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Phys. Med. Biol., 1982, Vol. 27. No. 8, 1023-1034. Printed in Great Britain

The suitability of different preparations of

thermoluminescent lithium borate for medical dosimetry
B F Wall, C M H Driscoll, J C Strong and E S Fisher
National Radiological Protection Board Chilton, Didcot, Oxon., England

Received 20 November 1981, in final form 17 March 1982

Abstract. The thermoluminescence properties of three different preparations of lithium

borate have been studied with specific reference to their use in medical dosimetry. The
properties of lithium borate powder doped with copper make it more attractive for low
dosemeasurementsthanthemore conventional phosphor doped with manganese.
However, the energy response of the copper-doped material was not quite so suitable as
that of the manganese-doped material for measuring doses to tissue at photon energies
below 100 keV. It also exhibited appreciable light induced fading.

1. Introduction
Manganese doped lithium borate, Li2B407:Mn developed at the Windscale Works of
British Nuclear FuelsLtd (Brunskill 1968), from the method of preparation established
by Schulman et a1 (1967), has been extensively used in the medical dosimetry pro-
gramme of the National Radiological Protection Board, and a detailed assessment of
its properties and performance was published by Langmead and Wall in 1976. The
attractive features of this thermoluminescent material for the measurement of doses
arising from diagnostic x-ray examinations are:
(i) a flat energy response with respect to soft tissue ( * 5 % between 15 keV and
2 MeV),
(ii) asimple glow curvestructure which eliminatestheneedforcomplicated
annealing regimes,
(iii) the low fading of stored dose information ( 4 % loss in one month),
(iv) sufficiently high sensitivity and low background signal to enable doses down
to 100 pGy (10 mrad) to be measured with adequate precision,
(v) low cost (f0.02 per 30 mg of powder dosemeter in 1977).
However, an increasein the luminescent signal-to-noise ratiowould be a desirable
improvement in dosemeter performance to permit doses lower than 100 pGy to be
measured accurately. This would be particularly useful in establishing doses received
by patients’ organs outside the mainbeamduring x-ray examination, or doses to
radiographic staff, both being exposed only to low levels of scattered radiation,
The inherentsensitivity of the Li2B407:Mn developedby Brunskill is considerably
higher than that of other nominally tissue-equivalent phosphors like lithium fluouride
LiF:Mg,Ti. This is evident from the response per unit absorbed doseof this preparation
of lithium borate which is 62% of the response of lithium fluoride, when both are
measured with a photomultiplier tube having a quantum efficiency 8.5 times higher
at the wavelength of the fluoride emission peak compared with that of the borate
(Langmead andWall 1976). Selection of a photomultiplier tubewith a higherquantum
1024 B F Wall et a1

efficiency for the orange (600 nm) light emitted by Li2B407:Mnwill not necessarily
improve the signal to noise ratio. The inherent dark current from the photocathode
is likely to be higher and the photomultiplier sensitivity to spurious infrared radiation
from hot parts of the reader is increased. These effects may well overshadow the
increase in signal, and only by a careful selection of photomultiplier tube and optical
filters could the signal-to-noise ratio be improved.
An alternative approach is to change the dopant of the phosphor in order to shift
the wavelength of the emission towardsthe blue end of the spectrum where photomulti-
plier tubes are much more sensitive. Several transition metals andrare-earth elements,
most of which produceablueshift,havebeentriedasalternativedopants to
manganese, but initially only silver resulted in acomparablethermoluminescence
efficiency (Thompson and Ziemer 1973). Rzyski and Nambi (1977) confirmed these
disappointing results with 14 rare-earth elements of the lanthanide series. Further-
more, all these alternative dopants, particularly the rare-earths, have considerably
higher atomic numbers than manganese, and therefore may adversely affect the good
tissue-equivalence of lithium borate even at the low doping concentrations used in
these investigations (0.1 to l.6*/0 by weight).
However in the same year Takenaga et a1 (1977) reported considerable success
using a combination of copper and silver dopants at very low concentrations (0.02%
by weight of eachimpurity) in lithium borate. This new phosphorexhibitedtwo
emission bands in the ultra violet-Aregion and the authorsclaimed a thermolumines-
cence efficiency three times higher than Li2B407:Mn.
Samples of this promising material were obtained for further investigation from
Dr Yamashita of the Matsushita Electric Industrial Company. In addition, samples
of another lithium borate phosphor doped only with copper were received, despite
the fact that Takenaga et a1 (1977) had dismissed lithium borate doped with 0.02%
copper and no silver as being very insensitive. However, our studies revealed that
the copper-doped material was far superior to material containing both copper and
silver. A further sample of Li2B407:Cuwas received from Dr Yamashita together
with a brief technical note implying that Li2B407:Cuwas now the preferred phosphor.
In this paper, the dosimetric characteristics of these two new Japanese phosphors are
compared with the established Li2B407:Mn currentlyused in this laboratory.

