SALAHUDDIN M.

KHALID
IX SEMESTER | FIFTH YEAR

`
THEORY & DESIGN OF
STRUCTURE

INSIDE
THIS
ASSIGNMENT
SHELL STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION, GEOMETRY
SHELL STRUCTURE
ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES CASE STUDY OF SHELL STRUCTURE
 BAHAI HOUSE OF WORSHIP, NEW DELHI
GEOMETRY OF SHELL
BASED ON SHAPE AND FOLD  SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE, AUSTRALIA
ARRANGEMENTS

DESIGN CRITERIA OF
SHELL STRUCTURE
ETC.
Definition of shell structure
 SHELL STRUCTURE, IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, A THIN, CURVED PLATE
STRUCTURE SHAPED TO TRANSMIT APPLIED FORCES BY COMPRESSIVE, TENSILE,
AND SHEAR STRESSES THAT ACT IN THE PLANE OF THE SURFACE.

 THEY ARE USUALLY CONSTRUCTED OF CONCRETE REINFORCED WITH STEEL MESH.

 SHELL CONSTRUCTION BEGAN IN THE 1920S; THE SHELL EMERGED AS A MAJOR

LONG-SPAN CONCRETE STRUCTURE AFTER WORLD WAR II.

 THIN PARABOLIC SHELL VAULTS STIFFENED WITH RIBS HAVE BEEN BUILT WITH
SPANS UP TO ABOUT 300 FT. (90 M).

 MORE COMPLEX FORMS OF CONCRETE SHELLS HAVE BEEN MADE, INCLUDING

HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDS, OR SADDLE SHAPES, AND INTERSECTING PARABOLIC
VAULTS LESS THAN 0.5 IN. (1.25 CM) THICK.

 PIONEERING THIN-SHELL DESIGNERS INCLUDE FELIX CANDELA AND PIER LUIGI

NERVI.
Geometry of shell structure
 THEY INCLUDE SURFACES OF REVOLUTION, SURFACES OF TRANSLATION, RULED
SURFACES AND FREEFORM SURFACES AS SHOWN IN FIGURE BELOW.

Surface of revolution:
 A SHELL IS GENERATED BY ROTATING A PLANE CURVE GENERATOR AROUND AN
AXIS OF ROTATION, USUALLY VERTICAL, TO FORM A CLOSED SURFACE.

 IN A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION, THE LINES OF PRINCIPAL CURVATURE ARE CALLED

MERIDIANS (NORMAL SECTIONS FORMED BY PLANES CONTAINING THE AXIS OF
ROTATION) AND PARALLEL CIRCLES (NORMAL SECTIONS TRACED BY PLANES
PERPENDICULAR TO AXIS OF ROTATION), AS SHOWN IN FIGURE BELOW.
 A CLOSED SHELL OF REVOLUTION IS FREQUENTLY CALLED A DOME, AND THE PEAK
OF SUCH A SHELL IS TERMED THE POLE AND THESE ARE USED IN ROOFING.

 SOME GEOMETRIC DETAILS OF SUCH SHELLS ARE SHOWN IN FIGURE BELOW WITH
THE FOLLOWING NOMENCLATURE;
 FOR THESE STRUCTURES THE PRINCIPAL LOADING CONDITIONS ARE MOSTLY
AXISYMMETRIC (SUCH AS SELF-WEIGHT AND INTERNAL FLUID PRESSURE), SO
THAT EVERY MERIDIAN OF THE SHELL OF REVOLUTION DEFORMS IN THE SAME
MANNER, AND THERE IS NO RELATIVE TRANSVERSE SHEARING BETWEEN
ADJACENT PORTIONS OF THE SHELL WHEN VIEWED IN THE PLANE OF THE
PARALLEL CIRCLE.

 THE AXISYMMETRIC SHELL STRUCTURES REQUIRING LARGE UNINTERRUPTED

SPACE IN VERTICAL DIRECTION ARE VERY COMMON IN STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING.

 THEIR GEOMETRIC VIEW IS SHOWN IN FIGURE ABOVE AND THE NOMENCLATURE

DEFINED IN DIAGRAM ABOVE, IS EQUALLY APPLICABLE.

Surface of translation:
 A SHELL OF TRANSLATION IS GENERATED BY PASSING ONE PLANE CURVE OVER
ANOTHER.

