2.2 percent annual growth rate. The GDP
Figure 7.1
Growth of population, GDP, and vehicle registration
1mi 1
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis 219
was also increasing at about 5.5 percent annually while the total number
of vehicles was fast increasing at the rate of 4.4 percent .
Given the growth rates in all the factors, which increase the potential
for road accidents, and based on the experience of most developing
countries with similar trends, it is highly likely that casualties on the
road should also increase over the years. However, this increase is not
reflected in the reported road traffic accident statistics as collected and
collated by the PNP. On the contrary, the trend in road accident deaths
appears to be decreasing as shown in figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2
Number of fatalities on the road as reported by the PNP and the health sector
Everyone ( including the PNP) recognizes the fact that because of

the different agencies involved and the different jurisdictions, there is a
serious problem in underreporting of traffic accidents by the police. An
efficient road accident data system is simply not yet available in the
Philippines. Moreover, hospital records are not reconciled with those of
the police. Figure 7.2 shows that within the same period , the estimates of
deaths due to vehicular accidents based on health statistics increased
while police data indicated a decreasing trend . Up to 1998, the health
sector used to compile statistics on deaths attributed to road traffic
accidents (data are available for 1970, 1980, 1990, and 1998). In 2003,
a UNICEF-funded study, entitled Philippine National Injury Survey, was
conducted. This study revealed the seriousness of underreporting of traffic
accidents in the country. Based on the study, about 9,000 fatalities could
be attributed to road traffic accidents in 2003. As a cause of injury
morbidity, road traffic accidents ranked first among other causes (fall,
injured/struck by objects, burn, animal bites, etc.). In terms of mortality,
the leading cause was infectious diseases ( 49 percent ) , followed by
noncommunicable diseases (17 percent ) and injuries (11 percent ).
However, as far as mortalities due to injuries are concerned , road traffic
accident was the leading cause (20 percent), followed by gunshot (17 percent),
stabbing (14 percent), etc.
For the same year (2003) , the police only reported about 900
fatalities. This problem of underreporting is expected to be more serious
for the other types of accidents, namely, injuries and property -damage-
only accidents.
Based on the study of traffic accident victims using 2001 hospital
data the very young people ( below fifteen years old ) were the most
vulnerable age group (figure 7.3), representing 36 percent of the country’s
total population . The number of fatalities for young people (fifteen to
thirty- nine years old) was also high, with more than 70 percent of them
being male.
Figure 7.4 clearly shows that the most vulnerable road user group
is the pedestrians. About 25 percent of the fatalities and 40 percent of
the seriously injured pedestrians are less than fifteen years old .
Fatal
Seriously
injured
Age group
Figure 7.3
Casualties by age group
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis fill 221
60
50
CD
40
W)
ra
£ 30
u Fatal
CD
Q
- 20 Seriously
injured
10
0 n MU
Cyclists Passenger Passenger Motor- Pedestrians Others
private public cyclists
Road user group
Figure 7.4
Vulnerable road user groups
Next to the pedestrian group, a growing concern is the motorcyclists.

Over the last three years, the number of motorcycles grew by 40 percent
per annum .
Among the causes of traffic accidents, the police cited driver’s error,
overspeeding, and overtaking as the major causes ( table 7.2).
Table 7.2
Causes/nature of traffic accidents ( 2003 )
Cause Number Freq %
Driver's error 4,222 25.72

Drunk driving 94 0.57
Mechanical defect 2,003 12.20
Overspeeding 2,908 17.71
Using cell phone 47 0.29
Road defect 783 4.77
Hit and run 673 4.10
Bad overtaking 2,042 12.44
Bad turning 1,543 9.40
Overloading 1,174 7.15
Self - accident 806 4.91
Others 123 0.75
TOTAL 16,418 100.00
Source: TMG 2005.
222 Sk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
7.2.7 Accidents at Intersections

As observed in other countries, intersections or junctions are also
normally the points of conflict in the Philippine transportation system.
Available data show that about one- third of accidents occurred at
intersections (figure 7.5). However, local studies on the occurrence of
accidents at intersections are very scarce, with hardly any reference on
the subject.
Intersections
il Bridge
Roadway
Shoulder
Service Road
Others
Source: TMG 2002.

Figure 7.5
Distribution of accidents by location (2000)
Table 7.3 shows the number of accidents involving fatalities in year

2000. Again the intersections accounted for the biggest share at 36 percent.
Table 7.3
Fatal accidents by location ( 2000)
Location No. of fatal accidents %
Intersections 698 35.78

Bridge 89 4.56
Roadway 432 22.14
Shoulder 308 15.79
Service road 412 21.12
Others 12 0.62
Total 1951 100
Source: TMG 2002 .
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis A 223
7.2 .8 Accident Rates for Intersections

When analyzing traffic accidents at intersections, the total entering
traffic volume usually in AADT is considered. Equation 7.3 is used to
compute the accident rate per million entering vehicles ( mev). The factor
of 1,000,000 is applied for convenience to obtain values of A . within two
to three digits.
1,000,000 X N (7.3)
4= 365 xTxV
where N — total number of accidents in time T

T - time frame of analysis, year
V - AADT or annual average daily traffic
Example 7.4
The T-intersection has 1,746 collision incidents over the last three
years. The annual daily traffic is shown in the figure below.
18,450
<
•
4628 2800
28,900
500
AADT
Determine the accident rate of the intersection.

Solution:
The total traffic entering the intersection is the sum of all the AADTs.
1=18450+ 4628+ 2800 +28900+500+ 780=56,058 vehicles per day.
Using equation 7.3,
1,000,000 x /V _ 1,000,000 x 1,746
4= 365 x T x V
~
365 x 3 x 56,058
= 28.4 accidents per mev
7.2.9 Accidents Rates for Road Sections

For segments of highways 1-2 km in length , accident rates are
computed based on total vehicle - kilometers of travel . Equation 7.4 is
used to compute the accident rate per 100 million vehicle- kilometers
(mvk ). Again the factor of 100 million is applied for convenience.
100,000,000 x /V
( 7.4)
365 x 71 xV x L
where N — total number of accidents in time T
T - time frame of analysis, year
V — AADT or annual average daily traffic
L — length of section in km
Example 7.5
A stretch of four-lane, two- way highway 5.0 km long has a traffic
volume of 35,000 vehicles per day. If for the last three years, the total
number of accidents recorded was 1,900, determine the accident rate
per 100 mvk .
Solution :
From equation 7.4,
100 ,000 ,000 x /V 100 ,000 ,000 x 1,900

A, =
365 x T x V x L 365 x 3 x 35,000 x 5
= 991.5 accidents per 100 mvk
7.2 .10 Accidents by Time of Day
It is very alarming that most traffic accidents occurred during
nighttime (see figure 7.6) . There may be other contributing factors, but
the major ones could be ( a) inadequacy of street lighting, ( b) lack of
warning devices, and (c) complete disregard of traffic signals during late
night or early morning. Driver factor again plays a big part , e.g., falling
asleep, practice of using blinding head lights, drunkenness occurring
more at night due to parties, reduced visibility due to smoke- belchers,
and even occurrence of night blindness among malnourished drivers.
2500
Time %
0-3 am 33.08
2000 ! 3 -6 15.77
6-9 4.73
1500 9-12 nn 2.32
12-3 1.01
&
c 3 -6 1.87
3cr 1000 6-9 6.57
o> 9-12 mn 34.66
LI - Total 100.00
500
o ;
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 2 2 2 3 2 4
Time of day
Source: TMG 2002.
Figure 7.6
Distribution of accidents by time of day ( year 2000)
7.3 IDENTIFYING HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS OR BLACKSPOTS
There are a number of methods in identifying blackspots or

hazardous locations. Three methods will be discussed , two of which are
based on statistics and the other based on a certain benchmark which is
set considering budgetary constraints.
7.3.1 Classic Statistical Method
The method assumes that the number of accidents at locations of
interest follows a standard normal probability distribution . The method
flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following inequality:
X : > X + KxS
i
(7.5)
where —
X . accident frequency or rate at location i
X mean frequency or rate for all locations under

consideration
K - constant corresponding to a certain level of
confidence
S - sample standard deviation for all locations
Table 7.4 provides a guide on the appropriate values of K for a

given level of confidence.
Table 7.4
Commonly used levels of confidence and K values
Level of confidence, % K values
90 1.282
95 1.645
99 2.327
Source: Institute of Transportation Engineers 2000.
Example 7.6
A highway section has an accident rate of 150 accidents per 100
mvk. If the mean accident rate for all sections is 55 per 100 mvk, and
the standard deviation is 26 per 100 mvk , should the section under
study be flagged as hazardous with 95 percent confidence ?
Solution :
Applying equation 7.5,
X;? X + K x S
150 ? 55 + 1.645 (26)
150 > 98
The section under study has to be flagged as hazardous at 95 percent
level of confidence.
7.3.2 Rate Quality Control Method
This is a variation of the classic statistical method . Instead of a
normal distribution , the method assumes that the number of accidents at
a set of locations follows a Poisson distribution. Also, the method applies
only to rates and not to frequencies. It compares the rate of a particular
location to the mean rate at similar locations rather than at all locations.
The method flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following
inequality:
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis
^ 227
—
>Y + Kx -
r°- \ 5
1
Yi V, 2V,
(7.6)
\ * /
where Y . - accident rate observed at location i
y - mean accident rate for all locations with

characteristics similar to those of location i
V - volume of traffic at location in the same units as the
accident rates are given
K — same as in classic method
Example 7.7
A section of road has 55 accidents recorded in three years. For the
same period , the estimated vehicle travel on the section was 23 mvk .
Considering only those sections having the same characteristics as the
section under study, the mean rate is 80 accidents per 100 mvk. Is the
section hazardous with 95 percent level of confidence?
Solution:
80
The mean accident rate Y 1i 8
100 — 80 accidents per mvk.
•
For the road section under study,

55
Y{ = —23 = 2.39 accidents per mvk
Using equation 7.6:

\ 0.5
0.80 1
2.39 ? 0.80 + 1.645 x
23 ; 2(23)
2.39 > 1.13
Therefore, with 95 percent level of confidence, the section is flagged
as hazardous.
7.3. 3 Setting Benchmark Method

The third method requires arranging all accidents involving
casualties from highest to lowest as shown in figure 7.7. When a certain
benchmark is set , say five times of the average number of accidents ,
then the places or locations with more accidents than this benchmark
will be considered as blackspots . Perhaps using this method is more
suitable for the country, especially when budget allocation for improving
hazardous locations is very limited .
Places that require attention (black spots)

>
ca
-
D
Wl
ra
u
c
“
a>
o
Number of accidents benchmark
u
u
CO
c
CD Places ranked in decreasing
JD
E no. of accidents
13
z
Figure 7.7
Extracting blackspots
7.4 RESPONSES TO SAFETY
7.4 .1 The Inter- agency Road Safety Committee and the National Road
Safety Committee
In response to the increasing concerns regarding road accidents
nationwide and cognizant of the need to coordinate efforts of concerned
government agencies and the private sector, the president of the
Philippines issued Administrative Order 222 in May 1992, creating the
Inter-agency Road Safety Committee (IRSC). The committee was chaired
by the secretary of Public Works and Highways and composed of top
officials of the Department of Transportation and Communications ( DOTC ),
Department of Education , Culture and Sports ( DECS) , Department of
National Defense ( DND) , Department of Health ( DOH ) , Department of
Interior and Local Government ( DILG), and the Safety Organization of
I lie Philippines Inc. (SOPI) as members. Technical support and advice

were provided to the IRSC by a technical working group (TWG), composed
of representatives of key planning and operation units of members
agencies. Since 1996, the DOTC has been given the responsibility to
coordinate all road safety activities in the country and was assigned the
chairmanship of the National Road Safety Committee ( NRSC ) , which in
effect replaced the IRSC.
7.4. 2 Agencies and Institutions Involved in Road Safety
The Department of Public Works and Highways is primarily
concerned with the planning, design, and operation of roads and roadside
facilities. In pursuing those functions, the DPWH requires data on road -
related factors of an accident like location of occurrences, road condition
of locations, and presence of road safety facilities. The ongoing 6th ADB
Road Project ( Road Safety Component) being carried out by the DPWH
covers major activities that are expected to boost road safety programs in
I he country. These are:
• interagency institutional arrangements including all aspects of

the current IRSC to ensure improved interagency cooperation,
taking into account the road safety provision of RA 8794;
• organizational review , including the identification of
deficiencies, existing legislations, and DPWH limitations;
• road safety promotion in the overall planning process;
• publication of road safety manual ;
• development of a traffic accident recording and analysis system ;
• adoption of safety audits;
• improvement of hazardous locations; and
• development of key performance indicators and monitoring
systems.
The Department of Transportation and Communications is the
primary government agency dealing with road transport industry,
particularly the planning and policy aspects. The DOTC heads the
National Road Safety Committee. NRSC is supposed to ensure the timely
and responsive implementation of policies and programs on transportation
safety. As far as road safety is concerned , a plan covering six aspects
( 6 Es ) has been developed : education , engineering , enforcement ,
enactment of laws, economics, and emergency services .
The Philippine National Police-Traffic Management Group and the

local police force have emerged as the main traffic law enforcement units
of the government. The TMG, besides being involved in safety education
programs, is responsible for the safekeeping of accident data .
The Land Transportation Office is in charge of driver licensing,
registration of motor vehicles, and the enforcement of transportation and
traffic laws. Recently, when the drug test for drivers became mandatory,
the LTO was tasked to accredit drug testing laboratories all over the country,
in line with the agency’s target that no drivers license shall be issued to
drug addicts or drug dependents. The LTO carries out a driver education
program with the assistance of Technical Skills Development Authority
(TESDA ) and in coordination with the Civil Service Commission to
educate drivers on traffic rules and regulations, as well as to develop
proper skills and behavior while driving. In the form of an outreach
program , the LTO visits schools , bus companies , private and public
organizations to conduct lectures to enhance road safety awareness. The
ongoing countrywide Motor Vehicle Inspection System/Smoke Emission
Testing Project tests motor vehicles for emission and safety standards.
Target results of the program are improved air quality, reduced accidents,
reduced fuel consumption , and reduced air-quality - related health
problems.
The Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board is a
quasijudicial agency mandated to rationalize, regulate , and supervise
motorized land- based public transport service.
The Metro Manila Development Authority has jurisdiction over the
delivery of basic urban services in Metro Manila, including land use
planning and zoning , traffic management , public safety, urban
development and renewal , and sanitation and waste management . It
performs planning, monitoring, and coordinating functions for services
that have metrowide impact and transcend political boundaries of the
sixteen cities and one municipality of the National Capital Region or
Metro Manila. Specifically it is responsible for coordinating and regulating
the implementation of all programs and projects concerning traffic
management . It is tasked to administer a single ticketing system and fix ,
impose, and collect fines and penalties for all kinds of violations of traffic
rules and regulations through its Traffic Operation Center.
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis fli 231
The Department of Health , the principal health agency in the

Philippines, is responsible for ensuring every Filipino’s access to basic
public health services through the provision of quality health care and
regulation of providers of health goods and services. Given the mandate,
the DOH is both a stakeholder in the health sector and a policy and
regulatory body for health. As a major player, the DOH is a technical
resource, a catalyzer for health policy, and a political sponsor and advocate
for health issues on behalf of the health sector.
The Department of Education ( DepEd) is the primary government
agency tasked to provide the school-age population with basic education.
It has been long proposed that traffic education be included in the high
school curriculum , but so far, a bill has yet to be discussed in the
legislature.
The University of the Philippines National Center for Transportation
Studies ( UP NCTS) plays a major role in human resource development in
the field of transportation. The center conducts training and research in
the fields of transportation planning, traffic engineering, and traffic
——
management. A number of subjects related to road safety road safety
programs , accident investigation , reporting, and analysis are offered
as part of the curriculum of the regular training programs for the
participants of traffic engineering course and traffic management for traffic
law enforcers course.
The Safety Organization of the Philippines Inc. (SOPI) is a private
organization operated by donations from private companies as well as
from government agencies. The activities of SOPI cover not only road
safety but also the prevention of any types of accidents. The month of
May is set by SOPI as the “ Road Safety Month ,” during which it conducts
road safety campaigns in cooperation with private companies and
government agencies. Aside from an annual national meeting on road
safety, SOPI issues booklets and other materials for road safety education.
The Automobile Association Philippines ( AAP), formerly the
Philippine Motor Association, is a private organization that has dedicated
itself to the promotion of motoring and to the service of the Philippine
motorists for more than half a century. This organization also serves the
needs of Philippine motorists worldwide through its affiliation with the
two most distinguished motoring federations in the world: the Alliance
Internationale de Tourisme and the Federation Internationale de

