International Student Spirituality 1

Running Head: INTERNATIONAL STUDENT SPIRITUALITY

Spirituality and the International Student Experience

Jenny Ellefson

Oregon State University

 International Student Spirituality 2

Abstract

International students make up a significant and growing portion of the total college student

population in the United States today. During the 2002-2003 academic year, 586,323

international students were enrolled in colleges and universities across the nation (Poyrazli &

Grahame, 2007). These students face unique adjustment challenges during their experience in the

U.S. including adapting to academic expectations, social life, and language barriers. Extensive

studies have been conducted on the international student population in the U.S. and have covered

adjustment problems and methods of coping. However, research on spiritual identity as a part of

international student adjustment is lacking. The purpose of this study will be to explore the role

that spirituality plays in the international student experience at Oregon State University.
 International Student Spirituality 3

Spirituality and the International Student Experience

Chapter 1- Introduction

International students face a variety of challenges when adjusting to life in the United

States. These challenges range from language proficiency issues to loneliness to building and

maintaining relationships. Another possible concern among this population is finding a means to

support one’s spiritual identity. The topic of this research study is the international student

experience, paying specific attention to spirituality as a means to support the transition and

adjustment to life in the U.S.

International students make up a significant and growing portion of the total college

student population in the United States today. During the 2002-2003 academic year, 586,323

international students were enrolled in colleges and universities across the nation (Poyrazli &

Grahame, 2007). International students are very important to today’s U.S. higher education

institutions for many reasons. They add diversity to university communities, and because they

are required to pay high out-of-state tuition, they are viewed as serious, dedicated students

(Lacina, 2002). Past research indicates an urgency to study the international student population

in the U.S. It also provides open space for the examination of spirituality in relation to the

international student experience.

Based on literature and past research, it is apparent that spirituality in relation to the

international student transition into U.S. higher education institutions has not been studied.

Research on international student adjustment is prevalent, and much of it focuses on language

barriers, creating friendship networks, adapting to customs, psychological well-being, and

identity development (Galloway & Jenkins, 2005; Lacina, 2002; Zhao, Kuh, & Carini, 2005;
 International Student Spirituality 4

Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Hsieh, 2006). After beginning to review the literature surrounding

international student adjustment issues, I have found that there has been very little attention paid

to international students’ spiritual identities. According to many current authors in the student

affairs profession, spirituality is a hot topic and is gaining increasingly more attention within the

academe (Tisdell, 2003; Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006; Astin, 2004). Considering the

growing presence of international students at U.S. higher education institutions, it is important

that they are not left out of the conversation surrounding spirituality and higher education.

As a concept of making meaning of one’s personal and shared experiences, spirituality is

an important aspect of life for many individuals and may or may not be a naturally emphasized

and an integral part of the international student experience. In an explanation of meaning-making

as a dimension of spirituality, Tisdell (2003) states that “individuals do what they feel called to

do—what gives their lives meaning” (p. 31). Given this, there is significance in designing a study

to look at how international students make meaning of their experience at a U.S. higher

education institution, and how they would define how their spirituality drives that meaning-

making.

Another lens through which to look at international student adjustment and spirituality is

the concept of support and available resources to help these students succeed in college in the

U.S. Integrating possible resources like counseling services and support groups into this study is

important because cultural adjustment issues can lead to emotional difficulties (Smith, Chin,

Inman, & Finding, 1999). Social adjustment leads to significant problems among international

students because they often are lacking a support group that they may have had back at home.

Relating this back to spirituality, it has been reported that “campus fellowships appeal to students

wanting to maintain their faith during college yet have a social life” (Lum, 2007, p. 16). If
 International Student Spirituality 5

international students had more of a social network of friends while studying in the U.S., perhaps

through a spiritually-focused community, it could be predicted that their adjustment issues would

be minimized. However, there have not been studies directed in this manner, so all one can do is

speculate.

If international students indeed hold on to their spiritual identity and it becomes a part of

their experience in the U.S., there will be definite implications for professionals within student

affairs and in the university setting in general. By understanding students’ adjustment issues,

their spiritual identity development, and coping methods of dealing with being away from home,

professionals in student and academic affairs can begin to nurture the needs of these students.

The purpose of this study will be to explore the role that spirituality plays in the international

student experience at Oregon State University.

Pertinent terminology

Before discussing studies that have been completed in the past on the topics of

international students, spirituality in higher education, and cross-cultural counseling, it is

important to understand some of the ambiguous terminology used within these areas of study.

For the purpose of this study, international student will be defined as any student studying at a

U.S. college or university who is not a citizen of the U.S., regardless of their length of study in

the country. Adjustment will be defined as the period of time it takes to transition and adapt to a

new lifestyle and culture.