 A POPULAR USE OF THE TRANSLATIONAL SHELL IS TO PROVIDE A ROOF WITHOUT

INTERIOR SUPPORTS OVER A LARGE PLAN AREA.

 SUCH SHELLS ARE OFTEN SUPPORTED ONLY AT A FEW POINTS TO PROVIDE AN

UNINTERRUPTED OPEN SPACE LIKE A GYMNASIUM.

 TRANSLATIONAL SURFACE REQUIRES SLIDING OF A CONSTANTLY ORIENTED

GENERATOR CURVE OVER A DIRECTRIX CURVE.

RULED SURFACE & FREE FORM SURFACE:

 CONSTRUCTING RULED SURFACE REQUIRES ANOTHER METHOD, WHERE WE SLIDE
TWO ENDS OF A STRAIGHT LINE ON THEIR OWN CURVE WHILE KEEPING THEM
PARALLEL TO AN ARBITRARY DIRECTION OR PLANE.

 LASTLY, FREEFORM SURFACES CAN BE GENERATED USING NURBS (NON-UNIFORM

RATIONAL B-SPLINE). THEY ARE DIFFERENT FROM THE OTHER GEOMETRICAL
METHODS AS THEY CANNOT BE DESCRIBED BY FIXED EQUATIONS BUT CAN BE
USED TO MAKE ANY POSSIBLE SHAPE.
Gaussian curvature & shells
 SHELL SURFACES ARE USUALLY CLASSIFIED BASED ON THEIR GAUSSIAN
CURVATURES.

 FOR A THREE DIMENSIONAL SURFACE, THE PRODUCT OF THE MAXIMUM AND

MINIMUM PRINCIPAL CURVATURES GIVES US THE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE.

 THEY ARE ORTHOGONAL TO EACH OTHER AND CAN BE FOUND OUT BY

INTERSECTING INFINITE PLANES WITH THE SURFACE AT ANY POINT.

 BASED ON THE PRODUCT OF THE PRINCIPAL CURVATURES WE CAN FURTHER

CLASSIFY THE GAUSSIAN SURFACES AS DISCUSSED BELOW.

1. Synclastic:
 A SYNCLASTIC SURFACE HAS A POSITIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE AND IS SHOWN
IN FIGURE (a).

 BOTH THE PRINCIPAL CURVATURES HAVE THE SAME SIGN.

 THEY GENERALLY EXHIBIT IN-PLANE MERIDIONAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL

STRESSES TO CARRY LOADS.

 SPHERES AND ELLIPTICAL PARABOLOIDS ARE COMMON EXAMPLES OF THIS KIND

OF SURFACE.
2. Anticlastic:
 IN THIS TYPE OF SURFACE BOTH THE PRINCIPAL CURVATURES HAVE DIFFERENT
SIGNS RESULTING IN A NEGATIVE GAUSSIAN CURVATURE (b).

 HAVING OPPOSITE SIGNED PRINCIPAL CURVATURE ENABLES THESE SURFACE TO

ACT WITH A COMBINATION OF COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE ARCH BEHAVIOUR
UNDER PERPENDICULAR LOADS.

 HYPARS ARE GOOD EXAMPLES OF ANTICLASTIC SURFACES.

3. Monoclastic:

 IF ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL CURVATURES IS ZERO THEN IT GIVES RISE TO

MONOCLASTIC SURFACES.

 THEY HAVE ZERO GAUSSIAN CURVATURE AS SEEN IN FIGURE (C).

 CYLINDRICAL SHELLS ARE THE MOST COMMON EXAMPLES OF THIS TYPE OF

SURFACE.
Design parameters & considerations
for a shell structure
 ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR SHALL BE AN ACCEPTED BASIS FOR DETERMINING INTERNAL
FORCES, AND DISPLACEMENTS, OF THIN SHELLS.

 THIS BEHAVIOUR MAY BE ESTABLISHED BY COMPUTATIONS BASED ON AN

ANALYSIS OF THE UNCRACKED CONCRETE STRUCTURE IN WHICH THE MATERIAL IS
ASSUMED LINEARLY ELASTIC, HOMOGENEOUS, AND ISOTROPIC.

 POISSON'S RATIO OF CONCRETE MAY BE ASSUMED EQUAL TO ZERO.