TAutomobile. Members of the association can avail themselves of a number
of privileges, such as twenty -four-hour roadside free towing services within
Metro Manila, discounted driving lessons, free motor vehicle registration
service, twenty -four- hour ambulance service at minimal cost , international
driving permit , and accident investigation assistance.
In the smallest administrative unit, which is called the barangay,
volunteers serve as traffic aides. They assist the traffic police in controlling
traffic at bottlenecks and in case of accident occurrence.
7.5 INITIATIVES ON ROAD SAFETY
Among the most recent initiatives that the government has

introduced are the following:
7.5.1 Imposing a Motor Vehicle Users Fee on Owners of All Types of
Motor Vehicles ( RA 8794 , 2000 )
Section 7 of RA 8794 provides, among others, that 7.5 percent of
all monies collected under this Act shall be allotted to and placed in the
special road safety fund under the DPWH. Also under the Act , a portion
of the special fund shall be apportioned to provincial and city governments
in accordance with the vehicle population and size of the road network
under their respective jurisdictions , and shall be used exclusively for
maintenance of local roads, traffic management , and road safety devices.
7.5. 2 Motor Vehicle Inspection System by the LTO
Inspection of motor vehicle is a prerequisite to vehicle registration,
with the objective of ensuring that the vehicle is in good condition .
Structural and safety components of the vehicle are officially examined .
7.5.3 Seat Belt Law ( RA 8750 )
The Seat Belt Law, passed in year 2000, requires installation of
and buckling up of seatbelts on front seats only of private vehicles. No
special requirements are stipulated for children . For public utility
jeepneys, only the driver and the passengers seated in seats facing forward
are required to wear seat belts. In the case of public utility buses, only
the driver, the passenger seated immediately behind the driver, and the
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis ® 233
passengers seated immediately behind the door of the bus are required
lo wear seat belts.
7.5. 4 Banning the Use of Cellular Phones and Handset Radios while
Operating or Driving a Motor Vehicle ( RA 7924 )
The use of cellular phones while driving has been banned within
Metro Manila since March 1997 because of its potential hazards to
motorists. Though still small in number, accidents that were primarily
attributed to using cellular phone while driving have occured.
7.5. 5 Other Initiatives
As mentioned earlier, the UNICEF Philippines conducted a study
on the reduction of incidence of childhood death and disability resulting
from preventable injuries in 2003. This study was similar to the first
project on Child Injury Prevention supported by the UNICEF in Vietnam.
'
The results of the study have confirmed the seriousness of the country’s
problem regarding road safety and the unreliability of data as provided
by the police.
7.6 ROAD SAFETY ISSUES
There is a need to stress the urgency of improving safety on our

roads. The following should be given priority in addressing the issue of
safety:
7.6 .1 Legislative
There seems to be a general consensus that majority of road
accidents are attributed to driver’s error. The government must not delay
implementing stronger driver licensing control and driver improvement
programs, the first step in weeding out undesirables on the road . The
licensing system in the Philippines is so lax that one does not have to
learn how to drive before getting a driver’s license. Driver licensing
requirements should be tied in with driver education.
There is an urgent need to reconvene the National Road Safety
Committee, which has not met for a long time. A more powerful national
safety committee is necessary to formulate action plans or develop agenda
toward reduction of traffic accidents in the country.
Campaigns prohibiting street children , vendors and the like on the

carriageway and sidewalk clearing of vendors must be continued .
Banning of dilapidated ( road unworthy) vehicles on the road must
be strictly enforced .
Overloading of passengers must be strictly prohibited .
The road right of way must be assigned for carriageway of the road
users, paths for pedestrians, for installation of appropriate traffic control
devices , etc . No commercial advertisements should be mounted or
installed within the road’s right of way as they compete for drivers’ attention .
7.6 . 2 Institutional
Availability of reliable data on accidents is key to understanding
how the transportation system works. However, without a systematic
method of accident data collection, processing, and analysis, the overall
picture of road safety in the Philippines remains obscure. The seemingly
rosy picture depicted by statistics must not make us complacent as these
cannot simply cover up for the failure of our transportation system
comprising the road , the driver, and the vehicle. There must be a
wholehearted commitment to improve traffic accident investigation ,
reporting, and analysis. While computer databases on traffic accidents
have been developed at the DPWH and the MMDA , integration of the
two is necessary. A more complete reporting of traffic accidents and better
use of accident records will prove very useful in planning preventive
activities. In particular, records from hospitals must be included to
minimize, if not to eliminate, underreporting of accidents. It is therefore
necessary to establish an integrated accident database incorporating
police and hospital reports. Figure 7.8 shows the structure of the proposed
integrated traffic accident data management system. This is possible only
if there is a very strong linkage between the police and the hospitals.
This may be achieved by undertaking a memorandum of agreement
between the DILG and the DOH .
Sustainability of the ongoing efforts in maintaining the accident
databases has to be strongly considered .
^ 235
Police reports 4 Health sector reports
f 1
DPWH MMDA PNCC DOH
( TARAS) (MMARAS ) others
1
UP NCTS
integrated database
1
NRSC
Accident annual
report
Figure 7.8
Proposed integrated traffic accident data management system
7.6 .3 Technical
As to the road environment , whatever changes in control or
geometric improvements applied to intersections or roadways bring about
significant change in accident occurrence and accident rates. Caution is
therefore advised when conducting test runs or experiments without prior
careful analysis. A trial-and -error method of solving traffic problem must
be avoided .
Since many accidents occur during nighttime , efforts must be
exerted to improve visibility at night . Placement of appropriate traffic
control devices (warning devices, delineators, reflectors, etc.) at hazardous
locations can help minimize accidents. Figure 7.9 shows a section of the
NLEX installed with traffic control devices.
Photo taken by the author
Figure 7.9
Gentle curve, guardrails, medians, adequate lighting help prevent traffic accidents
Improved uniform warning traffic signs and marking devices on all

roads must be applied ; rules must be written in a concise, readable way
and placed in prominent spots.
Along highways, guardrails and median barriers keep vehicles from
straying (in most cases unintentionally) into dangerous or off -limit areas.
Figure 7.10 shows an example of a W- beam guardrail and the New Jersey
median barrier. Guardrails must be used to prevent vehicles from veering
off a road into oncoming traffic , crashing against solid objects (like a
bridge pillar), or falling into a ravine. Guardrails and medians also keep
the vehicle upright while it is deflected along the barrier.
Some of the traffic calming measures may be adopted to improve
safety for pedestrians and bicyclists as well as improve the environment
for residents. Calming measures are now very common in Europe and in
u
m
VffiSlIlilSBlll
Figure 7.10
" it W -beam guardrails ( left) and New Jersey median barrier for narrow highways ( right)
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis ® 237
North America . According to the Institute of Transportation Engineers’

definition, traffic calming is a set of street designs and traffic rules that
slow and reduce traffic while encouraging walkers and cyclists to share
the street . Behind traffic calming is the belief that streets are valuable
public spaces that should be shared equally by all users. Traffic calming
devices are simple, inexpensive, self -enforcing, and easily modified to
accommodate emergency vehicles , garbage trucks, and buses. Traffic
calming has been widely used to reduce traffic accidents, increase the
safety and convenience for pedestrians and other nonmotorists, give more
space for children to play, eliminate noise and pollution , improve scenery,
provide neighborhood revitalization and stability, and reduce crime.
There have been a number of calming measures implemented
successfully, some of which are as follows:
a . Raising the surface of the street in certain spots — for example,
by installing speed humps (figure 7.11)
Figure 7.11
Speed humps
b . Adding fixtures around which motorists must drive such as —

landscaped islands or small roundabout in the middle of
intersections (figure 7.12)
Figure 7.12
Roundabout; smaller central islands are commonly used at residential areas
c. Narrowing the street , to give drivers the feeling that they’re in a

crowded place, which helps make them slow down
—
d . Totally or partially closing a street for example, by blocking
half the entrance to a side street so drivers cannot turn in , but
can still come out
Research on the area of traffic safety has not been given full attention
here in the country. But several questions need to be answered in order
to develop a better traffic safety program: Where are the high accident
locations? How many were killed and injured last year ? Where? When ?
.
i
How ?
Some of the more urgent topics for research are as follows:
a . Real causes of motor vehicle accidents, as differentiated from
circumstantial factors
b . Driver behavior and accidents (speeding, inattention , ignoring
traffic control devices, drunk driving, driving on drugs, failure
to “ buckle up,” etc.)
c . Relation of specific road and vehicle design elements to highway
safety
d . Monotony and fatigue problems in expressway driving or in

long- distance driving.
e . Developing improved means of communication from the
highway to the individual user and between drivers.
f. Estimation of cost of traffic accidents.
7.6.4 Education and Campaigns
There must be a continuing program to increase the level of
awareness on road safety. The program must include expanded and proper
use of all media. Safer pedestrian habits both through education and
control measures must be given importance. Figure 7.13 shows the
teaching modules intended for Grade 6 and fourth year high school levels.
Grade 6
A.Importance of Road Safety
- A1 Hazards on the Road
A2 Agony of Accidents
A3 Accidents are Preventable
.
B Safe Commute to and from School
B1 Pedestrian and Cyclists
TEACHING MODULE ON B2 Public Transportation
ROAD TRAFFIC SAFETY
B3 Private Vehicle and School Transport Services
FOP CHILDREN
G Traffic Accident-Free Leisure Time
. ..
f : " t:
4th Year HS
A Importance of Road Safety
Scooty d PNlippno
Motoring Joumalal
(SPMJ )
. A1 Hazards on the Road
A2 Agony of Accidents
A3 Accidents are Preventable
B. The Road, Vehicle, Safety, and You
B1 Road Safety Facilities and Traffic Signs
Soplombor 2004 B2 Safe Commute to and from School
B3 Vehicle Safety Features
.
UP National CM * (or Traruportolion Studio
.
FoundMion Inc ( UPNCTSFl )
B4 Defensive Driving
C Rules that Ensure Safety
Figure 7.13
Sample education materials (UP NCTSFI)
7.6.5 Sociocultural
It is a familiar saying that anyone who can drive in the Philippines
can drive anywhere in the world. It means experiencing driving on
Philippine roads is like going through the most challenging driving
situations. The prevalent mentality of Upuwede na yana mindset of 5
mediocrity and getting one’s way out of trouble , makes rules and
240
regulations practically useless. It is as if chaos is a better or more
acceptable state to be than having some order to things. Commuters wish
to get off at any point at their whim and fancy, and drivers of public
utility vehicles give in . Drivers themselves pick up passengers at any
point even if it means blocking a whole trail of vehicles behind them.
They do not observe the right of way but have their own habit of
—
“ ngusuan” that of sticking out their vehicle first so as to get ahead
first . The culture of corruption penetrates all sectors of society, not to
exclude traffic matters . Due to bribes or under- the- table transactions,
there are licensed drivers who are underage, illiterate, drug addicts, don’t
understand road rules or traffic signs , drive even when drunk , have bad
tempers, and use their guns at the slightest road quarrel or irritation .
7.7 COST OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
The present world scenario depicts that traffic accidents claim

approximately two human lives every minute . Besides causing prime
loss in terms of human lives , these occurrences also bring about
tremendous amount of wastage in terms of finances , property, time ,
resources, and services. Medical efforts alone geared toward the treatment
and needed rehabilitation of accident victims are obviously huge and
tedious. Investigation and litigation processes involved can also be very
taxing not only financially but also emotionally for the bereaved and
grieving family. A great amount of labor resources is likewise lost as
manpower is reduced due to absence from work for treatment or for
processing insurance claims , absence due to injuries with disabilities,
and actual loss of human assets due to deaths. In the Philippine setting,
just a single traffic accident can be peculiarly costly as it has a potential
to cause heavy traffic jams due to too much delay in the investigation
and rescue processes. This in turn causes additional losses for all the
other people affected .
While the problem of road safety is improving in developed
countries, the situation seems to be getting worse in developing ones
where priority is more focused on providing transportation infrastructure
geared toward improving mobility of people (Sigua 2000). The very high
growth rate of vehicles in developing countries has compounded the
problem of road safety. In the past ten years, the volume of vehicles in
the Philippines has more than doubled (1.88 million in 1992 and 4.19
million in 2002). Once merely a status symbol , owning a car has become
a necessity due to the inadequacy of public transportation services and
has contributed to the deterioration of the environment through pollution .
The lack of driver education and weak enforcement exacerbate the
situation . Overspeeding and complete disregard for and lax
implementation of traffic rules and regulations have contributed to the
rise of casualties on the road .
Life is considered most sacred , and there seems to be strong
disagreement whether to put monetary value on it or not . Some people
are uncomfortable or emotionally very reluctant to assess traffic accidents
involving human lives in terms of money. For while properties and finances
may be restored , human lives lost cannot . Putting a monetary value to
human life or to a fatal accident may be a topic for a heated debate but
the same lack of cost estimates leaves many, including the decision makers,
still groping in the dark .
But if it would create awareness of the worsening road safety
situation in our country alone , an estimation of the losses attributed to
traffic accidents is very well justified . Like the growing concern for the
environment , it is high time that the government takes action in promoting
safety on the road. If realistic estimates of the cost of losses can be made,
there is no reason why the government cannot take action in reducing it.
The estimate must truly reflect the actual worsening condition of our
roads as far as safety is concerned . While it is recognized that data gaps
exist , reasonable assumptions must be made as an initial attempt .
Improvement of the estimate can be done in the future as data become
readily available and collection efforts improve.
7.7 .1 Uses of Accident Cost Estimates
The reason for estimating accident costs may seem obvious but it
is seldom expressed explicitly. Costs are sometimes used for general
statements such as “ accidents in (country) are worth more than (so many)
( million dollars) per year,” or accidents are (so many percent of a country’s
GDP.) For such purposes, ballpark figures are sufficient as long as they
are of the right magnitude ( Andreassen 1988). Costs are also required
for assessing the value of improving a highway, installing traffic signals,
enforcing specific traffic laws, putting reflective plates on trucks, various
safety countermeasures, etc. When these are to be considered , a very
specific cost is required to determine the benefit .
242
The promotion of traffic safety contributes to improvement of the
welfare of society in two ways (OECD Report , 1981):
a . By avoiding accidents and accident consequences the losses
of resources caused by accidents are avoided as well.
b . By avoiding accidents and their social costs, resources can be
saved , which otherwise would be devoted to the relief of
accident consequences.
The first point includes the avoidance of production losses due to
the incapacity of accident victims, damage to capital goods, and traffic
congestion resulting from accidents.
The second point includes the avoidance of the following costs:
medical treatment of persons involved in accidents, repair of property
damage, police investigation, legal and court procedures, and insurance
administration. The resources saved can be used elsewhere to increase
welfare.
7.7.2 Approaches to Estimating Cost of Accidents
A number of methodologies to estimate the cost of accidents have
been introduced in the past , including the following:
a. Gross output / human capital method
b. Life insurance method
c. Court award method
d. Implicit public sector valuation method
e. Net Output Method
i
- t* . f. Value of risk change or willingness- to- pay method
LiU
These methods are documented by Alfaro, Chapuis , and Fabre
(1994); Jacobs (1995); and Babtie Ross Silcock and TRL (2003).
r "!
The life insurance method measures the valuation of risk associated
with road usage and is determined by the premiums that the driver
population is willing to pay. On the other hand , the court award method
is based on the actual compensation settlements awarded , which may be
influenced by the degree of negligence found . In the implicit public
sector valuation method , a set of implicit values is used to value human
lives.
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis fit 243
However, most of these estimation methods have been generally

discredited ( Babtie Ross Silcock and TRL 2003) . To date , the two
commonly accepted methods to estimate the economic cost of accidents
are as follows:
a . Gross output or human capital method . This approach focuses
on the economic consequences of a road accident , and usually
also includes a notional sum that reflects the pain, grief , and
suffering incurred by the persons involved and their family. It
is based on the idea that the value to society of avoiding a
death or injury is related to the potentially lost economic output
and resources.
b. Willingness- to- pay method. This is based on the amount that a
person is willing to pay to avoid an accident. This is a very
subjective measure that reflects individual preferences, values,
and perceptions of risk . It is extremely difficult to reliably
estimate and will vary significantly from person to person and
from place to place.
The willingness - to- pay method has become the preferred costing
method in many developed countries as it has been recognized as the
best way to measure the costing of accidents for the purpose of benefit-
cost analysis. Recognizing the difficulty of implementing this method in
developing countries due to its data requirements ( the method relies on
the completion of a complex questionnaire), the ADB publication Road
Safety Guidelines for the Asian and Pacific Region recommends the gross
output method . The guideline considers it as the appropriate method to
be used in developing countries because it relates more closely to direct
economic impacts and the practical measurable consequences of road
accidents. That is the approach used in this cost estimation , and the
detailed methodology for dealing with data gaps, underreporting, etc. is
in line with the guidance document provided to the author by the ADB.
7.7 .3 Determination of Cost Components
Consistent with the gross output method and the ADB guidelines,
the accident cost components can be grouped into five major cost
categories as shown in table 7.5:
Table 7.5
Cost component categories
Cost category Definition
Lost output The loss of the value of work that an injured person would
have produced during the time that they were absent from
work.
Pain, grief, and suffering An allowance for the loss of quality of life and the pain, grief,
and suffering incurred by injured persons, their family and
friends .
Medical costs Cost of treating the persons injured in the crash, including the
cost of doctor's fees, medicines, and (if required) the time
spent in hospital and long-term care.
Property damage Cost of repairing a vehicle and other property damage,
including the costs paid by the person and their insurance
company.
Administration costs Costs incurred by the police and other services in the process
of attending crashes and associated activities, and by
insurance companies administering insurance claims.
Source: Babtie Ross Silcock and TRL 2003 .
Lost output
Lost output is generally considered as the largest resource cost
incurred due to a traffic accident. It is an expression of the loss to society
of the productive manpower, be it permanent or temporary. Its value
varies widely, ranging from a one day lost time for minor injury incident ,
to long years of foregone work for those killed or permanently disabled.
Pain, grief , and suffering