Although spirituality and religion are oftentimes used interchangeably, for many they do

not mean the same thing. The participants of this study will be asked to give personal definitions

of both of these terms. My definitions of spirituality and religion, as informed by Estanek (2006),

Chae, Kelly, Brown, and Bolden (2004), and Astin (2004) will be used specifically in the context
 International Student Spirituality 6

of this research. Spirituality will be defined as a sense of self-awareness and way to make

meaning out of personal and shared experiences through a set of values and beliefs. To build on

this, religion will be defined as the traditional beliefs of an organized group that is usually

demonstrated through collective and public practices. Together and separate, these two concepts

will be guiding forces of my research.

The following chapters will cover past literature and the methodology of this research

study. Chapter 2 will review literature on the topics of international student adjustment,

spirituality in higher education, and cross-cultural counseling. It will delve into how each of

these areas will apply to my research and how my results will add to current literature. Chapter 3

will be an outlined methodological plan for how the study will be conducted. It will discuss my

overall research approach and epistemology, the participants of the study, data collection

methods, and the process I will use to analyze my results.

Chapter 2- Review of Literature

International students have been studied in the past, and much of that research has been

focused on their adjustment to U.S. culture and issues related to cross-cultural counseling.

Additionally and especially over the past decade, the concept of spirituality in higher education

has been a popular area of study. This chapter will give an overview of past research findings

and how these findings relate to the study I plan to conduct. The areas of past research that will

be examined include international student adjustment to the United States, spirituality in higher

education, and cross-cultural counseling. To start, I will discuss some of the research that

addresses adjustment issues that international students face in the U.S.

 International Student Spirituality 7

International Student Adjustment to the United States

International students studying in the United States face many challenges that contribute

to adjustment problems. The experience of culture shock is common and can encompass

struggles with anything from different food to finding transportation around the area. A study by

Galloway and Jenkins (2005) compared administrative perceptions of adjustment problems faced

by international students with the actual problems indicated by international students. According

to the students, their highest levels of adjustment problems were related to financial aid,

placement services, and speaking the English language. Among the eleven listed, religious

services was indicated as the least problematic area. Keeping in mind that this study was

conducted at two private, religiously affiliated universities, the low level is a sign that

international students seemed to be getting their needs met in regard to religious services. For

this area as well as every other category except financial aid, the faculty and administrators

overestimated the extent of the adjustment problems that the international students were facing.

This study did not include a separate evaluation of spiritual development but can be useful

because it recognizes that religion plays a role in the adjustment process for some international

students.

Another contribution to the literature regarding international student adjustment in

American colleges and universities discusses the implications of cultural differences on the

social experience of international students (Lacina, 2002). Lacina states, “Often they have

problems adjusting to their new environment. Some students experience loneliness; others may

have problems due to their unfamiliarity with U.S. customs and values” (p. 21). She goes on to

cover the topics of language diversity, cross-cultural counseling, encouraging a positive social

experience, and cultural differences. Relating to cultural differences, religion was discussed as an
 International Student Spirituality 8

important area to consider. “There appears to be no greater influence on cultural customs and

practices than religion” (p. 23). Given this, it is important for American students, faculty, and

administrators to be receptive to international student need in relation to diverse religious beliefs.

The support or disregard of spiritual identity is an important thing to consider when evaluating

the significance of the adjustment period of an international student’s experience. Lacina

recognizes the Muslim Association at the University of Kansas as an example of a student group

that exemplifies support and connection among those with this common religious identity. She

encourages this sort of organization among both international and national students in order to

enhance their social experience at the university through spirituality. An emerging theme within

the research is the essence of social networks and support among international students during

their experience at an American university or college. With social support, that is possibly

available through spiritual and religious networks, international students may have a less

strenuous period of adjustment.

Spirituality in Higher Education

In reviewing current literature relative to this study, it is essential to address recent

research studies and findings within the realm of spirituality in higher education. In an attempt to

redefine the topic of spirituality in higher education, a study was conducted on how spirituality is

given meaning in higher education literature (Estanek, 2006). The findings of this study surfaced

the following five themes that identify the common understanding of spirituality: (a) spirituality

defined as spiritual development, (b) spirituality used as critique, (c) spirituality understood as an

empty container for individual meaning, (d) spirituality understood as common ground or

“field,” and (e) spirituality as quasi-religion. In relation to my study, specific attention needs to

be paid to how spirituality plays into one’s development, how it guides one to construct meaning,
 International Student Spirituality 9

and how religion acts as a guiding force in international students’ lives. Having a general

understanding of how spirituality is defined in higher education today can be expanded upon

through study of how spirituality affects student engagement.