 INELASTIC ANALYSES MAY BE USED WHERE IT CAN BE SHOWN THAT SUCH

METHODS PROVIDE A SAFE BASIS FOR DESIGN.

 EQUILIBRIUM CHECKS OF INTERNAL RESISTANCES AND EXTERNAL LOADS SHALL

BE MADE TO ENSURE CONSISTENCY OF RESULTS.

 EXPERIMENTAL OR NUMERICAL ANALYSIS PROCEDURES MAY BE USED WHERE IT

CAN BE SHOWN THAT SUCH PROCEDURES PROVIDE A SAFE BASIS FOR DESIGN.

 THE THICKNESS H OF A THIN SHELL, AND ITS REINFORCEMENT, SHALL BE

PROPORTIONED FOR THE REQUIRED STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY.

 ALL ELEMENTS SHALL BE PROPORTIONED BY THE SAME METHOD, USING EITHER

THE STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD OF 8.1.1 OR THE ALTERNATE DESIGN METHOD
OF 8.1.2.

 IN PRESTRESSED SHELLS, THE ANALYSIS MUST ALSO CONSIDER BEHAVIOUR

UNDER LOADS INDUCED DURING PRESTRESSING, AT CRACKING LOAD, AND AT
FACTORED LOAD.

 WHERE PRESTRESSING TENDONS ARE DRAPED WITHIN A SHELL, DESIGN SHALL

TAKE INTO ACCOUNT FORCE COMPONENTS ON THE SHELL RESULTING FROM
TENDON PROFILE NOT LYING IN ONE PLANE.

 SHELL DESIGN SHALL INVESTIGATE AND PRECLUDE THE POSSIBILITY OF GENERAL

OR LOCAL INSTABILITY.
 AUXILIARY MEMBERS SHALL BE DESIGNED ACCORDING TO THE APPLICABLE
PROVISIONS OF THIS CODE.
 THE DESIGN METHOD SELECTED FOR SHELL ELEMENTSUNDER 19.2.7 SHALL
ALSO BE USED FOR AUXILIARY MEMBERS.

 A PORTION OF THE SHELL EQUAL TO THE FLANGE WIDTH SPECIFIED IN 8.10

MAY BE ASSUMED TO ACT WITH THE AUXILIARY MEMBER.

 INSUCH PORTIONS OF THE SHELL, THE REINFORCEMENT PERPENDICULAR TO

THE AUXILIARY MEMBER SHALL BE AT LEAST EQUAL TO THAT REQUIRED FOR
THE FLANGE OF AT-BEAM BY 8.10.5.

 SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (F’CK) AT 28 DAYS SHALL NOT

BE LESS THAN 3,000 PSI.

 SPECIFIED YIELD STRENGTH OF NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (FY), SHALL

NOT EXCEED 60,000 PSI.

 MEMBRANE REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE PROVIDED IN TWO OR MORE

DIRECTIONS IN ALL PARTS OF THE SHELL.

 THE AREA OF SHELL TENSION REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE LIMITED SO THAT THE

REINFORCEMENT WILL YIELD BEFORE CRUSHING OF CONCRETE IN COMPRESSION
CAN TAKE PLACE.

 WHEN REMOVAL OF FORMWORK IS BASED ON A SPECIFIC MODULUS OF

ELASTICITY OF CONCRETE BECAUSE OF STABILITY OR DEFLECTION
CONSIDERATIONS, THE VALUE OF THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY EC SHALL BE
DETERMINED FROM FLEXURAL TESTS OF FIELD-CURED BEAM SPECIMENS.

 THE NUMBER OF TEST SPECIMENS, THE DIMENSIONS OF TEST BEAM SPECIMENS,

AND TEST PROCEDURES SHALL BE SPECIFIED BY THE ENGINEER.

 THE ENGINEER SHALL SPECIFY THE TOLERANCES FOR THE SHAPE OF THE SHELL.