In
"
b
Strictly speaking, mental suffering, pain , and other emotional factors

cannot be assessed. They defy evaluation in terms of money, and must
|« ir4
therefore be taken as true intangibles. However, in practice some countries
add an assumed lump sum or proportional amount to measured accident
costs to allow for emotional losses.
Medical treatment and hospital costs

The treatment and rehabilitation of traffic accident victims require
the use of medical resources, i .e., work input of the personnel (ambulance
men , doctors, nurses, etc .) and provision of rescue equipment , hospital
beds , instruments, and other medical aids , such as drugs. If injuries

caused by traffic accidents could be avoided , these resources could be
made available for other purposes, such as treatment of the sick , or their
basic components could be transferred to other uses. The following
components can be distinguished:
-
a . On - the spot medical treatment
b. Transport and treatment on the way
c . Treatment at the hospital
d . Rehab at the hospital
e . Outpatient follow- up treatment
f. General treatment
Although considerable parts of the medical expenses are paid only
to those who provide such medical services, they may still be regarded
as losses to the economy because such services would have been
otherwise provided elsewhere if the traffic accidents had not occurred.
The same applies to the repair charges of damaged vehicles and legal
fees.
Property damage
Property damage necessitates repair or replacement costs of vehicles,
goods, and road accessories. In addition , property damage can result in
further welfare losses when capital goods (e.g., trucks, cars for commercial
use, equipment , etc .) are damaged or destroyed and their productive
services are lost . When private passenger cars are damaged, additional
welfare losses may result from the loss of use.
For the determination of property-damage-only involvement costs,
insurance records can be used and the compensation taken as indicator
of social losses. Account has to be taken of the fact that insurance
companies generally pay compensation for liability cases only, and are
liable for accidents brought on by one’s own fault only to the extent of a
contracted limit . In addition , it should be noted that there may be
considerable differences between the cases recorded by the insurance
companies and the police records.
With respect to property losses, evaluation is relatively easy because
the market prices and repair charges for the property lost or damaged
can be regarded as a good expression of the objective values.
Administrative costs
The police are called out to the sites of traffic accidents to control
traffic and investigate and record the accidents. Total work hours required
for handling traffic accidents have to be considered . A patrol car is
dispatched to each traffic accident site to control traffic and deal with the
accident. Since the patrol car is also used for other purposes, half of its
total expenses will be taken up in connection with traffic accidents. In
addition , the police headquarters use cameras for photographing accident
sites. Some of the other components of administrative costs are judicial
costs and insurance administration costs. The functions of the court
dealing with traffic accidents include (a) civil suits for damages, ( b) civil
mediation , (c) criminal suits for negligence, and (d) summary criminal
procedures. Most of the damage caused by traffic accidents is covered
by insurance, and the operating expenses required to support this system
also constitute part of the costs and expenses incidental to traffic accidents.
Figure 7.14 provides a summary of the different cost components
that may be involved in each accident , depending on the type of severity:
Severity Cost component
Fatal Lost output
Serious Pain, grief, and

injury suffering
Minor Medical
injury
Administrative
Damage
only
Vehicle
repair
Figure 7.14
Cost component for each severity type
Based on the diagram, a fatal accident would incur loss of productive

life of the victim ; pain , grief , and suffering of loved ones left; medical
expense when the victim was brought to the hospital before dying; a
number of miscellaneous expenses that would constitute administrative
cost; and cost of a totally wrecked vehicle or cost of repair of a damaged
vehicle. Similar cost components may be incurred when a victim becomes
permanently disabled due to a serious injury accident. A minor injury
accident would still incur some medical costs and require some paper
work and , possibly, minor repair of a slightly damaged vehicle.
Other assumptions
A range of assumptions underlie the recommended methodology.
The major additional assumption is that all accidents are costed out as
though all steps were taken to restore people , vehicles, and property as
closely as possible to their condition prior to the accident . It means that:
• injured persons receive full medical treatment , are treated in a
hospital if seriously injured , and recuperate for the
recommended period ;
• injured persons are considered to be employed ( or potentially
employable);
• vehicles are repaired according to manufacturer’s specifications;
and
• an accident report is made, all the proper paperwork is completed ,
and insurance claims are filed and recorded accurately.
Some indirect costs of accidents
Aside from the major cost components previously discussed , there
are other costs that may be attributed to traffic accidents. One is the cost
of transportation services for the injured from the accident spot to the
hospital . In a number of cases, the law -abiding “ offender” is the one that
brings the victim to the hospital . In some cases, a concerned citizen may
offer his or her vehicle to bring the victim to the hospital . It is seldom that
a hospital ambulance would be called to the rescue of the victim , although
at present , ambulance services provided by some rescue teams may be
summoned to the accident site when notified by a phone call .
Losses caused by traffic congestion
Traffic accidents often cause bottlenecks . A few minutes of
congestion can easily create gridlocks at intersections and several
kilometers of vehicle queues in urban areas. The people affected by

such bottlenecks incur loss of time and fuel , and suffer both mental and
physical stress.
7.7 . 4 Estimation of Cost Components
Following the ADB guidelines, the gross output method requires a
procedure that is relatively easy to follow. What remains is the problem
of collecting pertinent data that will be used as inputs in the step- by-step
procedure. While collection of such data does not pose a major problem
in developed countries, it becomes a major task in developing countries
like the Philippines. It must be stressed once again that traffic accident
data are very valuable; data collection, therefore, requires conscientious
effort on the part of the agencies concerned.
Table 7.6 provides the method of calculating the cost of each
component based on the gross output method :
Table 7.6
Estimation procedure for valuing accidents based on gross output method
Cost component Estimation
Lost output Calculated as the average daily wage rate of each person
involved in the crash, multiplied by the number of days off
work, then added up for all the people involved in the
crash. For fatalities and permanent disabilities the calculation
is performed over the rest of their expected working life
and discounted to an equivalent present value.
Pain, grief, and suffering Calculated as a percentage of lost output cost.
Short - term medical cost Calculated as the average length of stay in hospital for each
seriously injured person involved in the crash, multiplied
by average daily cost of hospital care, then added up for all
the people seriously injured in the crash. For minor injuries,
the cost is calculated as the average cost of a visit to a
doctor for treatment times the average number of visits.
Long- term medical cost Calculated as the annual cost of care for persons permanently
and severely disabled. The calculation is performed over
the rest of their expected life span and discounted to an
equivalent present value.
Vehicle damage Calculated as the average cost of vehicle repairs (sourced
from insurance company records) multiplied by the average
number of vehicles involved in the crash.
Administration cost Calculated as a percentage of resource costs in line with ADB
recommendations (0.2 percent for fatal accidents, 4 percent
for serious injury accidents, 14 percent for minor injury accidents,
and 10 percent for property -damage-only accidents).
Source: Babtie Ross Silcock and TRL 2003 .

^ 249
Underlying assumptions
The gross output method requires input to a number of variables
incorporated in each cost component. Some of these variables require
estimation from available secondary data. However, some variables cannot
be known unless comprehensive primary data collection is conducted.
In this case, assumptions based on the experience of other countries are
made. Nevertheless, estimation of the cost of accidents has to be updated
on a regular basis. At this point, it is very important to determine those
variables that have deficiency in data availability. Determination of these
variables can then be incorporated in the research agenda on road safety.
The National Center for Transportation Studies of the University of the
Philippines has actually initiated the formulation of research agenda as
far as traffic safety is concerned . One notable research on traffic analysis
focusing on hospital records ( Vibal 2003) proved to be very valuable in
determining the extent of severity of human damage attributed to road
crashes.
Average age of seriously injured
Based on Vibal’s study, “ Traffic Accident Analysis through Hospital
Records” (2003), which examined 617 cases of serious injuries in road
accidents ( including forty -four fatalities) , the average age of seriously
injured persons was twenty-eight years. The most seriously injured persons
were in the age range of thirteen to thirty - nine years.
Average age of fatalities

This has been assumed to be the same as the average age of persons
seriously injured.
Damage to property
Damage to property can be obtained from insurance companies
based on property damage claims for motor vehicle accidents. Property
damage costs can vary considerably depending on the degree of wreckage
sustained . It may therefore be necessary to obtain estimates based on
accidents stratified according to severity.
As previously mentioned , the repair costs are calculated as if all
vehicles are repaired according to manufacturer’s specifications, since
this represents the resource cost to the community of vehicle damage.
Information on average claims was supplied by the Insurance Surety of

the Philippines ( ISAP) on a confidential basis. The average claim was
converted to 2003 figures, and allowance was then added for total wrecks,
owners cost input and towing. In general , vehicles involved in fatal and
serious injury accidents will be damaged more severely than cars in
accidents in which nobody is injured . No data are currently available for
the relative cost of damage by injury severity. International experience
indicates that the relative repair cost of accident types compared to
average cost is as follows:
Fatal accident 1.55 times average cost
Serious injury 1.40 times average cost
Minor Injury 1.25 times average cost
Damage- only 0.85 times average cost
These translate to
1*46,500 per vehicle for a fatal accident
1*42,000 per vehicle for a serious injury accident
1*37,500 per vehicle for minor injury accident
1*25,500 per vehicle for a damage-only accident
Administrative costs
The cost is composed of several components as there are many
—
agencies administering services related to the accident traffic police,
emergency response services , insurance , and legal services . It is ,
therefore, very difficult to compute this cost . This is compounded by the
problems of underreporting and the lack or complexity of administrative
linkages. The ADB guideline is followed in estimating the administrative
cost . The ADB recommends that the administrative cost be taken as a
percentage of total resource costs ( sum of lost output , medical , and
property damage cost).
Similar to property damage, the administrative costs associated
with an accident are likely to depend on its severity. In a more serious
accident , vehicles may remain on the road longer, and more policemen
may be assigned to direct traffic. There is also the longer and more
complicated process of investigation, claims and follow- ups, and possibly

legal proceeding.
The ADB recommends the following:
Fatal accident 0.2% of total fatal accident resource cost
Serious injury 4% of total serious injury resource cost
Minor injury 14% of total minor injury resource cost
Damage- only 10% of total damage-only resource cost
Medical costs
Medical costs vary widely depending on the severity of the injury.
Serious injury could mean long hospitalization and rehabilitation .
a . Serious injury
i. Stay in the hospital

In a recent study of traffic accidents using hospital records ( Vibal
2003), victims’ hospital stay depending on the severity of injury is as
follows: six to eight days and seventeen days for typical and more severe
pedestrian accidents, respectively ; five to six days for typical motorcycle
accident and nineteen days for more severe motorcycle cases. For the
purpose of this study, an average of eight days of stay will be used for
estimating cost.
During this eight -day period of stay in the hospital , it is necessary
to take into consideration the amount incurred due to hospital care. Based
on the rates in a tertiary hospital with daily visits by a general practitioner,
two visits by a specialist , drugs and medicine, and one episode of minor
surgery plus an allowance for the cost of ambulance transfer to the hospital ,
the total cost of hospital care is estimated at F4,000 per day. This amount
is paid in full by the patient without subsidy from the government .
ii. Recuperation period
While recuperating at home, the injured may still be undergoing
medication. During this period , the person is also off work . As there are
no data with regard to recuperation period , information from experience
of other countries may be used. In the case of Australia, a study has shown
that , on the average, a person recuperating from hospital treatment will
have an additional 2 days off work for every day of stay in the hospital.
This has been confirmed by medical practitioners in Manila.
b . Minor injury
In the case of minor injuries, two visits to a doctor can be reasonably
assumed ; the first visit is for initial assessment of the injury while the
second is for follow- up.
Costs incurred during each visit may be as follows: P 250 for
consulting services and another F250 for medication , bandages, etc .
Say, F500 per consultation.
c . Permanent disability
When a seriously injured person becomes permanently disabled ,

the cost will include medical expenses, special equipment ( wheelchair
or special bed) , and employing a nurse. In case a family member acts as
caregiver, the cost also includes lost income due to his or her absence
from work . In the absence of data on long- term care, about PlOO per day is
assumed to cover the costs of long- term care for the permanently disabled .
Based on limited records so far inputted to TARAS of the DPWH ,
the following information was obtained . (It is recognized that when more
data are collected , better estimates can be obtained.)
Average number of vehicles involved in each accident type:
1.4 vehicles per fatal accident
1.5 vehicles per serious injury accident
1.5 vehicles per minor injury accident
1.8 vehicles per property damage accident
Average number of injuries in a fatal accident:
1.1 fatalities
0.4 serious injuries
Average number of injuries in a serious injury accident:
1.5 serious injuries
Average number of injuries in a minor injury accident:
1.1 minor injuries
7.8 ESTIMATION OF AVERAGE COST OF ACCIDENTS
In this section, computation of average cost for each type of accidents

will be shown . The estimates are based on values of the different variables
explained in the previous chapter ( Cost Components) and follow the
calculation procedure given on table 7.6.
7.8.1 Estimation of Cost of a Single Fatal Accident
The estimation of the cost of a fatal accident requires the calculation
of the five cost components: lost output; pain , grief , and suffering; medical
cost ; administrative costs; and cost of repair of the damaged vehicle (see
table 7.7). The estimated average cost of a fatal accident is approximately
F2.3 million .
Table 7.7
Average cost of fatal accident
Cost component Amount, pesos %
Lost output:
•Fatality 1 , 783,540
•Disability/serious injury 32,428
•Off work 2,893
Subtotal 1 , 818,861 80
Pain, grief, and suffering 363,772 16
Medical:
•Short - term 12,800
•Long- term 8,672
Subtotal 21,472 0.9
Vehicle damage 65,100 2.9

Administrative cost 3,811 0.2
TOTAL 2, 273,016 100.0
( $ 41 , 328 )
7.8. 2 Estimation of Cost of a Single Serious Injury Accident

The same cost items are considered in estimating the average cost
of a serious injury accident ( table 7.8). The estimated average cost is
F350 ,000.
Table 7.8
Average cost of serious injury accident
Lost output:
•Disability/serious injury 121,605
•Off work 10,849
Subtotal 132,454 37.5
Pain, grief, and suffering 66,227 18.7
Medical:
•Short -term 48,000
•Long-term 32.521
Subtotal 80.521 22.8

TOTAL 353,241 99.9
($ 6,423)
7.8.3 Estimation of Cost of a Single Minor Injury Accident

The estimation of the average cost of a minor injury accident
requires the calculation of three cost items: medical cost , repair of vehicle
cost , and administrative costs. A single minor injury accident would
amount to approximately F70,000 ( table 7.9).
Table 7.9
Average cost of minor injury accident
Lost output:
•Off work 603 0.9
Medical 1,100 1.6

Vehicle damage 56,250 81
TOTAL 69,423 100.0
( $ 1,262)
7.8. 4 Estimation of Cost of a Single Property- Damage-Only Accident

Aside from the cost of repair of a damaged vehicle, administrative
cost is also incurred when a damage-only accident occurs. A damage -
only accident would cost about F55,000 ( table 7.10). (This excludes cost
that may be incurred due to repair or replacement of damaged road signs
and other street fixtures.)
Table 7.10
Average cost of damage-only accident

TOTAL 55,080 100.0
( $ 1 ,001 )
7.8.5 Summary of Average Cost of Each Type of Accident

Table 7.11 shows the summary of average cost of accident by type.
Using the property-damage-only ( PDO) cost as point of reference, the
average cost for fatal injury is about 40x higher; for serious injury, 6x;
and for minor injury, 1.25x.
Table 7.11
Summary of cost
Accident type Average cost, pesos
Fatal 2 , 273,000
( $ 41 , 330)
Serious injury 350,000

( $ 6,360)
Minor injury 69,000

( $ 1 , 250 )
Damage -only 55,000

( $ 1 , 000)
7.9 ESTIMATION OF NATIONAL COST
Once the average cost of each type of accident is obtained , the

total cost of accidents may be estimated by multiplying the total number
of accidents of each type by the average cost. Again , the types used in
the analysis are as follows:
a. Fatal accident
b . Serious injury accident
c . Minor injury accident
d . Property-damage-only accident
7.9.1 Data Availability and Quality
In the Philippines , researchers rely mostly on accident data
provided by the police. More specifically, the Traffic Management Group
which is responsible for accident data keeping for the whole country. It
is generally accepted that there is a serious problem in the reporting of
accidents because of the following reasons:
a. Although the Philippines recognizes the UN Organization’s
—
—
definition of traffic death one that occurs within thirty days
of the event our count is still based on “ death at scene.”
Even though most countries still use different definitions, their
accident statistics are adjusted by applying correction factors
to conform to the standard definition. Our current system of
accident data keeping makes statistical adjustment almost
impossible to do.
b . A major cause of the underestimating of traffic accident statistics
in the Philippines is the lack of an effective means of updating
fatality and injury data. At present , the country has yet to develop
a system of transferring records from hospitals to the TMG.
c . Recording and updating are prone to errors as these tasks are
done manually. There are also cases of records getting lost or
misplaced.
Even the PNP itself ackowledges that there is a serious problem of
underreporting of traffic accidents. Aside from the absence of an efficient
road accident data system, there is a great discrepancy between hospital
and police records. Figure 7.15 shows the official statistics from the health
sector. Deaths attributed to traffic accidents in 1970, 1980, 1990, and