Kuh and Gonyea (2006) used the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE)

database as an instrument to analyze connections between spiritual practices of college students,

interactions with diverse peers, and the experience of deep learning. They found that students

frequently engaged in spirituality-enhancing practices are more commonly involved in a broad

cross-section of collegiate activities. “Worship, meditation, prayer, and similar activities during

college appear to contribute to personal and social development through a deepened sense of

spirituality” (p. 44). This study upholds the facts for American students as a whole, but do these

findings hold true for international students as well? Because research has not been done to

uncover if spiritual practices affect international students’ involvement and engagement in

college, my study will be important in establishing that base of knowledge about this student

population’s experience. As it has been discussed thus far in this report, spirituality relates to

students’ personal meaning-making, identity development, and set of values by which they live.

When moving to another country and immersing themselves in another culture, students may run

into conflict with both their external and internal worlds. Research on the counseling of

international students is ubiquitous—including coping methods it provides for international

student adjustment and outreach support groups for these students in transition.

Cross-Cultural Counseling

Some international students’ adjustment to U.S. culture is more severe than others and

they may seek counseling services to help them through the tough time. The counseling of these
 International Student Spirituality 10

students can be a way to provide support networks or help them to recognize ways in which to

cope with culture shock or the adjustment issues they are having.

Smith, Chin, Inman, and Findling (1999) discuss multicultural counseling strategies used

in the United States, with specific recognition of the needs that international students have when

studying at higher education institutions. They point out that counseling services are typically

underused by international students and that they may need alternative forms of support. Because

counseling often carries a negative stigma among students of all cultures, it can be difficult to

come up with new methods to support students at risk for emotional distress. Smith et al. (1999)

suggest outreach support groups, which can serve as an “informal support network and can

provide students with the opportunity to address personal concerns in a safe, normalizing

environment” (p. 188). The idea of an informal support network could also be nurturing for

students who have common ground in their spiritual identities. If the need is there, and if

particular international students have a spiritual side that they value as a large part of their

identity, then it would be interesting to learn about how this aspect of their life could be

integrated into their coping methods of adjustment.

Olivas and Li (2006) discuss stressors of international college students and the

implications that exist for college counselors and personnel. They support the claim that

international students usually have a more difficult time than U.S. students during their transition

to college. One of their first suggestions is to help reduce international student stress through

social support and relationships. Primarily, Olivas and Li are speaking to college counselors in

their discussion of psychological coping mechanisms, international student needs, and having

cultural sensitivity and awareness. However, in one study that they cited, it is clear that
 International Student Spirituality 11

counseling concerns are close to home for all professionals working with students in the college

environment. Olivas and Li cite Tseng and Newton’s (2002) study as shown below:

International students in one study reported eight strategies for positive adjustment or

maintaining positive well-being: knowing themselves and others, building relationships,

expanding their worldview, asking for help, developing cultural and social contacts,

establishing relationships with advisors and instructors, English proficiency, and letting

go of problems. (p. 219)

This study highlights coping strategies for international students, which can be used in cross-

cultural counseling sessions or when discussing the role of spirituality in these students’ lives

during their transition to the U.S. Adjustment strategies such as knowing themselves and

building relationships are closely related to spirituality, as it has been defined in this proposal.

Counseling research shows many common adjustment struggles from international

students’ perspectives, and the topics that are most problematic for them are social and

supportive networks. Incorporated in my research study is the exploration of how spiritual and

religious support may be one way in which international students can help deal with their

adjustment issues.

After reviewing how others have conducted research in the areas of international student

adjustment, spirituality and religion, and counseling/coping in higher education, I have

concluded that there is a gap in the current literature on if and how international students view

spirituality as an integral part of their international experience at a U.S. college or university.

This review of literature is by no means comprehensive and will be expanded substantially

before data collection begins to take place. In chapter 3, I will cover the methodology of my

research study.
 International Student Spirituality 12

Chapter 3- Research Methods

The research that will be conducted will be a qualitative study of the role spirituality

plays in the international student experience in the United States. A qualitative approach is

appropriate for this research study because the underlying epistemology that will guide the study

is constructivism. The constructivist approach emphasizes the importance of individual

meaning-making and depth within the realm of a human phenomenon (Stage & Manning, 2003).