2. Elemental composition and structure of materials

Only limited information on the manufacturing techniques andimpurity levels associ-
ated with the Japanese phosphors were received. Therefore, it seemed prudent to
establish their elemental composition and dopant distributionsso as to obtain a better
understanding of their dosimetric behaviour, The elemental composition was analysed
by spark-source mass spectrometry at the Analytical Research and Development Unit
of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, and by fluorescence x-ray
excitation using a scanning electron microscope at NRPB. The mass spectrometry
was only semi-quantitative and each impurity and dopant level shown in table 1 is
expressedasaprobablerangespanninganorder of magnitude.Bothanalytical
techniques could detect no impurity in the BNFL Li2B407:Mn material other than
manganese. The probable range of the manganese concentration encompassed the
manufacturer’s quoted value of 0.15% by weight.Similarly,onlycoppercould be
positively identified in the Li2B407:Cu phosphor from Japanwith a concentration of
around 0.01%. The nominally copper- and silver-doped Japanese phosphor, on the
 Li2B40, for medical dosimetry 1025

other hand, appeared to be contaminated with manganese and iron and to contain
considerably more copper than silver, as shown table 1. There is, however, consider-
able doubt regarding thereliability of this analysis due to interference from other
low
atomic weight elements and theinitial use of added silver as an internal standard.

Table 1. Impurity and dopant concentrations in different preparations of lithium

borate.

Phosphor Dopant
or Probable
range of concentration
andimpurity
product (% by weight)

Li2B407:Mn Manganese 0.02-0.2

BNFL
Li2B407:Cu Copper 0.003-0.03
Matsushita
Li2B407:Cu,Ag Copper 0.006-0.06
Matsushita Silver <0.0006
Manganese 0.002-0.02
Iron 0.002-0.02

Electronmicrographs of thephosphor grains are shown in figure 1. The

Li2B407:MnandtheLi2B407:Cu,Ag grainshaveasimilar appearance while the
LizB407:Cuparticles exhibited smooth rounded surfaces with deep depressions, some-
times containing smaller particles aswell as flat faces where the material had presum-
ably sheared during grinding. The smooth appearanceof the Li2B407:Cuparticles is
due to asinteringprocessthat is uniquetothepreparation of thisphosphor, as
described by Takenaga e t d (1980). Particle size analysis of the Li2B407 was performed
on the micrographs using a Zeiss Optical System. In this system, the area of each
particle was approximated optically to the area of a circle and the diameter of the
circle was taken as being representative of the diameter of the grain. The average
diameters of the grains were 80, 41 and 63 km for the Mn:Cu and Cu,Ag doped
phosphors, respectively.
Figure 2 shows an enlarged micrograph of part of a Li2B407:Mngrain together
with a map of the fluorescent x-ray emission characteristic of the manganese dopant
takenoverthesame field of view as themicrograph. The characteristic x-rays
generated within the specimens were analysed by an energy dispersive spectrometer
(ORTEC-EEDS-11). Therelative density of the dopant on, and just below, the surface
of the grains (as indicated by the bright areas on the x-ray map (figure 2 ( b ) )can be
compared with surface features evidentin the secondary electron micrographs of the
same field of view (figure l ( a ) ) . X-ray maps generated for the Japanese phosphors
were unreliable due tohigh copper x-rayemissions fromother parts of the microscope
and the silver concentration was too low to be adequately detected. However, it can
be seen fromfigure 1 that the concentration of manganese over the surfaceof a grain
is far from uniform. Precipitation of the dopant would appear to have occurred in
localised surfaceareas during the manufacturing process or subsequent heat treatment.
Apparentdopantconcentrationsthat canbe seenoutsidethe grain aredueto
interfering bremsstrahlung.
1026 B F Wall et a1

r"
c
g
U

c
c
U
z
5
Y
5
a
c
10
c
c
1
L
c4
z
J
.-
E

-
C
c
L

-
J
U
W
r(

e
W
iE
 for
Li2B407 dosimetry
medical 1027

Part of LizR407:Mn grain

Corresponding Mn distrihution

FiEure 2. Enlarged micrograph of Li2R407:Mn and correspondingMn fluorescent x-ray map.