 IF CONSTRUCTION RESULTS IN DEVIATIONS FROM THE SHAPE GREATER THAN THE

SPECIFIED TOLERANCES, AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF THE DEVIATIONS SHALL
BE MADE AND ANY REQUIRED REMEDIAL ACTIONS SHALL BE TAKEN TO ENSURE
SAFE BEHAVIOUR.
Concept of funicular shell
 THE CONCEPT OF FUNICULAR SHELL WAS INITIATED BY RAMASWAMY BY
PHYSICAL REASONING. A CABLE CARRYING A LOAD, UNIFORM PER UNIT LENGTH
OF HORIZONTAL PROJECTION, DEVELOPS TENSION THROUGHOUT AND TAKES THE
FORM OF A PARABOLA, WHICH IS THE FUNICULAR POLYGON OF THE APPLIED
LOADING (FIG. 7.1A).

 ITS INVERTED COUNTERPART, THE PARABOLIC ARCH (FIG. 7.1B), DEVELOPS PURE
COMPRESSION UNACCOMPANIED BY BENDING.

 THE PARABOLIC ARCH IS THUS THE FUNICULAR SHAPE FOR THE APPLIED
UNIFORM LOADING, IF THE LOADS ARE TO BE CARRIED BY PURE COMPRESSION.

 FUNICULAR SHAPES FOR OTHER LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS CAN BE DERIVED IN A

SIMILAR MANNER BY TAKING THE INVERTED COUNTERPART OF THE
CORRESPONDING CABLE STRUCTURE.

 THE ABOVE REASONING CAN BE EXTENDED TO DOUBLY CURVED SHELLS.

 IF A FABRIC STRETCHED TAUT ACROSS A RECTANGULAR RIGID FRAME IS LOADED

WITH WET CONCRETE TO A UNIFORM THICKNESS OF 25 MM, IT SAGS AND
ASSUMES THE SHAPE OF A FUNICULAR SURFACE CORRESPONDING TO THE
UNIFORM LOAD.

 THE CONCRETE BEING WET, THE FABRIC CARRIES THE LOAD IN TENSION.

 IF, AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS SET, THE SHAPE IS INVERTED, THE CONCRETE NOW
CARRIES THE LOAD BY PURE COMPRESSION.
 THUS BY INVERTING A TENSION FORM, IT IS POSSIBLE TO ARRIVE AT THE
CORRESPONDING COMPRESSION FORM.

 FUNICULAR SHAPES WITH REGULAR OR IRREGULAR GROUND PLANS CAN BE

GENERATED IN THE SAME MANNER.

 IT IS NOTEWORTHY, THAT A SHELL CAN BE MADE FUNICULAR ONLY FOR ONE

DOMINANT OR PRINCIPAL LOADING CONDITION WHICH MUST BE SELECTED.

 IN THE CASE OF ROOFS, THE SELF-WEIGHT IS THE APPROPRIATE LOAD AND FOR A
FOUDATION FOOTING, THE LOAD TRANSMITTED BY THE COLUMN GOVERNS IN
ARRIVING AT THE FUNICULAR SHAPE.

 THE FUNICULAR CONCEPT OF DESIGN OF A SHELL STRUCTURE IN CONTRAST TO

THE CONVENTIONAL DESIGN PROCEDURE IS ILLUSTRATED BY CONSIDERING A
TWO BAR TRUSS.

 REFERRING TO FIG. 7.2A, THE GEOMETRY OF THE TRUSS (i.e θ) IS FIRST FIXED. FOR
THE GIVEN LOAD, P, THE STRESS IN THE MEMBERS IS CALCULATED AS

 THIS ENVISAGES REVERSAL OF THE CONVENTIONAL DESIGN. FOR TWO BAR TRUSS
(FIG. 7.2B), THE DESIRABLE STATE OF STRESS BEING THE ULTIMATE VALUE IS
ASSUMED FIRST AND THE CORRESPONDING GEOMETRY (i.e θ) IS FOUND OUT AS
GRID SHELL
 A GRID SHELL IS DEFINED TO BE A LONG SPAN STRUCTURE COMPRISED OF A
NETWORK OF MEMBERS CREATING THE SINGLE LAYER "GRID" THAT FORMS THE
CURVED SURFACE "SHELL".

 THE TERM GRID SHELL IS DEFINED MORE RECENTLY AS A STRUCTURE WITH THE
SHAPE AND STRENGTH OF A DOUBLE CURVATURE SHELL, BUT MADE OF A GRID
INSTEAD OF A SOLID SURFACE.

 THESE STRUCTURES CAN CROSS LARGE SPANS WITH VERY FEW MATERIAL. THEY
CAN BE MADE OF ANY KIND OF MATERIAL - STEEL, ALUMINUM, WOOD OR EVEN
CARDBOARD TUBES.