This study will be exploratory and inductive in nature in the sense that international students’

stories will be upheld and honored. A constructivist approach fits well with qualitative research

because it is a method of drawing themes from broad inquiry on the topic. Qualitative research is

defined below:

An inquiry approach useful for exploring and understanding a central phenomenon. To

learn about this phenomenon, the inquirer asks participants broad, general questions,

collects the detailed views of participants in the form of words or images, and analyzes

the information for description and themes. From this data, the researcher interprets the

meaning of the information, drawing on personal reflections and past research. (Creswell,

2008, p. 645)

The substance of this thesis will be comprised of international students’ narratives; therefore the

intentional selection of participants is imperative to gaining rich results.

Participants

Before recruiting participants, I will have gained approval from the Institutional Review

Board to study international students at Oregon State University (OSU). See Appendix A for

proof of my completion of the training in ethical use of humans in research. I plan to gain access
 International Student Spirituality 13

to this population through the International Programs Office. Specifically, I will use purposeful

sampling and target participants expected to provide rich data.

The purposeful sample will include six to ten undergraduate international students at a

mid-sized public university (OSU), including both men and women. The undergraduate

experience is very different from the graduate experience for many students, so I would like that

aspect to remain constant among all participants of this study. This study will be an in-depth

exploration of spirituality among international students, so I will interview only a select few

participants. My ability to provide an in-depth picture of the phenomenon may diminish with the

addition of each new individual (Creswell, 2008).

I plan to use homogeneous sampling, but within the subgroup I will seek out particular

varieties. I will confer with professionals in the OSU International Programs Office to recruit

international students who display the ability to speak about their spirituality and overall college

experience. The International Cultural Service Program (ICSP) is a group of international

scholars who provide cultural service to the OSU campus and community. I will draw from ICSP

students first because of their experience speaking in the English language about their home

country and culture. The sample will be homogeneous in that all participants will be

undergraduate international students but will represent a variety of different spiritual and

religious backgrounds. This method of sampling will allow me to examine how experiences may

differ or be similar depending on the individuals’ views of their personal spiritual or religious

beliefs and practices.

Another criterion I will take into consideration while selecting participants is the length

of time they have been studying in the U.S. I will select international students who have been at

Oregon State University for at least one term, preferably longer. The longer a student has spent at
 International Student Spirituality 14

the university, the more experiences he or she will have from which to draw when considering

the role that spirituality has played during this time.

Data Collection

Interviewing is the best method for measuring the findings of this study because the

results will be most efficiently found through the telling of personal accounts. Through

exploratory interviews, I will measure the degree to which spirituality plays a role in the

international student experience. Advantages to conducting interviews include being able to ask

specific questions and receive detailed personal information (Creswell, 2008), and this method

gives the participant a voice through which to share their unique story.

One-on-one interviews will be conducted because I feel that group interactions may

inhibit participants from sharing personal stories regarding their spirituality. I will pose a series

of open-ended questions that address the participants’ personal definitions of religion and

spirituality, if and how each individual’s faith has been strengthened or diminished while

studying in the U.S., if the participant has explored other religious beliefs or practices at the

university, and how the individual chooses to (or not to) express their spirituality through

activities, practice, or social interactions. The data will lead to the formation of conclusions on

how spirituality affects an international student’s adjustment to studying at a U.S. university.

Given the nature of the research topic, I plan to conduct two interviews with each

participant. Spirituality can be somewhat of a sensitive area because it encompasses individuals’

personal lives and beliefs. I imagine that it may take more than one conversation to get the

participants to open up and provide the rich data that I am looking for regarding the connection

between their spirituality and transitional experience.

 International Student Spirituality 15

Data Analysis

The analysis method I will use is transcribing the interviews, coding data, identifying

emerging themes, and then I will interpret the data in relation to current literature on spirituality

and international student adjustment, past research in these areas, and my personal views. I

recognize that because this is qualitative research and I am essentially the instrument, my biases

will be integrated into the analysis of the data. This is a limitation to the study and I will do my

best to minimize the influence of my own biases, however I feel that I must mention that my

personal views will naturally play a role in the interpretation of the data.

Each interview session will be audiotaped and then transcribed. By transcribing the

interviews myself, I will be able to listen to and reflect upon the conversations more than once. It

will give me more familiarity and connection to the stories, which I think will aid in the process

of analyzing the data.

To start the analysis process, I will code the responses to my interview questions.

“Coding is the process of segmenting and labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes in

the data” (Creswell, 2008, p. 251). By separately documenting quotes from participants, I will

then be able to code them according to similarities and identify emerging themes. The method I

plan to use to make sense of the data is constant comparative analysis. Constant comparison is

defined as “an inductive data analysis procedure in grounded theory research of generating and

connecting categories by comparing incidents in the data to other incidents, incidents to

categories, and categories to other categories” (Creswell, 2008, p. 443). Specifically, I will write

each relevant participant response on an index card and then will categorize them into common

themes. Once I am able to group the cards into piles (themes), I will be able to examine the

patterns and draw conclusions that will lead to possible explanations of these patterns. Because
 International Student Spirituality 16

this study is not grounded in any particular theory about spirituality and the international student

experience, the themes that emerge may give information that will shape future theory in this

area of higher education.