1998 are available from the Philippine Health Statistics. In the 2003
Philippine National Injury Survey funded by the UNICEF, approximately
9,000 fatalities were attributed to road traffic accidents, a tremendous
increase from the 1998 figure of 3,800. For the year 2002, the police, in
contrast, reported only 801 fatalities, clearly showing a very serious
problem of underreporting.
. .
Sources: National Epidemiology Center 1998; Lim-Quizon et al 2004
Figure 7.15
Traffic accident deaths
The situation of underreporting for injury cases is far worse than

that for fatal cases. A number of previous studies have highlighted the
relationship between the number of crash deaths and injuries. Barrs
et al. (1998) quoted a generic ratio of 10:25 injuries to deaths (with half
requiring hospitalization ) , but the only developing country example
included was from an urban hospital study in Ethiopia, which reported
sixteen injuries for every death ( Dessie and Lawson 1991). A three-month
study conducted by Malaysia’s Public Health Department ( Rahman 2002)
reported 19,271 casualties receiving treatment at hospitals. Of these,
1.3 percent were fatal and 79 percent received outpatient treatment .
Thus for every road death, there were fifteen hospitalized and another
sixty-one slightly injured.
Underreporting was believed to be much greater for injuries than

deaths (Jacobs, Aeron -Thomas , and Astrop 2000). To estimate global
road casualties, the study adopted a ratio of 100 injuries to a fatality for
high-income countries, while a conservative road death to injury ratio of
20:30 was used for low-income countries. In the first Safe Community
Conference on Cost Calculation and Cost-Effectiveness in Injury Prevention
and Safety Promotion, a ratio of 70 slight injuries and 15 serious injuries
to every death was suggested to apply to most countries ( Barrs et al.
1998) .
In the case of the Philippines, three major hospitals having the
highest number of in - patients with traffic accident- related cases were
studied ( Vibal 2003). The study primarily focused on fatal and serious
injury cases only. Out of the 1,242 cases (with 94 unspecified cases), 67
(5.4 percent) were fatal cases and 1,081 (87 percent) were serious injury
cases. This gives a serious injury to death ratio of 16:1, which is consistent
with the results of the previous studies mentioned above. In the absence
of data on slight injury cases, a ratio of 70:1 will be adopted .
It is far more complicated to estimate the number of property -
damage-only accidents because such cases are even more underreported.
In the absence of data on this, the estimation of the number of this type
of accident will be based on the ADB guideline of five damage-only
accidents for each injury accident. Again, as data collection efforts improve,
a local value for the Philippines may be estimated more accurately.
In preparation for the estimation of national cost of accidents, it is
necessary to determine the number of accidents by type since the
individual costs are estimated using that same unit. Based on the TMG’s
statistics of recorded traffic accidents for the year 2002, the breakdown
for each type is shown in table 7.12.
Table 7.12
Traffic accident statistics
Accident type Frequency
Fatal 714
Serious injury 797
Minor injury 1,672
Damage -only 9,623
TOTAL 12,806
Source: TMG 2002.

Applying the corrections attributed to underreporting and the other

assumptions adopted in the previous section, the number of accidents is
adjusted ( table 7.13).
Table 7.13
Traffic accidents statistics
Accident type Frequency
Fatal 8,180
Minor injury 402,150
Damage -only 469,090
TOTAL 973,240
.
Note: Fatal based on Lim-Quizon 2004 ; others are adjusted
7.9. 2 Calculation of National Costs

Applying the average cost of each type of accidents, the national
cost of accidents is calculated as shown in table 7.14.
Table 7.14
Calculation of national cost
Number of accidents Total cost (million pesos)

Accident Average
type
cost Adjusted for Based on Adjusted for
( pesos) As reported underreported under-
reporting accidents reporting
Fatal 2,273,000 714 8,180 1,623 18,593

Serious injury 353,000 797 93,820 281 33,119
Minor injury 69,000 1,672 402,150 115 27,748
Damage -only 55,000 9,623 469,090 529 25,800
TOTAL 12,806 973,240 2,548 105,260
( $ 45M) ( S 1.9 B )
Without any corrections to the accident statistics collected by the

responsible agency, the cost of traffic accidents is about P2.5 billion or
US$ 45 million each year. However, this is a gross underestimation as it
has been shown that there is too much underreporting of accidents. The
estimate of the cost based on the health sector data amounting to F105
billion (or US$ 1.9 billion) may still be on the low end because many cost
components were not accounted for during the application of the gross
output method. But this cost is already about 2.6 percent of the Philippines’
GDP. A better estimate of the cost is expected when more accurate statistics
are made available due to improved data collection system.
PROBLEMS
1. In planning for highway improvements in a particular region , the

traffic accidents have to be analyzed to give priority to those
hazardous or accident - prone locations. The table below shows the
twenty sections considered for analysis. Sections marked with an
asterisk (*) have almost similar characteristics in terms of physical
and traffic conditions. Among these marked sections, which would
you consider hazardous at 95 percent level of confidence ?
Use
a . classic statistic method
b . rate quality control method
Section Length, km Daily volume No. of accidents
1* 20 30,000 50
2 35 32,000 85
3 40 28,000 45
4* 20 29,000 35
5 50 31 ,500 50
6* 40 28,600 63
7 30 28,000 35
8 50 31 ,000 42
9 30 31.600 25
1 0* 50 30,000 48
11 20 32,000 55
12 25 31,000 52
13 29 32,000 54
14* 30 28,000 37
15* 28 29, 400 70
16 35 31,500 38
17* 42 28.600 63
18 38 28,300 29
19 28 32.100 56
20 31 33.100 43
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis fli 261
2. The five-leg roundabout shown below was the scene of 850 accidents
in 2004. The annual average daily traffic is shown in the
corresponding route OD table. Determine the accident rate of the
roundabout .
A B C D E
9,000 11,000 8, 500 500
9,040 1,400 2,600 5,800

12,000 400 890 1,220
450 100 910 2,500
3. The figure below shows the road network inside a town proper.
According to accident statistics over the last three years, the ten
intersections having the highest number of accidents are shown in
the corresponding table . The total entering traffic for each
intersection is also shown . Identify the intersections that may be
considered hazardous, using 95 percent level of confidence.
Intersection No. of Daily entering

no. accidents volume
243 15.900
200 18.300
310 24 ,000
180 13,600
239 14, 200
250 17,120
190 13,700
360 19.300
350 47.900
400 17,100
4. The table below shows the average cost of traffic accidents by type:
Accident type Average cost of accident in pesos
Fatal 2 , 273,000
Minor injury 69,000
Vehicle damage 55 , 000*
Average repair cost of a damaged vehicle
262
Based on the experience of a similar country:
Ratio of seriously injured victims to fatal victims: 16:1
Ratio of minor injured victims to fatal victims: 60:1
Number of vehicle - damage - only accidents : 5 times the
number of serious injury accidents
Based on accident statistics:
a . 1 fatal accident — > 1.1 fatalities + 1.5 seriously injured
victims + 1.0 minor injured victim + 1.6 damaged vehicles
b . 1 serious accident -> 1.5 seriously injured victims + 2.0
minor injured victims + 1.2 damaged vehicles
c . 1 minor accident — > 1.0 minor injured victim + 0.5
damaged vehicle
—
d . 1 vehicle-damage-only accident > 1.4 damaged vehicles
For a particular year, if the number of fatal victims ( based on hospital
data) is 5,000, estimate the total accident cost .
REFERENCES
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 1997. Road safety guidelines for Asian
and Pacific Region. Regional Initiatives in Road Safety, Asian
Development Bank .
Alfaro, J ., M. Chapuis, and F. Fabre, eds. 1994. COST 313. Socioeconomic
cost of road accidents . Report EUR 15464 EN , Brussels ,
Commission of the European Communities.
Andreassen, D. C. 1988. The application of cost data in traffic safety:
Traffic safety theory and research methods . Netherlands, April .
Babtie Ross Silcock and TRL Limited . 2003. Guidelines for estimating
the cost of road crashes in developing countries. Final Report ,
Department for International Development Project R 7780, Transport
Research Laboratory, May.
Barrs, P., G. Smith , S. Baker, and D. Mohan. 1998. Injury prevention: An
international perspective . Oxford University Press.
7: Road Safety and Traffic Accident Analysis rflfc 263
Dessie, T. C. Lawson . 1991. The occurrence and driver characteristics

associated with motor vehicle injuries in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 94:395-400.
Department of Public Works and Highways ( DPWH ). 2003. Cost estimation
and update handbook . Sixth Road Project , Capacity Building
Component, C08 Road Infrastructure Safety Project, DPWH.
Garber, Nicholas J ., and Lester A . Hoel. 1999. Traffic and highway
engineering . Second ed . Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
International Road Traffic and Accident Database (IRTAD). 1998. Special
report, definitions and data availability. OECD- RTR Road Transport
Research Programme.
Jacobs, G. 1995. Costing road accidents in developing countries. Overseas
Road Note 10. Crowthorne, Berkshire: Transport Research
Laboratory.
Jacobs, G., A . Aeron -Thomas, A. Astrop. 2000. Estimating global road
fatalities. TRL Report 445, Transport Research Laboratory,
Crowthorne, Berkshire.
Lamm , Ruediger, Basil Psarianos, and Theodor Mailaender. 1999.
Highway design and traffic safety engineering handbook . McGraw-
Hill .
Lim- Quizon , Ma. Consorcia, Ricardo J . Mateo Jr., Jose Ramoncito P.
Navarro, Onofre Edwin A. Merilles Jr., Noel T. Orosco, and Juan
M . Lopez. 2004. Injury among children in the Philippines: A
situationer. Book Launching and Road Safety Forum, Manila .
Melhuish, C. 2001. The First GRSP ASEAN Seminar. March , Tokyo.
National Epidemiology Center ( NEC). 1998. Philippine health statistics.
NEC, Department of Health Philippines.
Organization for Economic Co - operation and Development . 1981.
Methods for evaluating road safety measures. OECD Road Research
Group Report. June.
Pline , J . L. , ed . 1992 . Traffic engineering handbook . Fourth ed .
Washington, D.C.: Institute of Transportation Engineers and Prentice
Hall Inc.
Rahman, H. 2002. Road injuries in Malaysia: A 3- month study. Sixth
World Congress on Injury Prevention and Control, Delhi .
Robertson, H . Douglas, ed. 2000. Manual of transportation engineering

studies. Washington, D.C.: Institute of Transportation Engineers and
Prentice-Hall Inc.
Sigua, R. 2000. The state of road safety in the Philippines. Journal on
Public Policy . Quezon City : UP Center for Integrative and
Development Studies and the University of the Philippines Press.
Tanner, J. C. 1956. Accidents before and after the provision or removal of
automatic traffic signals . RRL Note. No. 2887.
Traffic Management Group (TMG ) . 2002. Report of traffic accident
statistics.
Trinca, G. W., I. Johnston, I., B. J. Campbell, F. A. Haight , P. Knight , M.
Mackay, A. J. McLean , and E. Petrucelli. 1988. Reducing traffic
injury: A global challenge. Melbourne: Royal Australasian College
of Surgeons.
Vibal, T. 2003. Traffic accident analysis through hospital records. Master’s
thesis , College of Engineering, University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City.
9
INTRODUCTION TO TRAVEL
DtfllflND f ORttJWINC
8.1 INTRODUCTION
r I Uiis chapter introduces the classic four-step forecasting model which
'
X was developed more than sixty years ago in the United States. The
method has deficiencies, and other new ones have been developed over
the past ten years. However, the method is still widely used as a tool over
analyzing travel demand and estimating future traffic flow. Most
commercially available software for forecasting travel demand are still
largely based on this four-step model. It provides a tool for traffic engineers
and planners to analyze travel demand and traffic situation in a given
study area .
Prior to the application of the four-step model , it is always necessary
to obtain as much information as possible on the socioeconomic indicators
of the area under study, such as population , income distribution , car
ownership, etc. Using statistical tools, these socioeconomic variables may
be forecasted within the planning horizon , which may vary from twenty
to fifty years.
8.2 THE FOUR -STEP FORECASTING MODEL
The classic forecasting model has the following submodels:

a . Trip generation and attraction
266 {fii Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
b . Trip distribution
c . Modal split
d . Traffic assignment
In a nutshell, the use of these models follows a logical order as
shown in figure 8.1. The models answer basic questions that determine
the number of future trips, the origins and destinations of such trips, the
modes of transportation used , and the routes taken by these trips. The
data are necessary for planning new infrastructure facilities, or expanding
existing ones.
Generation/attraction:
"How many trips will be there in the future in the
^ study area ?"
_ca»
c
O <D Distribution:
i
o "From which zones are these trips generated and to
I£C tu which zones are these trips bound?"
<D -C
~CD
o O
a- .IT
8 _a5
I
^
re
c
o
:Modal split:
'Which mode of travel will be used ?"
=8 U
I
CD
CD
LL.
Assignment:
"Which route will these trips take ?"
Source: Salter 1976.

Figure 8.1
The four -step forecasting process
8.3 THE ORIGIN - DESTINATION TABLE ( OD MATRIX)
Once the study area is defined , it is divided into a number of zones

normally defined by political or administrative boundaries. These are
called internal zones. Depending on the coverage of the study, a zone
may correspond to one barangay, town , or city. The study may also
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting A 267
consider some zones outside the study area, which may greatly affect the
trip patterns. These are called external zones. For example, if Metro Manila
is taken as a study area, there is a need to consider the outlying areas of
Cavite, Laguna, Rizal , and Bulacan, among others.
For a more systematic analysis and easier presentation, an origin -
destination (OD) table is generally prepared. The origin -destination table
simply shows the trips from one zone to another within a given study
area. The terms are defined in reference to figure 8.2.
Destination
1 2 j n-1 n 2
No. of
-
1
2
01
o2
trips from
Zone 1
.9
DC
o
i
Qi O ,
: N No. of trips
from zone i
to zone j
n-1 On-
n on
Trip
,
D o2 Dl On- , Dn production
No. of trips
attracted to
Zone 2.
Figure 8.2
Elements of an origin-destination table
The number of trips 0 . generated from zone i is given by

n
( 8.1 )
j= l
This is also referred to as trip generation . It is obtained by summing

up all the entries in a given row i .
The number of trips D . attracted to zone j is given by
DJ. = Y
ZT
.
z y
;= i - ( 8.2)
This is referred to as trip attraction . It is obtained by summing up

all the entries in a given column j.
Trip production is defined in terms of either 0 . or D:
T=
± ± Ot
7 =1
Dj =
i=1
(8.3)
Sometimes the present trip production is estimated first before the

trip generation and trip attraction are analyzed . Trip production is
estimated as follows:
T — f { peoples _attitude ,trip purpose,... ) (8.4)
The independent variables inside the parenthesis must be selected
to satisfy the following requirements:
a . Predictability
Trips per day at cities in the world are fairly stable, which is
about 2.5. Manila is about 2.3 trips per day while Davao City
is about 2.4 trips per day.
b . Existence of significant difference between categories
—
A simple example of category is gender male or female. Males
usually generate more trips per day. In Metro Manila, this is
about 2.6 for males compared with 2.0 for females ( ALMEC
Corp. 1999).
8.4 METHODS FOR ESTIMATING TRIP GENERATION AND

ATTRACTION
A number of methods are available for estimating trip generation

and attraction . The more commonly used ones may fall under any of the
following:
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting 269
a . Growth rate method

b . Category analysis
c. Regression model
8.4 .1 Growth Rate Method
The number of trips are assumed to be influenced by several
variables like population , car ownership, or income . If future values of
these variables can be estimated statistically, then the future number of
trips may be based on the growth rates of these variables and may be
estimated as follows:
; = T XFI
T 1
(8.5)
where —
T . trip generation or attraction of zone i.
P-
Fi = —R x —M , growth
L;
:
rate of zone i
P. — population of zone i
M . - index of activity of zone i (example - car ownership,
income)
Ti , Pi , Mi — future values
Ti , Pi , Ml — present values
8.4 . 2 Category Analysis

Let us say that the number of cars is considered the main variable
in determining trip making in a certain area. Based on the present number
of households and trip making activities, the future trips can be estimated
as follows:
Suppose the following table shows the current condition based on
interviews:
Number of cars/households
Family 2
size
No. of .
No of No. of .
No of
households trips households trips
1 100 200 50 150