 THE TERMS "LATTICE SHELL" AND "RETICULATED SHELL" HAVE ALSO BEEN USED
TO DESCRIBE GRID SHELLS BUT MORE BY THE ACADEMIC COMMUNITY AND NOT
PRACTICING ENGINEERS.

 THERE IS A DEBATE IF A GRID SHELL IS DEFINED BY ITS STRUCTURAL ACTION, OR

BY ITS CONSTRUCTION PROCESS.

 FOR EXAMPLE, GRID SHELLS MADE FROM WOOD ARE FORMED BY LAYING THE
LATTICE FLAT AND THEN EITHER PUSHING OR DROPPING THE SHELL INTO PLACE
AS WAS DONE IN THE MANNHEIM MULTIHALLE AND THE WEALD AND
DOWNLAND MUSEUM (WELLS, 2001), RESPECTIVELY.
FORCES ACTING ON shell structure
 THE BEHAVIOUR OF SHELL IS CONSIDERED ON THE BASIS OF ITS MIDDLE SURFACE,
WHICH IS THE LOCUS OF INTERIOR POINTS EQUIDISTANT (H /2) FROM THE TWO
BOUNDING SURFACES OF THE SHELL, AS SHOWN IN FIGURE.

 THERE ARE GENERALLY TWO DIRECTIONAL FORCES ACTING ON A SHELL, FOR IT

TO ACHIEVE EQUILIBRIUM NAMELY THE SHEAR FORCE AND THE FORCE TO
MAINTAIN ITS CURVATURE.

 MERIDIONAL FORCES ACT IN A LONGITUDINAL DIRECTION OF A SHELL AND

INCREASE FROM CROWN TO BASE IN MAGNITUDE. MERIDIONAL FORCES ARE
DUE TO THE WEIGHT OF THE MASONRY AND APPLIED LOADS.

 HOOP FORCES ACT IN A LATITUDINAL DIRECTION OF A SHELL ON THE LATERAL

FACES OF THE VOUSSOIRS, AND CONTRIBUTE SIGNIFICANTLY TO THE STABILITY OF
SHELL AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.

 FOR A SHELL WITH UNIFORM AXISYMMETRIC LOADING, HOOP FORCES FROM

ADJACENT SLICES ARE EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE AND ACT ON THE SAME PLANE.
 THE FOLLOWING IMAGE REPRESENTS THE FORCES ACTING ON A SHELL AND A
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR THE MERIDIONAL AND HOOP FORCES CAN BE
DERIVED USING THE SAME

 THE MERIDIONAL FORCE ACTING PER UNIT LENGTH MAY BE MATHEMATICALLY

EXPRESSED AS

 THE HOOP FORCE ACTING PER UNIT LENGTH MAY BE MATHEMATICALLY

EXPRESSED AS
MATERIALS USED IN shell structure
SHELL STRUCTURES CAN BE MADE OF SUCH MATERIALS AS:

1. REINFORCED THIN SHELL CONCRETE.

2. GLASS.

3. STEEL.

4. GLASS & STEEL.

5. PLASTIC.

6. COMPOSITE MATERIALS.

 THE MATERIAL MOST SUITED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF SHELL STRUCTURE IS

CONCRETE BECAUSE IT IS A HIGHLY PLASTIC MATERIAL WHEN FIRST MIXED WITH
WATER THAT CAN TAKE UP ANY SHAPE ON CENTERING OR INSIDE FORMWORK.

 SMALL SECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS CAN READILY BE BENT TO FOLLOW THE

CURVATURE OF SHELLS.

 ONCE THE CEMENT HAS SET AND THE CONCRETE HAS HARDENED THE R.C.C
MEMBRANE OR SLAB ACTS AS A STRONG, RIGID SHELL WHICH SERVES AS BOTH
STRUCTURE AND COVERING TO THE BUILDING.
ADVANTAGES OF shell structure
 ALLOWING WIDE AREAS TO BE SPANNED WITHOUT THE USE OF INTERNAL
SUPPORTS, GIVING AN OPEN, UNOBSTRUCTED INTERIOR.

 NO BENDING MOMENT IN SHELL STRUCTURES.