3. Dosimetric properties
3.1. Relative sensitivities and usable dose range
Prior to use all three types of phosphor were annealed at 300 "C for 30 mins. These
were theoptimum conditionsforremovingresidualluminescencefrom previous
irradiations of up to 1 Gy and maintaining the original sensitivity. Annealing was not
strictly necessary if previous doses were less than 10 mGy. Unlike Lakshmanan et a1
(1981) no discolouring of the copper-doped phosphorwas observed U-'-5this anneal-
ing regime and repeated anneals produced significant
no loss of sensitivity. All readouts
were performed under a nitrogen atmosphereusing a linear heating rate up to 300 "C
and integrating the readout signal under the main dosimetry peak.
Measurements of relative sensitivities of the phosphors in terms of light output
per unit dose are very dependent on the spectral response of the reader and the
1028 B F Wall et a1

quality of theradiationto which thephosphorsareexposed.This is because of

differences in the wavelength of the light emitted by these phosphors and the marked
differences in the way that their responses vary with photon energy (see section 3.3).
The relative intensities of the three phosphors irradiated with 90Sr P-rays are shown
in the first two columns of table 2 for two readers fitted with different photomultiplier
tubes.Reader 1 uses radiofrequencyheatingand was designed and built atthe
Windscale Works of British Nuclear Fuels Ltd. Two coils carrying radiofrequency
(0.5 MHz) power produce eddy current heating in a graphite disc which is used to
heat the thermoluminescent material. The light emitted is measured with an EM1
type 9524B photomultiplier tube with an S11 photocathode. Reader 2 is a Pitman
654 Toledo reader using contact heating between the heating plate and the stainless
steel tray which contains the phosphor. This readeruses a 9757B tubewith a bialkali
photocathode.

Table 2. Relative sensitivities and background levels for the three phosphors.

Mean background 2 a from mean back-

Observed relative equivalent dose ground equivalent dose
sensitivity W Y ) (GY)

Phosphor Reader 1 Reader 2 Reader 1 Reader 2 Reader 1 Reader 2

Li2B407:Mn 1.0 1.0 100 200 40 50

Li2B407:Cu 2.5 7.8 30 10 30 10
Li2B407:Cu,Ag 0.36 1.1 500 - 200 -

The latest spectral response data for these tubes, published by the manufacturer,
indicate that the ratio of the quantum efficiencies at 368 nm (the peakof the emission
spectrumfortheJapanesephosphors)andat600 nm (thepeak of the emission
spectrum for the Mn-doped phosphor) is 8.4 for the S-l1 photocathode and 18 for
the bialkali photocathode. Reader 1, is fitted with the S - l 1 tube, and has an 11 cm
long Perspex light guide between the phosphor and the PM tube which attenuates the
ultraviolet emission for the Japanese phosphors by 34%. This was measured on a
Pye Unicam SP 1800 ultraviolet spectrophotometer. Thus, the relative response of
reader 1 to Japanese phosphors compared with Li2B407:Mn would be expected to
. reader 2, having no light guide, the relative
be reduced to 5.5 (i.e., 8 . 4 ~ 0 . 6 6 ) For
responseshouldremainat 18. However,theobservedrelativesensitivities of the
three phosphors shown in table 2 differ from the above ratiosbecause the phosphors’
inherent sensitivities, whenirradiated, are not the same. Relative inherent sensitivities
(i.e.,thenumber of photonsemittedperunitabsorbeddose of 90SrP-rays) of
1: 0.44 : 0.063 for Mn : Cu : Cu,Ag dopants, respectively, relate the observed relative
sensitivities to the expected response ratios of the readers. Thus, although Li2B407:Mn
is inherently about twice as sensitive as Li2B407:Cuand about 15 times as sensitive
as Li2B4O7:Cu,Ag, it is found in practice that the Cu-doped material appears nearly
eight times more sensitive than the Mn-doped material, when read in a reader with
abialkali photocathodeandno uv absorbingoptics.Undertheseconditions,
LiZB407:Cu,Ag has about the samesensitivity as Li2B407:Mn.
The usable dose rangeof the phosphorsis limited at thelower end by the variability
in the background noise from undosed samples and at the upper end by the onset
of superlinearity or saturation. The dose that is equivalent to the mean background
 LiZB40,for
dosimetry
medical 1029