2 200 500 100 350
3 150 450 50 200
More than 3 50 200 10 70
From these data, the average trip generation rate per category can
be estimated by dividing the number of trips by the number of households
in each category.
Family
size 1 2
1 2.0 3.0
2 2.5 3.5
3 3.0 4.0
More than 3 5.0 7.0
These trip generation rates are then applied to the forecasted

number of households per category to obtain the future trip generation.
Family 2
size
No. of .
No of No. of .
No of
households trips households trips
1 200 400 400 300

2 250 625 625 525
3 100 300 300 400
More than 3 50 250 250 350
Estimated no. of
Estimated trip
household in
generation
the future
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting fit 271
Example 8.1
The city of Vigan held the following land use activity statistics during
morning peak hour in 2000. Estimate the total trip generation during
that period .
Land use type/activity Trip rates Unit

( a) ( b) (c )
1. Residential (6,582 dwelling units) AM in 1.52 per dwelling unit

AM out 3.0 -do-
2. Hotels ( 1 78 rooms) AM in 0.85 per room
AM out 0.677 - do-
3 . Hospitals ( 262 beds) AM in 1.286 per bed
AM out 0.830 - do-
4. Restaurant (58 establishments) at 25 sq m AM in 0.0548 per sq m
AM out 0.0331 -do -
5. Commercial (823 establishments)at 25 sq m AM in 0.0245 per sq m
AM out 0.0192 -do -
6. Office (276 establishments) at 100 sq m AM in 0.0176 per sq m
AM out 0.0027 -do-
Solution:
The estimated person trips can be computed by multiplying column
a with column b.
Land use type Pe rson trips (AM)
1. Residential in 10,005
out 19,746
2. Hotels in 151
out 119
3. Hospitals in 337
out 217
4. Restaurants in 80
out 50
5. Commercial in 522
out 409
6. Office in 486
out 74
7. Schools
a) elementary & secondary in 16,509
out 44
b) college in 9,792
out 20
The table summarizes the total trip generation . Residential units

produce about 20,000 person trips in the morning. Trip attraction to
various establishments is also obtained by considering all person trips
coming in during the morning peak hour. It must be noted that total trip
attraction does not equal total trip production because there are trips
coming from outside the city of Vigan .
Total trip generation
a. Trip production of residential 19,746 person trips
b. Trip attraction of establishments

Hotels 151
Hospitals 337
Restaurant 80
Offices 486
Schools 26,301
Commercial 522
TOTAL 27,726 person trips
8.4. 3 Regression Analysis

The different indices or dependent variables normally considered
that may have influence on trip making are shown in table 8.1.
Table 8.1
Variables influencing trip making
Independent variable Indices
Population Daytime, residential, no. of workers, population by

industries, etc.
Land use Land area by usage, floor area, etc.
Economy Retail sales, industrial production, etc.
Social activity Car ownership, size of household, etc.
In the Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study

(ALMEC Corp. 1999), the following trip generation and attraction models
are utilized:
akxki + c (8.6)
k =1
akxkj + c
k =1
where — coefficients
xki — independent variable
For example, to
— describe “ home” trips, trip generation and
c constant
to
attraction regression equations are given as follows:
0 . = 0.5860*, + 0.6310*2 - 5362.3
—
where *, population
* — workers
2
at workplace
DJ. = 1.852*.i - 1802.4

where *.i — workers at residence
8.5 TRIP DISTRIBUTION
Again, the objective of this model is to determine from which zones

these trip generations (O.) are generated and to which zones these trip
attractions (D ) are bound.
A number of models have been developed in the past to distribute
trips and these are classified as follows:
a . Present pattern method
b . Model method
8.5.1 Present Pattern Method
Some of the methods under the first category are the following:
a . Uniform factor method
V
Iy (8.7)
where T ——
total trip distribution
T .. trip distribution from zone i to zone j.
6M
( suggests future values)
b . Average factor method

• \
'
T . = T9 x - — DJ (8.8)
* 2 0: DJ y
where 0 . — trip generation and D — trip attraction . ,
c . Detroit method
Tv- = T1 X 0\ X::
—0 —D , —rT
:
X ' (8.9)
The principle behind this method is that trip distribution is

proportional to growth rate of trip generation
oc —OiO, (8.10)
and that trip distribution is proportional to the relative growth rate of trip
attraction to trip production
—D-j x —TT-
i
cc -DT1j- ITD j
x or ' (8.11)
DJ
d . Fratar method
This is the most commonly used present pattern method.
O'. Dj X 7*
n = nx Oirx —DJ x 7 (8.12)
k =1
Some of the disadvantages of the present pattern method are the

following:
a . Complete OD matrix is required.
b . Change of land use is not considered ; where the present trip
distribution is zero, future value is also zero.
c . If there is error in current OD matrix , the error is expanded
with the same rate.
8.5. 2 Model Method

A number of model methods are patterned after Newton’s law of
gravitation . Hence these are termed gravity models.
a. Basic type of gravity model
Ttj = kOaDPi / d [j (8.13)
where T .. — trip distribution

A:, a, /?, y - coefficients
0 . - trip generation
D . - trip attraction
—
d .. trip resistance between zone i and zone j ( this
may be time or distance)
Other forms of resistance functions are:
1
e A\
'
'
in general, the basic type may be written as:
T,= k0“ Df /(d,) (8.14)
b . Bureau of Public Roads type gravity model
01 WL (8.15)
c. Voohees type gravity model
T , 0
Tvw
WL (8.16)
Some of the merits cited for the gravity models are as follows:
a . Trip resistance is considered.
b . Structure of model is easy to understand.
c . Complete OD matrix is not necessarily required .
The demerits, however, are as follows:

a . Reasoning is not clear why human behavior is related to
Newton’s gravity law.
b . Index of resistance is arbitrary,
c . Trip distribution within zone is difficult to treat.
d . Trip distribution for near zone pairs tends to be larger than real
values and vice versa .
8.6 MODAL SPLIT
Calculation of choice ratio may be done using either binary or

multiple choice. Under the method of multiple choice, all possible modes
are identified and the share of each mode is calculated . The use of binary
choice is relatively easy compared to multiple choice. Figure 8.3 shows
the sequence of modal choice following a binary tree procedure.
Nonmotorized Motorized
Walk Bicycle Private Public
Figure 8.3
Modal choice using a binary tree
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting rfH 277
8.6 . 1 The Generalized Cost

The generalized cost attempts to put costing on quantifiable and
sometimes unquantifiable costs that may be incurred during a trip using
a specified mode. Two cost items may be quantified easily: cost ( in ordinary
sense, such as fare when taking public transport ) and travel time. Level
of service may be included in the generalized cost but there is difficulty
in quantifying it.
GC = c + d x T (8.17)
where —
GC generalized cost
——
c cost in ordinary sense
d time value (P/min or P/ hr)
—
T time incurred in making trip
Considering several competing modes, the mode that will have the
least generalized cost will be chosen .
Supposing that there are two modes, with corresponding generalized
costs:
Mode 1: GC .i = c .i + d x Ti
Mode 2: CC 2 = c 2 + d x T 2
The shares of trip makers likely to use modes 1 and 2 are shown by
the areas of the time value distribution in figure 8.4.
GC
1
T,
2
T2
c 2
C,
Time value distribution

( usually log-normal )
% of trip
% of trip makers
makers
using mode 2
using mode 1
Figure 8.4
Generalized cost for two modes
One disadvantage of the generalized cost method is the difficulty

in determining the distribution of time value. It is also difficult to treat
more than two modes.
8.6.2 Disaggregate Choice Model

This method originated from microeconomics. It assumes that a
person will use a particular mode with maximum utility for him.
Consider two modes l and m , then
f
Pa = Prob (“a > UJ (8.18)
^—
where P probability that person i will chose mode /
uu — utility for person i when he or she uses mode /

The utility, uu, has usually two components:
U il. . — Va.. + £U.. (8.19)
where Va is the deterministic part and su is the probabilistic
part.
The determination part vu is given by
vu = X aHxiji (8.20)
where a.. - coefficients for person i of the LOS j.
- value of LOS j of mode l for person i .
P = prob ( v . — v. > 8. — 8. ) (8.21)
Depending on the distribution of s, two models are available:
a. Probit model (distribution of s is normal).
p .- f
b . Logit model (distribution of
"" 1
'
v^ e
1 U. 2
2
8 is
du
Weibul).
(8.22)
Pa = e ” u + ev .
ev* 1
(8.23)
>«
1+
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting
^ 279
Example 8.2
A calibrated utility function for travel in a medium-sized city by
car, bus, and light rail is
U = a - 0.02*, - 0.05*2
Where A , is the cost of travel in pesos and X 2 is the travel time
(min). Calculate the modal split for the given values:
Mode a X x2
Car -0.3 30 25
Bus -0.38 8 38
Light rail -0.32 15 30
If a parking fee of ? 30 per trip is imposed , what would be the split

to the other two modes?
Solution:
The utility of each mode is calculated:
Car: [/ = - 0.3 - 0.02(30) - 0.05(25) = - 2.15
Bus: Uh = - 0.38 - 0.02(8) - 0.05(38) = - 2.44
Light rail: Ut = - .32 - 0.02(15) - 0.05(30) = - 2.12
Using logit model:
Pcar
eUr 0.1165
eu + eUk + eu‘
' 0.3237
= 0.36
Similarly, P and Plight rail can be obtained using the same formula.
bus
The calculations are summarized in the table below. The current modal
share shows that car and light rail have almost the same share.
Mode U eu P %
Car -2.15 0.1164 0.3598 36

Bus -2.44 0.0871 0.2692 27
Light rail -2.12 0.1200 0.3708 37
TOTAL 0.3236 1.00 100
Now, when a parking fee of P30 is imposed to each traveler, the

utility of car will be reduced as follows:
Ue = - 0.3 - 0.02(60) - 0.05(25) = - 2.75

Probabilities are recomputed and the results are shown below.
Mode U eu P %
Car - 2.75 0.0639 0.2357 24

Bus -2.44 0.0871 0.3214 32
Light rail -2.12 0.1200 0.4427 44
TOTAL 0.2711 1.00 100
The share of car is greatly reduced from 36 percent to 24 percent ,

an overall reduction of 33 percent. This results in car users shifting to bus
and rail , which now have an increased share of 32 percent and 44 percent,
respectively.
8.7 ROUTE ASSIGNMENT
Given a road network , car drivers will normally use the route or
routes through which they will reach their destination in the least time or
distance. The same assumption is used to assign trips or vehicles in the
four-step model. The road network is usually drawn using nodes and
links as shown in figure 8.5. The zone centroids are represented by nodes,
and the roads connecting the zones are represented by links.
Figure 8.5
Network represented by nodes and links
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting 4£k 281
8.7.1 The Shortest Path

A prerequisite to route assignment is the determination of the
shortest path from one node of the network to another. Given a road
network with known characteristics such as distance or travel time, the
shortest path may be found using Dijkstra’s algorithm .
The algorithm or procedure follows these basic steps:
a . First, label the starting node with a value equal to 0. This label
‘
is permanent as this will not be changed.

b . Consider each node adjacent to this node and give them
temporary labels . ( Only those without permanent labels are
considered .)
i. If a node is unlabelled , it is given a label equal to the
weight of the link plus the value of the previously labeled
node .
ii . If a node is labeled, calculate the value of the label and , if
this is less than the current value, then exchange its value
with the smaller one; otherwise, leave the label unchanged .
c . Choose the node with the smallest temporary label and make
the label permanent .
d . Repeat steps b and c until the final node has been given a
permanent label. The shortest path has a length given by its
permanent value.
Dijkstra’s algorithm will be illustrated by an example.
Example 8.3
Consider the road network shown in figure 8.6( A ). The nodes are
labeled a to k . The links have values in travel time in minutes. Determine
the shortest path ( least travel time) from a to k using Dijkstra’s algorithm.
Solution :
Node a is given a permanent label with value equal to 0. From a,
adjacent nodes are temporarily labeled as shown in ( B). With 2 as the
smallest , node b is permanently labeled as shown in (C). From node 6,
adjacent nodes are temporarily labeled . Again the node with the smallest
value is chosen. Note that either node c ore may be chosen because they
both have values equal to 3. Node c is chosen in this case, and unlabeled
nodes adjacent to it are labeled temporarily as shown in ( D). The steps
are repeated. It will be noted in ( E) that the value 13 is replaced by a
smaller value, which is 11.
0 2 3
13
5
( D)
0 2 3
3 43
5 11
10
( E)
0 2 3
5 5 11
10
13
(C) ( F)
Figure 8.6
Estimation of shortest path using Dijkstra's algorithm
' 8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting
It takes steps (A ) to (L) to label all the nodes completely. Finally

node k is labeled permanently. The shortest path from node a to A; follows
the route a-e- g-j-k with a total travel time of 23 minutes.
283
0 2 3 0 2 3
5 11 5 11
10 22 10 21
13 13 23
19 19
(G) (J )
0 2 3 0 2 3
5 11 5 11
21
10 22 10 21
13 13 23
19 19
(H) (K )
0 2 3 0 2 3
3
5 11 5
21
10 22 10 21
13
19 19
( I) ( L)
Figure 8.6 (continued)

Estimation of shortest path using Dijkstra's algorithm
8.7.2 Network Assignment

Given choices of routes, it is but natural to assume that the trip
makers will consider the route that would require the least time or least
distance.
Based on this assumption , the methods used to assign the trips
within the road network are the following:
a . All-or- nothing assignment
b . Constant assignment ratio
c . Incremental assignment
All -or- nothing assignment

Considering one OD pair, all trips are assigned to the shortest path
from point of origin to point of destination . After these trips are loaded
into the network , the level of service of the roads in the network may
change. The basic steps in conducting an all -or- nothing assignment are
as follows:
a. Find the minimum path between zones i and j.

b . Assign all trips T .. to the minimum path .
c . Repeat steps 1 and 2 for all OD pairs.
Constant assignment ratio

In this method, it is assumed that the number of trips assigned to a
route is inversely proportional to the travel time or cost of that route, i.e.,
more trips will be assigned to a route providing shorter travel time or
lesser cost . The basic steps for the constant assignment ratio method are
as follows:
a. Find out several possible routes between zones i and j.
b . Calculate the level of service (time or cost) on each route.
c . Divide the distributed trip to each route inversely proportional
to LOS.
d . Repeat for all OD pairs.
Example 8.4
Suppose that 100 trips are to be distributed among 4 routes with
the following travel times. Assign these trips hsing constant assignment
ratio. f
Route T, hrs
1 1.0
2 1.25
3 1.5
4 2.0
The inverse of time for each route is computed. This serves as the
level of service of the route. The assigned trips to each route are obtained
in proportion to this LOS. Higher values would have larger share of
assigned trips. The result of assignment is shown in the table below.
Route 1 /T Assigned trips
1 1.00 33.71
2 0.80 26.97
3 0.67 22.47
4 0.50 16.85
Total 2.97 100.00
Incremental assignment
This method considers the influence of previously assigned trips.
It is based on the Wardrop’s Principle, which states that out of several
routes available between zones i and y, the routes that are used have
equal level of service. The routes that are not used have lower LOS.
Consider the trips originating from one zone to be assigned. The
incremental assignment method takes the following steps:
a . Assign 1/ n of the trips to route ( by using all - or- nothing
assignment , or constant assignment ratio).
b . Calculate the new level of service for the state that 1/ n trips are
already assigned .
c . Assign next 1/n trips.
d . Repeat until all trips are assigned.
PROBLEMS
1. Use gravity model (Voohees type) to distribute the person trips given
below. Refine the method using Fratar iteration scheme. (Stop
iteration when row and column factors are 1 ±0.05.)
Person trips ( x 100)
0\ D 1 2 3 Total
1 0 ? ? 15
2 ? 0 ? 12
3 ? ? 0 14
Total 10 13 18 41
2%
Impedance function: F ( t - ) = 50
J
2. A multinomial logit mode choice model is calibrated for 10,000

persons. The resulting utility function is given below:
U = a - 0.015C - 0.03T
where C — out-of-pocket cost, pesos
T - travel time, min

a - constant
For a particular OD pair, three modes are available, with
characteristics as follows:
Out-of-pocket cost, Travel time, Ave. occupancy

Mode
pesos min persons/veh
Car 50 30 2
Aircon bus 10 45 40
Jeepney 5 50 14
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting <£} 287
Determine the following:

a . Percentage share of each mode
b. No. of vehicles of each mode
3. Assign the vehicle trips in the given network below using all -or-
nothing assignment. Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find minimum paths.
0\D 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 0 400 250 130 200 90

2 320 0 280 180 400 150
3 450 100 0 170 230 290
4 190 300 200 0 100 420
5 150 400 180 250 0 140
6 500 210 40 80 200 0
40'
20'
4
2 12*
8'
30' 3
501 ,24'
1 ,36' '26' 10'
5'
10'
5 6
17*
Road network with travel times in minutes

4. Determine the shortest path from a to b using Dijkstra’s algorithm.
9 4
8 5
- a
15 8
2 6 3
6 4 12
5
3 6 5
5 3
4 3
4
15 2 5
7 5 3 8
3
b 4
3 8 6
5. Assign the given vehicle trips ( veh / hr) using incremental method
( n = 3).
0\D 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 450 330 600 540 180