 SHELL STRUCTURES ARE SUITED TO CARRYING DISTRIBUTED LOADS NOT

CONCENTRATED LOADS.

 LOADS APPLIED TO SHELL SURFACES ARE CARRIED TO THE GROUND BY THE

TENSILE, SHEAR, AND COMPRESSIVE FORCES.

 SPAN THICKNESS RATIO OF 400 500 EX: 8 CM THICKNESS..... 30 38 M SPAN

 VERY LIGHT FORM OF CONSTRUCTION (SPAN 30.0 M SHELL THICKNESS REQUIRED

IS 60 MM)

 DEAD LOAD CAN BE REDUCED ECONOMIZING FOUNDATION AND SUPPORTING

SYSTEM

 THEY FURTHER TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE FACT THAT ARCH SHAPES CAN SPAN
LONGER

 FLAT SHAPES BY CHOOSING CERTAIN ARCHED SHAPES

 ESTHETICALLY IT LOOKS GOOD OVER OTHER FORMS OF CONSTRUCTION

DISADVANTAGES OF shell structure

 SHUTTERING PROBLEM

 GREATER ACCURACY IN FORMWORK IS REQUIRED

 GOOD LABOR AND SUPERVISION NECESSARY

 UNEVEN RISE OF THE ROOF MAY BE A DISADVANTAGE IN SOME CASES

NATIONAL CASE STUDY:
BAHAI HOUSE OF WORSHIP, NEW DELHI
ARCHITECT : FARIBORZ SAHBA

SPAN : 34 M DIAMETER OF CENTRAL HALL

SHELL THICKNESS : 133 – 255 MM OUTER LEAVES & 200 MM INNER LEAVES

HEIGHT : 34.3 METER

MATERIAL : STEEL & CONCRETE

YEAR : 1986 A.D.

CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM:
THE LOTUS TEMPLE IS CONSTRUCTED ON ARCADED CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM.
BASED ON 9 RADIAL GRIDS.
THE INNER LEAVES ENCLOSE THE INTERIOR DOME IN A CANOPY MADE OF
CRISSCROSSING RIBS AND SHELLS OF INTRICATE PATTERN.
WHEN VIEWED FROM INSIDE, EACH LAYER OF RIBS AND SHELLS DISAPPEARS AS IT
RISES, BEHIND THE NEXT, LOWER LAYER.
SOME OF THE RIBS CONVERGE RADIALLY AND MEET AT A CENTRAL HUB.
A NEOPRENE PAD IS PROVIDED BETWEEN THE RADIAL BEAMS AND THE TOP OF THE
INTERIOR DOME TO ALLOW LATERAL MOVEMENT CAUSED BY THE EFFECTS OF
TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND WIND.
ENTRANCE LEAVES AND OUTER LEAVES:
 THERE IS ONE SET OF SPHERES FOR THE ENTRANCE LEAVES.

 THE DIAMETERS OF THE SPHERES HAVE BEEN FIXED TO SATISFY THE STRUCTURAL
CONSIDERATION OF VARYING SHELL THICKNESS.

 FOR OUTER LEAVES, ANOTHER SET OF SPHERES DEFINES THE INNER AND OUTER
SURFACES OF THE SHELLS.

 THE SHELL IS UNIFORMLY 133 MM THICK TOWARDS THE BOTTOM, AND

INCREASES TO 255 MM UP TO THE TIP, BEYOND THE GLAZING LINE.

 THE ENTRANCE LEAF IS 18.2M WIDE AT THE ENTRANCE AND RISES 7.8M ABOVE
THE PODIUM LEVEL.

 THE OUTER LEAF IS 15.4M WIDE AND RISES UP TO 22.5M ABOVE THE PODIUM.

OUTER LEAVES:
 THE INNER LEAF, COMPRISING A CUSP (RIDGE) AND A RE-ENTRANT (VALLEY).

 THE INNER LEAVES RISE TO AN ELEVATION OF 34.3M ABOVE THE INNER PODIUM.

 AT THE LOWEST LEVEL EACH SHELL HAS A MAXIMUM WIDTH OF 14M.

 IT IS UNIFORMLY 200MM THICK.

THE ARCH:
 ALL AROUND THE CENTRAL HALL ARE NINE SPLENDID ARCHES PLACED AT
ANGULAR INTERVALS OF 40 DEGREES.