noisefromundosedsamples of the three phosphors is shown in the 3rd and 4th

columns of table 2 whilst the last two columns show the 95% confidence limits (twice
the standard deviation) about these mean background values. These last figures give
an indication of the minimum dose that can be distinguished from zero by the three
phosphors, The lowest dose that can be measured accurately will be substantially
higher. However, the Cu-doped Japanese phosphor with adetectionthreshold of
10 pGy demonstrates a considerable improvementin low dose measurement capability
overthemoreconventionalMn-dopedphosphorfor which the lowest detection
threshold is 40 kGy. The Cu,Ag-doped Japanese phosphor on the other hand exhibits
extremely high background noise that limits its lowest detection threshold to at least
200 pGy.
Linearity measurementsshow that both the Mn- and Cu-doped materials maintain
a linear dose-response relationship up to at least 1 Gy (100 rad). At higher doses
there is only a slight indication of superlinearity for the Cu-doped material with a
possible over response of around 15% at 100 Gy, while the Mn-doped phosphor is
superlinear by about 25% at 10 Gy and approximatelya factor of two at 100 Gy.
The usable doserangesover which theresponse is sufficiently linearforno
corrections to be necessary and where the signal to noise ratio is high enough for
accurate dosimetry are summarised below:
Li2B407:Cu 2X Gy(2mrad)-l0Gy(1000rad)
Li2B407:Mn Gy (10mrad)-l Gy (100 rad)
Li2B407:Cu,Ag 5 X Gy (50 mrad)-l0 Gy(1000rad).
Sensitivity and background measurements have been made on two separate batches
of the copper-doped phosphor supplied in July 1979 and July 1981. The background
levels were indistinguishable between the two batches while the sensitivity was 20%
higherfor the later sample. The results quoted above apply to the first batch, on
which most of the measurements were performed, and may thus underestimate the
minimum measurable dose capability of more recent material. Batch-to-batch vari-
ations in sensitivity are an important consideration in thermoluminescent dosimetry
(Horowitz eta1 1979) andit should be appreciated that the performances demonstrated
in this section may not be typical of all material of the same type evenwhen supplied
by the same manufacturer.

3.2. Fading
Fading is the loss of radiation-inducedthermoluminescentsignal with time. To
establish the degreeof fading of this stored dose information, samples
of each phosphor
were dosed to 0.01 Gy and kept for periods up to six weeks under different lighting
conditions. For all three types of Li2B407, the fading of samples stored in the dark
in opaque plastic envelopes was less than 5% in a month. The results after 10 days
storage of samples exposed to fluorescent or tungsten light are shown in figure 3 . In
this experiment, the phosphors were placed either 0.3 m from a 125 W fluorescent
tube (Thorn Warmwhite) or 0.4 m from a40 W tungsten lamp. Under both conditions,
similar fading results wereobtained. The degree of fading for the Li2B407:Mn samples
remained at less than 5 % in a month. However, during the first few days of storage
the fading for the Li2B407:Cu and Li2B407:Cu,Ag samples was high. During the first
24 h, the signal from these latter samples was reduced to 60% of the original signal.
1030 B F Wall et a1
100 Li2BL07: Mn

LiZB,07 : t u
Li2BL07 :CU,AI

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Tlme ( d a y s I
Figure 3. Fading of dose signal when phosphors exposed to fluorescent and tungsten light.

After a weekof storage, no furthersignificant fading was observed and for bothtypes
of material the measuredfading over a month was about 8 5 % .
The glow peaks of the three types of LiZB407 areshown in figure 4. The peaks
were recorded using linear heating from 20 "C to 300 "C in 12 S . A rapidly fading
low temperature peak below 160 "C was observed in all samples. However, this peak
was not included in the readout phase of the heat cycle since the readout signal was
integrated from the trough between the peaks tofew a seconds beyond the main peak
in eachcase. The mainpeakoccurredat marginally lower temperatures for both
Li2B407:Cu and Li2B407:Cu,Ag compared with the Li2B407:Mn. While the two
peaks were clearly resolved for the Mn-doped material, the copper-doped samples

-.
.
LizBL07:Mn L1I ? B ~ O ~ : C U , A L i 2 B ~ 0 7 : C u
!