2 360 240 420 456 396
3 630 600 375 435 576
4 555 495 660 750 570
5 633 645 567 675 690
6 651 300 360 456 420
Initial travel times ( minutes) based on

10
90 kph free flow speed
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting
^ 289
Apply the capacity restraint relation shown below:
Travel
speed, kph
/ .
s
90
45
15
Volume, veh/hr
Capacity ~ 2400
6. Assign the peak hour vehicular trips shown on the given road
network . Use all-or-nothing assignment for the first 1/ n trips, then
use incremental method with capacity- restraint for the succeeding
assignments ( n = 2).
o D 1 2 3 4
1 0 600 450 1200

2 750 0 300 900
3 600 540 0 480
4 630 420 990 0
V, kph
A
80
40
10
> >
2800 , veh/hr
Q
Both
Speed-flow relation directions
40'
3
20' 18'
1 2 20'
37'
56'
4
Road Network
shown are based on 80 kph free flow speed.)
(Travel times
7. Given the following data:

a. Present person trip OD table
0 \D 1 2 3 4
1 400 400 300

2 200 300 200
3 400 300 600
4 200 100 300
b . Growth factors:
Zone 1 2 3 4
Origin factor (production) 2.0 1.3 1.5 3.0

Destination factor (attraction) 1.875 2.0 2.0 1.6
c . Calibrated utility function:

U = a - 0.002 - 0.05 X 2
where a = -0.40 for jeepney and a = -0.25 for car

Xx - cost of travel in pesos
X 2 - travel time in minutes
8: Introduction to Travel Demand Forecasting & 291
d . Cost of travel ( pesos) and travel time in minutes. Use for modal
choice only.
(Assume data for 1 to 2 are the same for 2 to 1, etc.)
i 2 3 4
Car Jeepney Car Jeepney Car Jeepney Car Jeepney
1 30 ( 15 )* 10 ( 20) 40 ( 45 ) 15 ( 55 ) 50 ( 50) 25 ( 125 )

2 30 ( 12 ) 10 ( 18 ) 30 ( 20) 10 ( 30)
3 30 ( 12 ) 10 ( 20)
4
* Values inside ( ) are travel time in minutes .
e. Estimated travel time in each link :
18 ' 3
1 20' 2
15 '
26'
4
Zone Centroids (travel time in minutes) Use this .

for trip assignment.
Perform:
i. trip distribution using Fratar method (make 1 iteration only,
i .e., get one set of row and column factors)
ii . modal split using logit model
iii. trip assignment of cars only using all-or-nothing assignment
( Average veh . occupancy: car
persons)
— 1.5 persons Jeepney - 14.0
;
REFERENCES
ALMEC Corporation. 1999. Metro Manila urban transportation integration

study (MMUTIS). Project final report, December.
Gamier, Rowan, and John Taylor. 1992. Discrete mathematics for new
technology . Adam Hilger.
Khisty, C. Jotin, and B. Kent Lall. 1998. An introduction to transportation
engineering . Second ed. Prentice- Hall.
Mannering, Fred L., and Walter P. Kilareski. 1990. Principles of highway
engineering and traffic analysis. John Wiley and Sons.
Morlok , Edward K. 1978. Introduction to transportation engineering and
planning . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Salter, R. J . 1976. Highway traffic analysis and design. Revised edition.
MacMillan Press.
Wardrop, J. G., 1952. Some theoretical aspects of road traffic research.
Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, part 2, vol. 1, 325-78.
London.
r
g
INTRODUCTION TO INTONTTMNSPOMION vm
9.1 BACKGROUND
I ntelligent Transportation System (ITS) is the application of information

and communication technologies to surface traffic and transportation
systems. ITS has the potential to improve mobility and operation of
transportation system. Deployment of ITS usually falls under any of the
following nine areas ( HIDO 2000):
a. Advances in navigation systems
b . Electronic toll collection
c . Assistance for safe driving
d . Optimization of traffic management
e . Increasing efficiency in road management
f. Support for public transport
-
g Increasing efficiency in commercial vehicle operations
h . Support for pedestrians
Support for emergency vehicle operations
Based on the experience of several countries that have earlier
deployed ITS, some of the estimated benefits are the following ( US DOT
1998):
a. Advanced traffic surveillance and signal control systems have

resulted in travel time reduction ranging from 8 percent to
25 percent.
b . Electronic fare payment technologies for transit systems have
resulted in increased revenues of 3-30 percent due to fewer
evasions.
c . Incident management programs can reduce delay associated
with congestion caused by incidents by 10-45 percent .
d . Electronic toll collection increases capacity by 200-300 percent
compared to attended lanes.
e . Widespread use of Mayday emergency notification devices can
reduce the time it takes to discover a rural crash from 1 minute
to 9.6 minutes.
9.2 CURRENT DEPLOYMENT OF ITS IN THE PHILIPPINES
9.2.1 Traffic- Responsive Signal System

The State- of - the- Art Metro Manila Adaptive Responsive Traffic
(SMART) system is a signaling project undertaken by the Department of
Public Works and High way s-Traffic Engineering Center ( DPWH-TEC)
for the upgrading and development of traffic signals in Metro Manila .
The SMART Project utilizes the Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic
System (SCATS) technology. As a dynamic demand - responsive traffic
System used for areawide control, the signal timings are free to evolve in
response to detected traffic demand. The SCATS was successfully installed
for the first time in the country in Cebu City. Figure 9.1 shows the system’s
configuration when used over a wide area such as a big city or metropolis.
Areas covering a number of intersections are controlled by a regional
computer, which is then connected to a central management computer
( CMC).
A. typical sample display of a regional or central management
computer useful for assessment of traffic condition is shown in Figure
9.2. It shows the congestion level of the road network in Cebu City.
Initial assessment
There is a tendency to assume that once a new traffic control system
—
replaces an older one, traffic flow will automatically improve speeds
9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System ( ITS) 295
Central management computer
ra
Regional computer
(PC running NT)
,1 Regusmal computer
(PC running NT)
0 0 Local controller
0 0 Local controller
Local controller
D 0 Q 0'
Figure 9.1
SCATS hardware structure
( Regional Computers Networked to a CMC)
(Courtesy of R. Solayvar)
Help
CEBU
13 : 26: 29
IN T : 1 1 4
SS: 34
-
•congestion
i
hi l)S:hi
ned DS:hi
« ned DS:ried
to DS:lo
* l o C L warn
—
Isolated
FlexiLink
i Fall Back
Figure 9.2
SCATS display of congestion level of Cebu City's road network
(Courtesy of R. Solayvar)
will increase, queuing will be less, traffic will be orderly, etc. However,
there are a number of factors external to the system that may severely
affect the traffic flow. In a “ before-and-after” study conducted to evaluate
the system , it was observed that most of the unwanted practices noted
during the before case were still prevalent during the after case ( UP
NCTSFI 2001). These include
• uncontrolled loading and unloading of passengers by PUVs;
• illegal parking;
• vendors occupying sidewalks ( even carriageway ) , leaving
pedestrians no option but to use the road ;
• commuters on the road waiting for rides; and
• laxity in traffic enforcement.
These practices severely hinder the flow of traffic along some
—
thoroughfares considered in the study Taft Ave., Mabini St., and Del
Pilar St. There is no way that SCATS alone can solve the traffic problems
along these roads. A concerted effort by concerned authorities is therefore
necessary to eliminate these practices. Otherwise, the government’s effort
to alleviate congestion through the use of advanced technologies will be
worthless.
Nevertheless, the SCATS has been found to manage traffic better
by preventing extreme peaking (or concentration ) of the traffic volumes,
thus allowing the available capacities to be used more optimally. With
regard to queuing, twenty -five intersections along four corridors (i.e.,
Taft Avenue , Roxas Boulevard , Mabini St ., and Del Pilar St . ) were
evaluated before and after the installation and operation of the SCATS
traffic signal system. An overall reduction of 30.39 percent was estimated
for queue lengths during the morning peak . Similarly, an overall reduction
of 35.98 percent was estimated for afternoon peak queues. These
reductions clearly indicate an improvement due to the installation and
operation of SCATS.
9.2 .2 The Metro Manila ETC Systems
Dubbed E-PASS, the first-ever electronic toll collection (ETC) system
in the Philippines started to be implemented in August 2000. Transcore US
and Transcore Australia take care of software and hardware, respectively.
E -PASS is expected to be used in more than 150 toll lanes along the
South Luzon Expressway (SLEX ) and the Skyway (elevated expressway).
9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) A 297
In this system, a tag is placed on the inside surface of the windshield

behind the vehicle’s rearview mirror. The tag is electronically read at the
entry and exit of E-PASS-ready toll lanes. Upon exit , it is read to determine
the toll fee to be paid. If there is enough balance in one’s E-PASS account ,
a green light is given and the barrier lifts up. (A yellow light is also given
to alert the subscriber that his or her prepaid toll balance is below 1^ 250
and that it would be advisable to reload soon. A red light means a zero
balance account , meaning the subscriber cannot use the e- pass lanes to
exit .) The tag is available at the customer service center and through
sixteen participating Shell service stations located near the expressway.
A “ one tag, one vehicle” policy is applied, which means a motorist is not
allowed to switch the tag to any other vehicle if he or she owns more than
one. The total cost of enrolling in the ETC system is 3,800 for each tag
^
kit . It includes the five-year lease for the tag. To encourage motorists to
subscribe to the new system, a 60 percent discount was offered for the
first 10,000 tag kits. Cash lanes that are not included in the E-PASS
service are also computerized for a faster cash collection system. Cash
value cards are available through interactive kiosks in Shell stations.
Figure 9.3 shows the different components of SLEX ETC System .
Central computer center Customer service center

Figure 9.3
Components of ETC at South Luzon Expressway
(Courtesy of PNCC Skyway Corp.)
Features of the SLEX ETC system

a . Automatic vehicle classification
• AVC system classifies vehicles using height and number

of axles.
• Done at exit points (exit lanes).
• Done for both manual and ETC payment.
Figure 9.4 shows the various devices and components of a toll gate
(E-PASS exit).
Figure 9.4
E- PASS exit
b . Cash collection
• Uses magnetic striped card which is encoded by the toll
teller and handed to the patron at entry booth .
• Card is electronically “ read ” at the exit booth .
• Toll teller classifies the vehicle/AVC system makes its own
classification independently.
• Toll is computed by the computer and displayed to the toll
teller and the patron.
• A motorist receipt is generated .
9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) {Sk 299
c . Electronic toll collection
• All lanes with ETC antenna can be switched to “ ETC only ”

lanes (figure 9.5).
• Patrons use tags.
• A siren and an amber flashing light will provide violation
notification to staff:
——
Orange low balance
Red insufficient fund
• If fund is insufficient, the patron has to pay in cash .
d . Information generated at the supervisor’s level ( maxi booth)
• Lane information , such as lane number, lane direction , lane
mode, operator, payment type, etc.
• Transaction details at a particular lane vehicle
classification, amount paid , etc.
—
• Unusual occurrences, such as changes in lane modes, toll
operator log on / off , violation , nonrevenue transaction ,
equipment fault or recovery
• Assignment of cash bags
Figure 9.5
Hanging ETC antenna
300
Initial assessment
The existing system lacks some of the features of a full - blown ETC
system found in other countries. There is no monitoring system using
cameras nor automatic vehicle violation processing system . To cut cost ,
a simplified system was devised so that full control is done within the
jurisdiction of the expressway. The existing ETC system requires motorists
to slow down or to come to a full stop for checking. A horizontal barrier
lifts when a green light is given . At times, when traffic becomes heavy, a
bumper- to- bumper situation can cause the barrier to rise and fall too
often . This can confuse drivers who follow other vehicles too closely and /
or who misjudge the operation of the traffic light and barrier. This technical
flaw needs to be addressed since in 2001, at least 200 barriers were
destroyed every month , not to mention the damages to vehicles. Minimum
spacing or headway between vehicles should be enforced . A simple
method is to paint two lines before the toll gates for checking the spacing.
Based on an initial study of the operation of the tollway, the
dedicated E-PASS lane has an average tollbooth transaction time of 1.15
seconds per vehicle compared to 15.0 seconds per vehicle for the manual
scheme ( cash coupons), and 5.9 seconds per vehicle for mixed - mode
lanes (Padayhag and Sigua 2001). Table 9.1 shows the lane usage and
service rates at Nichols A tollgate.
Table 9.1
Lane usage for Nichols A at morning peak (7:30-10:30 AM)
Volume E-PASS users Ave.

Lane Lane
service
no . characteristics
No. % No. % time, sec
1 E-PASS/cash coupons; buses and trucks 306 7.30 0 0 19.72

2 Cash coupons; buses and trucks 299 7.13 0 0 17.29
3 Cash coupons; cars 470 11.21 0 0 16.74
8 E-PASS/exact toll; cars 504 12.02 0 0 3.33
9 E-PASS/cash coupons; cars 495 11.81 343 60.28 1.34
10 E-PASS only; cars and buses 226 5.39 226 39.72 1.19
TOTAL 4,192 100.00 569 100.00
Source: Padayhag and Sigua 2001 .

9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) fit 301
Table 9.2 shows the number of vehicles using the dedicated

E-PASS lanes at Nichols and Bicutan during peak hours. At Nichols A,
13.6 percent of the vehicles using the tollgate are E-PASS users.
a . Morning peak ( 7:30-10:30 AM )
Table 9.2
Number of vehicles using E-PASS ( according to vehicle type)
Vehicle type
Location Total
Car Bus Small truck Large truck
Nichols A 508 39 19 3 569

Nichols B 1300 0 0 0 1300
Bicutan entry 232 39 19 3 293
Bicutan exit 290 10 4 1 305
Source: Padayhag and Sigua 2001.
b . Afternoon peak (4:00-6:00 PM )
Vehicle type
Location Total
Car Bus Small truck Large truck
Nichols A 237 15 1 15 268

Nichols B 673 0 0 0 673
Bicutan entry 87 0 4 15 106
Bicutan exit 206 0 0 0 206
The SLEX ETC system is a distance- based system . Overall , the

trip demand on the use of the expressway is basically the same. It is
worth looking at the system as time- based , with higher fees collected or
charged during peak hours. The concept of time- based fee charging is
discussed in the next section .
After major rehabilitation of the North Luzon Expressway ( NLEX),
the Manila North Luzon Tollways Corporation began full operation of
ETC in early 2005. (See figure 9.6.) Dubbed EC-Tag, the ETC at NLEX
operates at the same frequency ( DSRC 5.8 Ghz) similar to SLEX. Among
the features of the new NLEX are computerized toll collection system;
dedicated lane for transponder and swipe card system for faster
transactions; reliable emergency and roadside services, including smart

emergency phone boxes; and twenty -four- hour emergency assistance
consisting of telephone operators, traffic patrol teams, first air emergency
trucks and tow trucks.
Figure 9.6
The new North Luzon Expressway
( Upper photo courtesy of MNTC; lower photo taken by the author . )
Table 9.3 shows a comparison of the SLEX and the NLEX ETC
systems. The estimated percentage of ETC users was for the year 2006.
Table 9.3
Comparison of SLEX and NLEX ETC systems
Features SLEX NLEX
Length, km 48 84
Start of operation Aug. 2000 Early 2005
Technology US -based Transcore DSRC Egis Projects S.A. of France
5.8 Ghz DSRC 5.8 Ghz
Daily volume 270,000 200,000
% ETC users 20 6.5
9.3 ROAD PRICING
Koshi’s assessment of the traffic congestion in Manila , Bangkok ,

and Jakarta made him conclude that the only effective method available
in Asian cities is “ road pricing ” ( Koshi 1996) . Fees have to be set
unrealistically high to achieve a meaningful reduction in overall demand.
Its primary objective should be to encourage drivers to reconsider their
time of departure and time of return . As a secondary benefit, the revenue
generated from it can be used for building public transit networks such
as bus and rail transit systems. However, he also stressed that unless
adequate transportation infrastructure is built , the problem will not be
solved no matter what amount of time or money is spent on information
processing and communication . The first priority, therefore, is to build
rail transit systems.
9.3.1 Time- Based Fees
The present distribution of trip with time (arrival and departure) is
one of the causes of congestion in Metro Manila. Trip making is
concentrated in a short period during peak hours as shown in figure 9.7.
A better spread of the time of arrival to a longer interval will contribute to
the alleviation of traffic congestion. Road pricing does just that by charging
any vehicle entering the restraint zone a fee, depending on the level of
congestion in the area.
Source: ALMEC Corp . 1999.