 THE SHAPE OF THESE ARCHES IS FORMED BY A NUMBER OF PLANE, CONICAL AND

CYLINDRICAL SURFACES.

 INTERSECTION OF THESE SURFACES PROVIDES INTERESTING CONTOURS AND

GREATLY ENHANCES THE BEAUTY OF THE ARCHES.

 THE NINE ARCHES BEAR ALMOST THE ENTIRE LOAD OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE
BEAMS WERE DEW EDGED, LEAVING THE CENTRAL HUB SUPPORTED.

 THE REMAINING PORTION OF THE INNER LEAF WAS THEN TAKEN UP.
THE INTERIOR DOME:
 THREE RIBS SPRING FROM THE CROWN OF EACH ARCH.

 WHILE THE CENTRAL ONE (THE DOME RIB) RISES RADIALLY TOWARDS THE
CENTRAL HUB, THE OTHER TWO (THE BASE RIBS) MOVE AWAY FROM THE
CENTRAL RIB AND INTERSECT WITH SIMILAR BASE RIBS OF ADJACENT ARCHES,
THUS FORMING AN INTRICATE PATTERN.

 OTHER RADIAL RIBS RISE FROM EACH OF THESE INTERSECTIONS AND ALL MEET AT
THE CENTRE OF THE DOME.

 UP TO A CERTAIN HEIGHT, THE SPACE BETWEEN THE RIBS IS COVERED BY TWO

LAYERS OF 6OMM THICK SHELLS.

MATERIALS:
 THE INNER SURFACES OF ALL THE SHELLS HAVE A UNIFORM, BUSH-HAMMERED,
EXPOSED CONCRETE SURFACE WITH ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS.

 FOR THE INNER LEAVES, THESE PATTERNS WERE FORMED OUT OF RADIAL AND
VERTICAL PLANES INTERSECTING THE SURFACE OF THE TORUS.

 FOR THE OUTER AND ENTRANCE LEAVES, AND THE INTERIOR DOME, THE
PATTERNS WERE FORMED OUT OF LONGITUDES AND LATITUDES OF SPHERES.
INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY:
SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE, AUSTRALIA
ARCHITECT : JORN UTZON

SPAN : 154 FEET

SHELL THICKNESS : VARIES FROM 3 TO 4 INCHES

HEIGHT : 148 FEET

MATERIAL : PRECAST CONCRETE RIB SHELL SUPPORTED BY TENSION CABLES

YEAR : 1973 A.D.

SYSTEM SPANS AND EFFECTIVE SPANS:

THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE SPANS UP TO 164 FEET.

THE ARCHES ARE SUPPORTED BY OVER 350KM OF TENSIONED STEEL CABLE.

THE SHELL THICKNESS GOES FROM 3 TO 4 INCHES.

ALL SHELLS WEIGHT A TOTAL OF 15 TONS.

THIS INVOLVED LAYING THE FOUNDATIONS AND BUILDING A PODIUM 82 FEET (25
M) ABOVE SEA LEVEL.
MORE THAN 39,239 CUBIC FEET (30,000 M3) OF ROCK AND SOIL WERE REMOVED BY
EXCAVATORS.

THE FOUNDATION WAS BUILT ATOP A LARGE ROCK THAT SAT IN SYDNEY HARBOUR.

THE SECOND STAGE SAW THE BUILDING OF THE SHELLS, THE PODIUM STRUCTURE,
THE STAGE TOWER, AND THE NECESSARY MACHINERY.

CABLE BEAMS WERE BUILT AND REINFORCED BY STEEL CABLES TO RELEASE THE
STRESS OF THE WEIGHT.

THE STRENGTH OF THE CABLES WAS TESTED BY LOADING ADDITIONAL WEIGHTS.

WHEN THE BUILDERS WERE SATISFIED THAT THE CABLES WOULD SUPPORT, THE
BEAMS WERE MADE EXTENDABLE BY OTHER BEAMS.

MATERIALS:
 THE SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE USES WHITE GLAZED GRANITE TILES.

 1,056,000 TILES WERE USED TO COVER THE MASSIVE STRUCTURE.

 ACTUAL CLAY, BRICK, AND STONE VENEER GRANITE OR MARBLE CLADDING

 EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH & SAND BLASTED FINISH FORM LINER PATTERNS