Ah 300 160 i!O

300 160

Temperatur

Figure 4. Glow curves for the three phosphors.

L

300 160 2C
I
1

L
 LiZB& for medical dosimetry 1031

showed poor resolution of the two glow peaks for the heating cycle used, leading to
the possibility of increased fading.
The effect of humidity during storage of lithium borate phosphors both before and
after irradiation has been discussed by many authors. Some preparations of the
phosphor were found to be hygroscopic causing caking of the powder grains, but this
has not been observed under operational conditions for any of the materials discussed
in this paper. Mason (1974) measured a loss of 16% in sensitivity for the manganese-
doped lithium borate powder when stored for one month at 40 "C and 70% relative
humidity. Takenaga et a1 (1980) shows a loss of 10-25% for the copper-dopedpowder
after 2-6 months storage at 25 "C and 95% relative humidity. These are relatively
small effects under rather extreme conditions and have not been studied in this paper
since control dosemeters that have shared the same environmental conditions are
used to calibrate our TLD system every time that it is used. The routine annealing
procedure restores any sensitivity lost during storage at high humidities.

3.3. Photon energy response

The response of the three phosphors per unit absorbed dose in ICRU muscle has
been experimentally measured as a function of photon energy by exposing samples
of the phosphors to heavily filtered x-rays complying withthe International Standards
Organisation criteria (IS0 1979) for narrow spectra. X-ray spectra with mean energies
ranging from 33 to 161 keV were used and the responses were normalised to that
measured with 137Csgamma rays at 660 keV. Below 33 keV essentially monoenergetic
fluorescent x-rays were used. Doses in ICRU muscle were derived from the exposures
given to the phosphors measured with secondary standard ionisation chambers by
applying theappropriate 'f' conversion factors published in ICRU (1970). 35 mg
samples of the phosphors were contained in thin (0.12 mm) Polythene sachets and
for energies below 100 keV thesachets were suspended in free air with no additional
build-up. For energies between 100 and 200 keV an extra layer of Polythene tape
0.15 mm thick was applied to both sides of the sachets to ensureelectronic equilibrium
and for the I3'Cs irradiation the sachets were sandwiched between two sheets of
Perspex 3 mm thick. Although these build-up materials have different mass energy
absorption coefficients from the phosphors, previous measurements using the phosphor
itself asbuild-up material indicate that the substitute
materials produce the same effect,
The experimentally measured energy response curves for the three phosphors are
shown in figures 5 and 6, together with theoretically derived curves for Li2B407with
appropriate concentrations of the three dopant materials. These theoretical curves
have been derived by plotting the ratio of the mass energy absorption coefficients of
lithium borate plus the dopants to those for ICRU muscle over the same energy range
with the ratio normalised to unity at 660 keV. The absorption coefficient data used
in these calculations have been taken from ICRU Report 17 and the paper of Greening
et a1 (1972) for energies up to 150 keV and from Storm and Israel (1970) for higher
energies.
The experimental response for Li2B407:Mn agrees wellwith the calculated
response for a dopant concentration of 0.15% by weight and confirms the excellent
tissue-equivalence previously reported for this material. The Japanese copper-doped
lithium borate does not exhibit quite such close equivalence to muscle and the
agreement between measurement andcalculation is reasonable considering the uncer-
tainties of up to 5% in the interaction coefficients used in the calculations and the
1032 B F Wall et a1

:::p,!
I ‘ T ’ ’ ’ ” “ I

a
0
v

“_ ”

0.8

0.6
p Measured response

W
Measured response
0.4
W
LT 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Figjure 5. Theoretical and measured energy response curves for Li2B407:Cu and Li2B40;r:Cu,Ag.
bars indicateone standarddeviation. Theoretical responsecurves: A, Li2B407(0.35wt% cu. 0.35 wt%
B, Li2B407 (no dopant).