Figure 9.7
Hourly distribution of trips
9.3. 2 Phasing in Peak - Hour Road Pricing

No system for peak -hour road pricing can be installed all at once
in a large metropolitan area; it would have to be phased in gradually. The
first locations chosen would be road or other sites (such as bridges) that
are heavily congested during peak hours and have no easy substitute routes.
Another possibility would be “ zone pricing,” like that in downtown
areas. Special fees would have to be paid for vehicle entry during key
—
hours in one or a few heavily congested zones such as central business
districts ( CBDs). Vehicles entering these zones then would either pay
monthly fees computed by an automatic vehicle identification ( AVI )
—
system or buy stickers that would exempt them from arrest and fines —
as in the original Singapore system (monitored by human spotters). Zone
pricing would work best where congestion is heavy in a relatively limited
and compact area rather than over a broad region .
Since many drivers diverted from priced roads would switch to
alternative routes, traffic would rise sharply on these alternative routes.
This could offset much of the advantage of the reduced congestion on
toll routes if the system leaves many such alternatives untolled . Peak -
9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) fit 305
hour pricing would probably never be installed on all alternative routes,

even after an entire system had been phased in . Of course , modern
technology changes so quickly that some method of doing this might be
found . Nevertheless, increases in traffic on alternative routes might become
an almost permanent condition in the near future. Heavy traffic might
therefore be diverted into residential neighborhoods or onto other socially
undesirable routes.
An important question is: How high should the new road charges
be ? These should be high enough to divert the minimum number of
vehicles needed to achieve desired average speeds, but not so high that
surrounding roadways become clogged because so many vehicles have
had to be diverted. Choosing the right tolls will therefore be a matter of
trial-and -error experimenting on each road. Coping with the traffic that
shifts to alternative routes that do not charge tolls poses a challenge.
9.3.3 Other Effects of Peak - Hour Road Pricing
Peak - hour road pricing would also increase the peak - hour use of
public transit because some commuters would find driving more costly
than using public transit after taking into account the time, toll , and
operating expenses. Furthermore, more commuters who usually drive
alone would start ride sharing, for the same reason . Both these effects
would reduce peak -hour congestion .
9.3. 4 MMUTIS Studies on Road Pricing
A number of hypothetical cases have been studied for the
application of road pricing in Metro Manila, although its political and
social acceptability is still uncertain ( ALMEC Corp. 1999):
a . Road pricing in an arterial
EDSA , the most important circumferential road in Metro

Manila, was considered for road pricing. It was assumed that
all the private vehicles entering EDSA pay USS 1 per entry. The
traffic crossing EDSA is not charged. Results showed the following:
i. Alleviation of congestion by about 5 percent along EDSA.
Some parallel roads, however, became congested due to
detouring traffic.
ii. Potential revenue of about USS 70 million per year.
I
b . Cordon pricing within a CBD

Cordon pricing was tested for the CBD of Makati City, the
business center of Metro Manila. A similar fee of US$ 1 was
assumed .
i. The effect of reducing traffic congestion is significant in
and around Makati (5-10 percent ).
ii. Potential revenue estimated at US$ 61 million per year.
c . Cordon pricing within a bigger area
A much bigger area bounded by the circumferential road
EDSA was considered .
i. Most of the roads in Metro Manila show an alleviation of
traffic congestion by 3-10 percent .
ii. Potential revenue estimated at US$ 174 million per year.
d . Parking pricing
Parking pricing within the CBD of Makati City was assumed .
A parking pricing charge of about US$ 1 per parking event
was applied .
i. Effect on alleviation minimal.

ii . Potential revenue about US$ 15 million per year.
9.4 SOME ISSUES RELATED TO SUSTAINABLE DEPLOYMENT

OF ITS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
a . Institution
Successful ITS deployment requires a very high level of
cooperation between national and local agencies on the one
hand , and law enforcement and emergency response agencies
on the other. Since these agencies do not normally work closely
together, significant turf and organizational culture problems
may arise. Traditional transportation agency leaders also suffer
from inadequate knowledge of ITS technologies and their
potential benefits.
b . Infrastructure
Successful ITS deployment and operations require basic
infrastructure elements like a well-developed communications
backbone and uninterrupted power supply.
c . Technology
Understanding the role of ITS technologies is critical to its

success. ITS planning and design should be based on “ needs-
based assessments,” not just on technology push .
d . Finance/ budget
Although ITS deployments cost significantly less than new
road construction, they involve allocation of funds to be spent
on systems unfamiliar to transport authorities, or which have
not been deployed widely elsewhere. This creates a situation
of inadequate support for ITS projects, especially, since several
transport authorities cannot even afford basic highway
maintenance and rehabilitation .
9.5 C O N D I T I O N S F O R A C C E P T A B L E D E P L O Y M E N T/
IMPLEMENTATION OF ITS IN METRO M A N I L A
A truly working ITS scheme, such as Electronic Road Pricing (ERP)

or ETC, is one that has the right objectives, delivers its predicted benefits,
and is acceptable to the ones paying for it. This means that when an ITS
scheme is successful , the ones paying for it have to enjoy some of its
benefits.
Something that works in Singapore may not work in Manila. Cultures
differ greatly. Charging for something that used to be free may not be a
good approach. A number of ITS schemes such as ERP will never succeed
as long as the victims of the current problems feel they have to pay for
becoming a victim in the solution.
There is already a growing criticism that ITS favors the rich .
Expected beneficiaries of ITS should not be only car users. Metro Manila
is a good example when it comes to public transport patronage. About
70 percent of trip makers rely on public transport. It should be the policy
of the government that revenues from ITS schemes ( ETC or ERP) be
earmarked for transportation infrastructure development , such as mass

transit systems, instead of simply going to general funds. Unless ITS is
geared toward mass transportation system, it is likely to fail in developing
countries where majority of trip makers rely on public transport for
mobility.
9.6 CONCLUSION
ITS should complement the government’s plans and programs to

build more urban expressways and urban rail networks. Preparations for
—
planning and deployment of ITS such as full - blown ETC along
expressways or major arterials, ERP for CBDs and, automation at LRT/
—
MRT stations should begin now. Urgent tasks to be done are the
following:
• Creation of an official organization to look at ITS priorities.
• Development of ITS master plan for Metro Manila. Priority
should be given to mass transport- related ITS applications.
There is also the growing concern on safety and environment
issues.
• Comprehensive analysis of the first examples/initiatives of ITS
—
—
deployment in Metro Manila SCATS Signal System and
Skyway’s ETC their effectiveness, and what went wrong. Is
SCATS a failure due to lack of complementing traffic
management measures ? Do ETC’s partial implementation and
cost -cutting measures make the system ineffective ? Is full
implementation an absolute condition ?
• Making it known that ITS is not only for developed countries.
ITS seems to be so sophisticated / high - tech that it becomes
incomprehensible to traditional politicians. In a developing
country, there is a strong tendency to rely heavily on manual
methods due to cheap labor. This is also true in the Philippines
where manual method is thought to be more effective than
automatic means.
• As government is desperately looking for effective solutions, a
lot of convincing is needed for the decision makers to believe
that ITS is not simply a “ technology push ” but a viable solution
to Metro Manila’s congestion problem .
9: Introduction to Intelligent Transportation System ( ITS) Ok 309
REFERENCES
ALMEC Corporation. 1999. Metro Manila urban transportation integration

studies ( MMUTIS). Project final report, December.
Highway Industry Development Organization ( HIDO). 2000. Intelligent
transport systems: ITS handbook 2000-2001. Japan.
Koshi, M. 1996. Traffic congestion in Asian cities: The wheel extended.
A Toyota Quarterly Review, no. 95.
Padayhag, G. U ., and R . G. Sigua . 2001. Evaluation of electronic toll
collection (ETC) system along South Luzon Expressway and Manila
Skyway. 9th Annual Conference, Transportation Science Society
of the Philippines, Manila, July.
University of the Philippines National Center for Transportation Studies
Foundation Inc. ( UP NCTSFI). 2001. Metro Manila SMART Traffic
Signaling Project (SCATS) before and after study final report, June.
US Department of Transportation . 1998. ITS Joint Program , ITS for
Metropolitan Areas.
mm of mm
AADT annual average daily traffic; it is estimated as the
total volume counted over one year divided by the
number of days in the year.
ADT average daily traffic; obtained by averaging traffic
volume over a number of days at least 2 days and
less than 365 days.
Blackspots hazardous or accident - prone locations.
Broken back curve a curve characterized by a short tangent between
two subcurves in the same direction .
Capacity the maximum hourly rate at which persons or

vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a
point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during
a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic,
and control conditions.
Channelization geometric improvement normally applied at
intersections to simplify movements of vehicles to
lead drivers to face one conflict at a time.
Clearance interval the sum of yellow and all -red period in between
phases.
Clothoid a spiral that serves as a transition path as the vehicle
enters or leaves a circular curve.
Compound curve a two-arc simple curve having its centers on the

same side of the common tangent.
312 Sk Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Cordon counts counts used to determine the number of vehicles

and /or persons entering and leaving an enclosed
area.
Crest vertical curve a vertical curve with the parabolic curve drawn
below the two tangents.
Critical gap describes the minimum gaps needed by drivers of
minor road vehicles.
Cycle one complete indication of green , yellow, and red

signals.
D / D/1 a single-server queuing system with regularity of
both arrivals and departures.
Delineators small reflective panels or buttons mounted on guide
posts or guard fences as an effective aid for night
driving.
Density the number of vehicles in a given length of road at
an instant point in time.
Design speed the maximum safe speed that can be maintained

over a specified section of highway when conditions
are so favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
Dijkstra’s algorithm a procedure used in route assignment stage of the
four-step model to determine the shortest path from
one node of the network to another.
Diplomatic vehicles motor vehicles owned by a foreign government or by

their diplomatic officials in the Philippines.
Disaggregate choice model a method used for determining modal split , which
assumes that a person will use a particular mode
with maximum utility for him .
Easement curve See Clothoid .
ETC Electronic Toll Collection; an ITS application; see
also ITS.
Expressway a major divided highway designed for high -speed
travel , having few or no intersections; also called
freeway or limited access highway.
Glossary of Terms 313
FIFO First -in first -out , i .e., the first one that arrives at the
service station gets served first and therefore is the
first to leave the system as well .
Flow rate the number of vehicles passing a point during a
specified period of time.
For hire vehicles motor vehicles authorized to be used as public
vehicles by virtue of a franchise granted by the Land
Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board.
Generalized cost a term that puts costs on quantifiable and sometimes
unquantifiable costs that may be incurred during a
trip using a specified mode.
Glass beads materials used to enhance the wet - night
reflectivities of pavement markings.
Grade-separation eliminates the problematic crossing conflicts of the
different movements of vehicles; flyover/overpass,
underpass, or full- blown interchanges are some of
the examples.
Greenshields model a traffic flow model describing linear relation
between speed and density.
Harmonic mean speed See Space mean speed.
Intergreen See Clearance interval.
Interrupted flow flow occurring at intersections or driveways where
vehicles are required to stop by any cause outside
the traffic stream such as traffic signs (STOP or
YIELD), traffic signal lights, etc.
Intersection the point where traffic flow converges and where
direction of travel changes.
ITS Intelligent transportation system ; the application
of information and communication technologies for
surface traffic and transportation systems.
Jeepney an indigenous mode of public transportation in the
Philippines; a postwar creation , it was inspired by
the GI jeeps that the American soldiers brought
with them to the country during the 1940s.
Kendall’s notation a notation used to describe queuing system .
Level of service a qualitative description of how a certain facility is

performing.
LIFO Last - in first -out, i.e., the last one that gets in gets
out first. See also FIFO.
M / D /1 a single -server queuing system which assumes that

the arrivals of vehicles follow a negative exponential
distribution , a probability distribution characterized
by randomness. Departure is assumed to be regular
as in the D/ D/1. (See also D/ D/1.)
M / M /1 A single -server queuing system that assumes

negative exponential for both arrival and departure
distributions.
M / M /N A multiple-server queuing system that assumes
negative exponential for both arrival and departure
distributions. (See also M / M /1.)
Maximum speed limit the 85th percentile speed used for speed regulation .
Minimum speed limit the 15th percentile speed used for speed regulation.
Modal split a part of the four -step model with the objective of
determining which mode of travel is used by a trip
maker.
Moving observer method a method developed by the Transport Road Research
Laboratory in the UK that is used to obtain
information on traffic volume, speed , and density of
a given section of road .
Official /government vehicles motor vehicles owned by the Philippine government .
Offset the difference in the start of green of two signalized

intersection .
Parabolic vertical curve curve used for the design of the profile of highways.
Passing sight distance the shortest distance required for a vehicle to safely
pull out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle traveling in
the same direction , and return to the correct lane
without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle
or opposing traffic.
Glossary of Terms fib 315
Pavement markings traffic control devices that take the form of lines,
symbols, messages, or numerals, and may be set into
the surface of , applied upon , or attached to the
pavement.
PCU value passenger car unit equivalent of the different types
of vehicles.
Pedicab a bicycle with a sidecar; nonmotorized mode of
public transportation . See also tricycle.
Phasing a process by which right of way is given to particular
movements in a logical manner with the primary
purpose of minimizing the number of conflicts.
Pneumatic road tube used as detector, it senses vehicle pressure and sends
a burst of air pressure along a rubber tube when a
vehicle’s tires pass over them ; the pulse of air
pressure then closes an air switch and sends an
electrical signal that marks the passage of a vehicle.
Private vehicles motor vehicles owned by private individuals or
companies and are not intended to be used for hire.
Raised pavement markers small rectangular or dome-shaped devices that are
fixed or embedded to the pavement to simulate or
supplement painted pavement markings.
Reserve capacity difference between the existing traffic volume and
available capacity.
Reverse curve a two-arc simple curve having its centers on opposite
sides
“ Right of Way ” rule rule which states that when two vehicles arrive at
the same time at the intersection, the vehicle on the
right has the priority.
Road pricing a method of alleviating congestion by charging any
vehicle entering the restraint zone a special fee to
depending on the level of congestion in the area.
Rotary a form of unsignalized intersection in which all the
vehicles move counterclockwise in one- way fashion.
Roundabout See Rotary
Route assignment a part of the four-step model which is used to assign

trips or vehicles to a given road network.
Sag vertical curve a vertical curve with the parabolic curve drawn
above the two tangents.
Saturation flow rate the maximum flow rate occurring at the stop line
once traffic initially in queue is given green time
indication .
SCATS Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System; third -

generation system in which the signal timings are
free to evolve in response to detected traffic volumes
and queues; the system installed in Metro Cebu
and some parts of Metro Manila.
SCOOT Split Cycle Offset Optimization Techniques; third -
generation system in which the signal timings are
free to evolve in response to detected traffic volumes
and queues.
Screen line counts classified counts taken at some points along a line
that bisects a given area.
Semaphore a visual signaling apparatus with flags, lights, or
mechanically moving arms, as one used on a railroad;
used also for controlling intersections.
Shock wave a phenomenon brought about by the motion or
propagation of a change in density and flow.
Simple curve a circular arc between two tangents.
Space mean speed speed based on the average travel time of vehicles
in the stream within the section .
Spacing the distance between two vehicles measured from

the front bumper of one vehicle to that of another.
Spot speed arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a
point within a given interval of time.
Stopping sight distance the shortest distance required for a vehicle traveling
at the assumed running speed to stop safely before
reaching a stationary object in its path.
Glossary of Terms A 317
Superelevation banking of the roadway necessary to counteract the

centrifugal force that is acting on the vehicle.
Test car technique a method for travel time studies that makes use of a
test vehicle, which is driven over the road section
under study. The driver is instructed to travel at a
speed that in his opinion is representative of the
speed of the traffic stream .
Thermoplastic materials materials that can be heated to a liquid state,
reshaped, and cooled to form a new object; regarded
as the most successful of all pavement marking
materials when properly applied.
Time headway the time interval between passage of consecutive
vehicles at a specified point on the road with a unit
of time per vehicle.
Time mean speed See Spot speed .
Time occupancy the total time a detector is occupied divided by the
total time of observation.
Traffic accident an unexpected and undesirable event , especially
one resulting in damage or harm .
Traffic control devices means by which the road user is advised as to

detailed requirements or conditions affecting road
use at specific places and times so that proper action
may be taken and accident or delay avoided.
Traffic death defined by the UN Organization (Geneva) as one
that occurs within thirty days of the event.
Traffic engineering that phase of transportation engineering that deals
with the planning, geometric design, and traffic
operations of roads, streets, and highways; their
networks, terminals, and abutting lands; and their
relationships with other modes of transportation .
Traffic management a term used to embody the activities undertaken by
a highway transportation agency to improve roadway
system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both
providers and consumers of transportation services.
318 tik Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering
Traffic regulation covers all aspects of the control of both vehicle

( registration , ownership , mechanical fitness,
accessories, size, weight ) and driver (age, ability to
operate specific types of vehicles, financial
responsibility ).
Traffic signal a visual signal to control the flow of traffic and
pedestrians at intersections or at midblocks.
Traffic signs traffic control devices necessary to give information
as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
function becomes more relevant when used to warn
road users of hazards and in regulating any
prohibitive action at specific places and /or at
specified times.
Transportation engineering a field or branch of civil engineering that deals
with the application of technology and scientific
principles to the planning, functional design ,
operation , and management of facilities for any mode
of transportation to provide for the safe, rapid ,
comfortable , convenient , economical , and
environmentally compatible movement of people
and goods.
Tricycle a three - wheel , motorized mode of public
transportation consisting of a motorcycle with a
sidecar. See also Pedicab.
Trip attraction the number of trips that is attracted to a certain
zone.
Trip distribution a part of the four-step model with the objective of

determining from which zones the trips are generated
and to which zones these trips are bound.
Trip generation the number of trips generated from a certain zone.
Two-way stop control the major approaches without STOP signs have
complete priority over the minor approaches with
STOP signs.
Glossary of Terms A 319
Ultrasonic vehicle detectors detect volume, presence, classification, and speed

of vehicles; they are active acoustic sensors that
transmit sound waves toward detection zones at a
frequency ranging from 20 khz to 300 khz.
Uninterrupted flow flow occurring at long sections of road where vehicles
are not required by any cause external to the traffic
stream.
U - turn scheme a traffic management scheme in which intersections

-
are replaced by U turn slots. Operation is very
similar to that of a roundabout except that it favors
a particular road , which is assumed to be the major
road.
Volume See Flow rate.
IHMX
1968 Vienna Convention 4, 20 at-grade intersection 108
30 th hourly volume 182 Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI)
6th ADB Road Project 229 system 304
Automobile Association of the Philippines
A 231
AADT 183, 185, 223. See also Annual Average cost of accidents 253
average daily traffic Average daily traffic 90. See also Annual
AASHO. See American Association of State average daily traffic
Highway Officials Average factor method 274
Accident, definition of 216 Average speed, determination of 99
methods of cost estimation 242 Average travel time 99
problem of underreporting 220, 257 B
Accident rates
for intersection 223 Ban on use of cellular phones and handset
for road sections 224 radios 233
per population 214 Best fit line. See Linear regression analysis
per registered vehicles 214 Blackspots 225
Accident reporting 216 methods of identification 225
Action time 176 Brake reaction time 176
All-or- nothing assignment 284 Broken back curve 192
All- red period 142
Alliance Internationale de Tourisme 231 C
Allocation of green time. See Traffic signal Capacity, definition of 58
setting: allocation of green time capacity of intersection 146
American Association of State Highway multilane highways 184
Officials 158 reserve capacity 124
Annual average daily traffic 89. See also unsignalized intersection 120
Average daily traffic Category analysis 269
Arc definition 186 Cebu City 294
Asian Development Bank 217 Centrifugal force 174
Channelization 109 Detroit method 274

Chord definition 186 Dijkstra’s algorithm 281
Circular curve 185 Directional distribution 182
Classic statistical method 225 Disaggregate choice model 278
Clearance interval 142 DPW1I Sixth Road Project 217
Clothoid. See Easement curve Driving license 9
Coefficient of friction 177 medical examination and drug test 8
Commonwealth Act 146 12 types 8
Compound curv e 190 nonprofessional driver’s license 8
Constant assignment ratio 284 professional driver’s license 8
Coordination of traffic signals 160 student driver’s permit 8
graphical method 164 written and practical examinations 9
methods 160 Driving schools 10
alternating system 161 DSRC 5.8 Ghz 301
progressive system 161
simultaneous system 160 E
offset 168 E-PASS 296
time-distance diagram 160 Easement curve 194
Cordon pricing 306 Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) 307
Crest vertical curve 201 Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) system 296
sight distances 205 tag 297
Critical gap 120 Executive Order 125 12
Critical movement analysis 151 Executive Order 202 12
D External zones 267
D/ D/1 68 F
Degree of congestion , A 150 Federation Internationale de 1’ Automobile
Degree of curvature 186 232
Delineators 39 FIFO 66
Density, definition of 47 Flow rate, definition of 43
jam density 52 Four-step forecasting model 265
Department of Education, Culture and Sports submodels 265
228, 231 Fratar method 274
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources 217 G
Department of Health 216, 228, 231
Department of Interior and Local Generalized cost 277
Government 12, 228 Grade separation 108
Department of National Defense 228 Gradient 176
Department of Public Works and Highways Gross output or human capital method 243
90, 229, 294 Growth rate method 269
Department of Transportation and H
Communications 7, 11, 228, 229
Design speed 175 Hazard markers 39
Design volume 182 Highway Capacity Manual ( HCM)
58, 118, 151, 185
Index 323
Highways, design of 174 J

design requirements 175
number of lanes 183 Japan International Cooperation Agency
Horizontal alignment 174, 185 (JICA) 14
circular cuve 185 K
I K value 182
Incremental assignment 285 Kendalls notation 67
Inductance loop detector 80 L
Institute of Traffic Engineers 13, 164
Institute of Transportation Engineers 237 Land Transpn Franchising and Regulatory
Insurance Surety Association of the Board 7, 230
Philippines 8 Land Transportation and Traffic Code 11
Intelligent Transportation Systems 16, 293 Land Transportation Office 7, 11, 230
areas of deployment 293 Level of service, definition of 58
estimated benefits 293 License plate method 95
issues 306 LIFO 67
Inter-agency Road Safety Committee 228 Linear regression analysis 53
Intergreen period. See Clearance interval Logit model 278
Internal zones 266 Longitudinal gradient 198
International Bank for Reconstruction and Lost times 141
Development 175
Intersection 107 M
capacity 146 M / D/1 70
categories 107 M/ M/168, 71
shape 107 M / M/ N 68, 72
type of operation 108 Manila North Luzon Tollways Corporation
type of structure 108 301
critical movement analysis 151 Maximum superelevation 180
degree of congestion , X 150 Metro Manila 1
delay estimation 146 average travel speed 3
design elements 110 ETC systems 296
turning geometry 110 initial assessment 300
design principles 109 land area 1
length of left turn lane 157 pedestrian facilities 6
methods of control 112 population 1
traffic conflicts 112 population density 1
treatment of left turn traffic 155 population growth rate 1
Intersection control 113 public transportation 4
grade-separation 117 road accident reporting 216
roundabout or rotary 114 safety of pedestrians 6
signalized 116 SMART Project 294
U-turn slots 115 total road length 3
unsignalized 114 traffic congestion losses 3
traffic management 4
Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Offset 168

Analysis System 217 absolute offset 168
Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement relative offset 168
Project 217 Origin-destination (OD) table 266
Metro Manila Commission 11 Overlapping movements 152
Metro Manila Development Authority
11, 217, 230 P
Metro Manila Urban Transportation Parabolic vertical curve 200
Integration Study 272 properties 200
studies on road pricing 305 Parking pricing 306
Minimum passing sight distance 179 Passenger car unit 78, 123, 139, 185
Minimum radius of curvature 179 Pavement marking 32
Minimum stopping sight distance 177 color 35
Ministry of Transportation and functions and limitations 32
Communications 10 legal authority 33
Modal split 276 line types 35
Model method 275 materials 34
Basic type gravity model 275 messages 36
Bureau of Public Roads type gravity standardization 33
model 275 symbols 36
Voohees type gravity model 275 types 33
Motor vehicle classification 7 object markings 34
diplomatic 7 pavement and curb markings 33
for hire 7 reflector markings 34
official/govemment 7 width of lines 35
private 7 Peak - hour road pricing 304
Motor Vehicle Inspection System Perception time 176
18, 230, 232 Phasing 139
Motor vehicle user’s fee 232 phase pattern 151
Moving observer method 98 Philippine Highway Planning Manual
N (PHPM) 58, 183, 185
Philippine Motor Association 231
National Center for Transportation Studies Philippine National Injury Survey 219, 257
3, 14, 231, 249 Philippine National Police 230
National Road Safety Committee 229, 233 Philippines 1
Network assignment 284 accident rate 217
New Jersey median barrier 236 average road density 3
Nodes and links 280 domestic passenger traffic 1
North Luzon Expressway 301 freight traffic 1
EC-Tag 301 land area 1
ETC system features 301 licensing system 233
number of bridges 3
O population 1
Object markings 37 population density 1
Office of the Insurance Commissioner 8 population growth rate 1
road accident reporting 216
Index A 325
road length 3 Road system, elements of 18

urban centers 1 driver 18
vehicle registration 7 road 18
Planning horizon 265 vehicle 18
Present pattern method 273 Roundabout 114
Presidential Decree (PD) 1605 11 analysis and design 128
Probit model 278 Route assignment 280
Property damage-only accidents 216 Running speed 176
Public Service Act 12
S
Q
Safety aspect of design 174
Queuing Theory 66 Safety Organization of the Philippines Inc.
deterministic processes 67 229, 231
elements of queuing system Sag vertical curve 201
input 66 sight distances 206
output 66 Saturation flow rate 139, 146, 159
service station 66 SCATS 160, 308. See also Sydney
Kendall’s notation 67 Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System
Markov process 67 SCOOT 160. See also Split Cycle Offset
type of queue discipline Optimization Techniques
FIFO 66 Seat Belt Law 232
LIFO 67 Serious injury 216
Setting benchmark method 228
R Sharpness of curve 186
Radius of curvature 186 Shock wave 75
Raised pavement markers 38 Shortest path 281
Rate quality control method 226 Shortt’s formula 197
Regression analysis 272 Side friction 180
Republic Act 4136 11 SIDRA 151
Republic Act 6975 12 Sight distances 176, 205, 206
Reverse curve 190 passing sight distance 177
nonparallel tangents 192 stopping sight distance 176
parallel tangents 191 Simple curve, definition of 187
Riding comfort 199 Skyway 296
Road pricing 303, 305 Slight injury 216
Road safety 213 Socioeconomic indicators 218, 265
education and campaigns 239 South Luzon Expressway 296
issues 233 ETC system features 298
key indicators 213 Spacing 49
Road safety assessment 218 Spacing in queue 112
socioeconomic indicators 218 Speed , definition of 45
gross domestic product 218 free flow speed 52
population 218 running speed 176
vehicle registration 218 space mean speed 46
Road Safety Guidelines for the Asian and spot speed 45
Pacific Region 243 time mean speed 45
Split Cycle Offset Optimization Techniques estimation of cost components 248

138 estimation of national cost 256
Spot speed studies 90 indirect costs 247
analysis and presentation 92 major causes 221
mean and variance of speed data 93 Traffic calming measures 236
methods 91 Traffic conflict, types of 113
manual method 91 Traffic Control Center 14
radar speed meter 91 Traffic control devices 4
objectives 90 elementary requirements 19
sample size 91 functional groups 19
spot speed frequency distribution 93 guiding devices 19
time of study 90 regulatory devices 19
trap length 91 warning devices 18, 19
Starting loss 142 pavement markings 32
Stationing 186 traffic signals 6
STOP sign 21, 114 traffic signs 20
Sturgess formula 92 traffic signs and markings 4
Superelevation 174, 180 Traffic death , UN definition of 216
Superelevation runoff 198 Traffic Enforcement Group 216
Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System Traffic Enforcement Unit 216
138, 294 Traffic Engineering and Management
initial assessment 294 (TEAM) Project 14
Symmetrical clothoid 196 Traffic Engineering Center (TEC) 14, 294
Traffic engineering, definition of 12
T practice in the Philippines 14
Tally sheets 86 Traffic flow 43
Technical Skills Development Authority 230 hydrodynamic and kinematic models 61
Test car technique 94 continuity equation 63
Time headway 48 fluid-flow analogy 63
Time occupancy 50 types 43
Time value distribution 277 Traffic flow models 65
Time- based fees 303 Greenberg’s model 65
Traffic Accident Reporting and Analysis Greenshield’s model 52, 65
System 217 parabolic model 65
Traffic accidents Traffic management, definition of 16
at intersections 222 Traffic Management Group (TMG) 11, 216,
by time of day 224 256
computerized database 234 Traffic Operation Center 230
cost components 243 Traffic regulations 16
administrative costs 246 fundamental requirements 17
lost output 244 Traffic signal control 132
medical treatment and hospital types of signals 132
costs 244 area traffic control 137
pain, grief , and suffering 244 coordinated 137
property damage 245 isolated 132
costs 240 pre- time 133
traffic-actuated 134
Index 327
Traffic signal setting 139 U

actual green 149
allocation of green time 145 U-turn scheme 6, 115
cycle, cycle length 142 Ultrasonic detector 80
data requirements 139 Uniform factor method 273
effective green 145 University of the Philippines 3, 14, 231
lost times 141 Unsignalized intersection 114
all- red period 142 analysis 118
starting loss 142 Utility, utility function 278
phasing 139 V
timing diagram 148
Traffic signs and markings 20 Vertical alignment 174, 200
classification of signs 20 Vertical curve 201
design elements 21 general equation 202
color 21 sight distances 204
illumination and reflectorization types 201
22 crest vertical curve 201
placement and height 22 sag vertical curve 201
shape 21 Volume, definition of 43
size 21 types 84
international standard 24 Volume studies 84
Traffic variables 43 methods 86
density or concentration 43 automatic counters 87
flow rate or volume 43 manual counters 87
other variables 48 video cameras 87
relationships 50 summary and presentation 87
speed -density relationship 52 time of study 85
volume-density relationship 55 types of data collected 85
volume-speed relationship 56
speed 43 W
Transport Training Center (TTC) 14 W-beam guardrail 236
Transportation engineering, definition of 12 Wardrop’s principle 285
Travel demand forecasting 265 Webster’s formula for delay 146
Travel time and delay studies 94 Webster’s formula for optimum cycle 143
methods 94 Willingness- to- pay method 243
license plate method 95
moving observer method 98 Y
test car technique 94
Trip attraction 268 Y-value 143, 150, 152
model for Metro Manila 272 y- value 143, 150
Trip attraction , estimation of 268 Yellow or amber period 142
Trip distribution 273 YIELD sign 21, 114
Trip generation 268 Z
model for Metro Manila 272
Trip generation, estimation of 268 Zone centroids 280
Trip production 268 Zone pricing 304
Turning roadway 112 Zones 266
mmm
D r. Ricardo G. Sigua is a professor at the College of Engineering of
the University of the Philippines Diliman , teaching transportation
engineering subjects in both undergraduate and graduate programs of
the Civil Engineering Department. He obtained his Bachelor of Science
in Civil Engineering degree from the same university in 1978. He finished
his master’s and doctors degrees from the University of Tokyo in 1984
and 1991, respectively. Professor Sigua served as director of the UP
National Center for Transportation Studies for two terms (1996-1999 and
2002-2005). He is a member of the Transportation Engineering Specialty
Division of the Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers ( PICE). He has
been the Philippines’ lone Country Representative to the Transportation
Research Board of the National Research Council ( Washington , D.C.)
since 1997.
A
THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES PRESS
The book covers basic concepts that a senior civil engineering

student is expected to understand thoroughly. It is also written as a
-
handy self contained reference or easy guide for practicing traffic
and transportation engineers. Only through a firm grasp and
systematic application of basic knowledge and theories could we
truly come up with credible and effective solutions to our transport
problems and traffic woes. There is nothing more gratifying than
having the field of traffic engineering help build communities
characterized by efficiency, order, and safety.
Cover Design: Lyra Ab

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m

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES PRESS

© 2008 by Ricardo G. Sigua

The National Library of the Philippines CIP Data

1. Traffic engineering— Philippines.

HE365.5P5 388.312’ 09599 2008 P074000094

Book Design by Zenaida N . Ebalan

Printed in the Philippines by EC- tec Commercial

4.3 Spot Speed Studies 90

5.7.4 Lost Times 141

6.4 Vertical Alignment 200

7.5.3 Seat Belt Law 232

8.3 The Origin -Destination Table (OD Matrix) 266

9.5 Conditions for Acceptable Deployment /Implementation

My Lord God Almighty — the Way (John 10:35),

My wife, Helen — my faithful journey companion

“ And / will make all My mountains a road , and My highways will be

T he scarcity of books on transportation , especially those particularly

prevention should always be the first and foremost concern in every

rT^ he Philipp ines, a member of the Association of Southeast Asian

Source: Smartdraw 2007 clipart.

expenditures on transport infrastructure goes to road systems ( Abueva

study of the University of the

1.1.3 Traffic Management

Traffic signals are commonly installed at major intersections in many

1.1.5 Vehicle Registration

Cars 749,553 18.00

Source: LTO 2005.

About 40 percent of the total number of vehicles are registered in

The applicant must be at least sixteen years old and must

c . Professional driver’s license

New applicant for professional driver’s license must be at

Driving license requirements

Professional Non-professional Student permit

1.1.8 Driver Apprehensions

Source: LTO 2005.

As to the type of apprehensions, most of these are fines for violating

Fined 594,126 92.89

Source: LTO 2005.

1.1.9 Driving Schools

Commonwealth Act 146, otherwise known as Public Service Act ,

1.2 TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1904 Traffic survey methods were being employed.

Source: Evans 1950.

1868 First traffic signal in Great Britain ( illuminated by gas)

In 1930, the Institute of Traffic Engineers (ITE) was founded , and

1.2.2 Traffic Engineering in the Philippines

Abueva , Jose V. , ed . 2004. The Macapagal - Arroyo presidency and

National Center for Transportation Studies ( NCTS). 2000. A study on cost

T raffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken

2.2 TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Many individuals feel that traffic control measures are an encroachment

c. Regulations alone often are not enough .

Figure 2.1 suggests a balance among the three elements, i .e., a

The road and vehicle may be subject to constant change and

2.3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

These are employed simply to inform the road user of route,

a. It should compel attention.

2.4 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS

c. Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on

a. A for urban low-speed roads

Table 2.1 Recommended dimensions for STOP and YIELD signs

Size Dimension (mm)