10 20 50 100 200 500 1000

Photon energy i keV )

Figure 6. Theoretical and measured energy response curves for Li2B407:Mn.Solid line, bestfit to measured
points. Broken line, theoretical response for Li2B407 (0.3 wt% Mn). Error bars indicate one standard
deviation.

experimentalerrors shown onthegraph.It was assumedthat aconcentration of

O.0lo/~by weight of the copper dopant was used and this small quantity makes no
significant difference to the theoretical response for Li2B407 alone.
The response of the Li2B407:Cu,Ag phosphor was only measured at three energies
and indicated a large over-response relative to muscle at energies below 100 keV.
Calculation showed that concentrations of 0.35% by weight for both dopants would
be necessary to account for this behaviour, as indicated on the graph. This is consider-
ably more dopant than both the manufacturers claimed and the mass spectrometry
and x-ray fluorescence analyses indicated. Unfortunately, insufficient phosphor was
available toenablethesemeasurementstoberepeatedbuttheotherdrawback
associated with this material argued against further investigation of its performance.

4. Conclusion
The salient thermoluminescence propertiesof the lithium borate phosphors measured
in this study are summarised in table 3. Li2B407:Cu,Agis seen to be the
least attractive
formedicalapplicationsbeingincapable of accuratedosimetry below 500 p,Gy
(50 mrad), showing significant light induced fading and a large over-response to low
energy x-rays compared with muscle. Li2B407:Cu on the otherhand would appear
 LiZB407for medical dosimetry 1033

Table 3. Summary of the thermoluminescence properties of the three lithium borate phosphors.

Phosphor
Thermoluminescence
property
LizB407:Cu,Ag Li2B407:Cu Li2B407:Mn
~~ ~~~ ~

Relative sensitivityt 1.o1.1 7.8

Usable
range
dose (Gy) 1 X 10-~-1 2 X 10-~-10
5 X 10-~-10
response
Energy (30 keV/13’Cs) 1.05 0.84 1.83
Fading of TL signal (10days in light) <5% 85 % 85%
~~~ ~ ~

t These figures relate to reader 2 which has optimum sensitivity for the Cu and Cu:Ag-doped phosphors.

to have a distinct advantage over the more conventional Li2B407:Mn in situations

where doses downto 20 kGy (2 mrad) need to be measured, but suffers from a slightly
less suitable energy response and appreciable fading of stored dose information if
exposed to light for periods exceeding an hour. This degree of light-induced fading
does not presenta serious problem for our particular application in medical dosimetry.
The powder is accurately dispensed into light-tight sachets prior to exposure which
are simply emptied onto reader trays immediately before readout. This operation
takes at mosta few minutes and canbecarried out under subdued lighting thus
reducingany loss of stored dose information to an insignificant level. If ahigher
precision is required,invdvingtheaccurate weighing of powdersamplesafter
exposure, under high levels of illumination, then this effect could be regarded as a
considerable disadvantage.

Resume
L‘aptitude h la dosimttrie mtdicale des difftrentes prtparations de borate de lithium thermoluminescent.
Nous avons Ctudit les proprittts thermoluminescentes de trois prtparations difftrentes de borate de
lithium
en fonction de leur utilisation sp6cifique en dosimttrie mkdicale. Pour les mesures de faibles doses, les
proprittes de la poudre de borate de lithium dopee au cuivre la rendent plus attrayante que le phosphore
dopt au manganese plus conventionnel. Cependant, la rtponse en Cnergie des mattriaux dopts au cuivre
n’est pas aussi approprite que celle des mattriaux dopes au manganese pour la mesure des doses pour les
photons d’tnergie inftrieure a 100 keV. Nous montrons que cela induit tgalement une diminution apprtci-
able de I’tclairement.

Zusammenfassung
Die Eignung verschiedener Lithiumborat-Thermoluminiszenz-Praparatezur medizinischen Dosimetrie.
Die Thermoluminiszenz-Eigenschaftenvon drei verschiedenen Lithiumborat-Praparaten wurden im Hin-
blick auf ihren Nutzen furdie medizinische Dosimetrieuntersucht.Die Eigenschaften des mit Kupfer
dotierten Lithiumborat-Pulvers sind interessanter fur Messungen kleiner Strahlendosen als das konvention-
elle mit Mangan dotierte Phosphor. Trotzdem war zur Messung de Gewebedosis bei Photonenenergien
unter 100 keV die Energie-Empfindlichkeit des kupferdotierten Materials nicht ganz so geeignet wie die
des mangandotierten Materials; es zeigt auperdem ein betrachtliches durch Licht induziertes Fading.

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