Once the analysis of the data is written, I will use member checking to make sure the

results were accurately recorded. Member checking involves asking the participants to read over

the results and verify accuracy, completeness, and whether or not the themes and interpretations

are fair and representative (Creswell, 2008). The obstacle I may run into during member

checking is staying in contact with the participants if any of them have returned to their home

country by that point in time.

Summary

This research proposal discusses the issues relating to international student adjustment,

spirituality in higher education, and how counseling plays a role in the international student

transition. Based on past literature in these subject areas, I find justification in studying the

integration of the three areas and examining the role that spirituality plays in the international

student experience. I will conduct this study over the next year and engage OSU international

students as participants. I hope to use their stories as data that will be relevant to the future of

higher education in the United States. Refer to Appendix B for my timeline of future activities

and completion of the study.

 International Student Spirituality 17

References

Astin, A. W. (2004). Why spirituality deserves a central place in liberal education. Liberal

Education, 90, 34-41.

Chae, M. H., Kelly, D. B., Brown, C. F., & Bolden, M. A. (2004). Relationship of ethnic identity

and spiritual development: An exploratory study. Counseling and Values, 49, 15-26.

Chickering, A. W., Dalton, J. C., & Stamm, L. (2006). Encouraging authenticity and spirituality

in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative

and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Estanek, S. M. (2006). Redefining spirituality: A new discourse. College Student Journal, 40,

270-281.

Galloway, F. J., & Jenkins, J. R. (2005). The adjustment problems faced by international

students in the United States: A comparison of international students and administrative

perceptions at two private, religiously affiliated universities. NASPA Journal, 42, 175-

187.

Graham, S., Furr, S., Flowers, C., & Burke, M. T. (2001). Religion and spirituality in coping

with stress. Counseling and Values, 46, 2-13.

Hsieh, M. H. (2006). Identity development of East Asian female international students with

implications for second-language higher education. Education, 127, 3-15.

Kuh, G. D., & Gonyea, R. M. (2006). Spirituality, liberal learning, and college student

engagement. Liberal Education, 92, 40-47.

Lacina, J. G. (2002). Preparing international students for a successful social experience in higher

education. New Directions for Higher Education, 117, 21-28.

 International Student Spirituality 18

Olivas, M., & Li, C. S. (2006). Understanding stressors of international students in higher

education: What college counselors and personnel need to know. Journal of Instructional

Psychology, 33, 217-222.

Poyrazli, S. P., & Grahame, K. M. (2007). Barriers to adjustment: Needs of international students

within a semi-urban campus community. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34, 28-45.

Smith, T. B., Chin, L. C., Inman, A. G., & Findling, J. H. (1999). An outreach support group for

international students. Journal of College Counseling, 2, 188-190.

Stage, F. K., & Manning, K. (Eds.) (2003). Research in the college context: Approaches and

methods. New York: Brunner-Routledge.

Tisdell, E. J. (2003). Exploring spirituality and culture in adult and higher education. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Tseng, W. C., & Newton, F. B. (2002). International students’ strategies for well-being. College

Student Journal, 36, 591-597.

Zhao, C. M., Kuh, G. D., & Carini, R. M. (2005). A comparison of international student and

American student engagement in effective educational practices. Journal of Higher

Education, 76, 209-231.

 International Student Spirituality 19

Appendix A

Proof of IRB training

CITI Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative

Human Research Curriculum Completion Report
Printed on Saturday, March 1, 2008

Learner: Jennifer Ellefson (username: ellefsonjoyjennifer777)

Institution: Oregon State University
Contact Information Department: Education
Phone: 763.370.7361
Email: ellefsoj@onid.orst.edu
Group 1.: Social / Behavioral Research Investigators and Key Personnel

Stage 1. Basic Course Passed on 03/01/08 (Ref # 1646168)

Date
Required Modules Completed
Introduction 03/01/08
History and Ethical Principles - SBR 03/01/08
Defining Research with Human Subjects - SBR 03/01/08
The Regulations and The Social and Behavioral Sciences - SBR 03/01/08
Assessing Risk in Social and Behavioral Sciences - SBR 03/01/08
Informed Consent - SBR 03/01/08
Privacy and Confidentiality - SBR 03/01/08
Research With Protected Populations - Vulnerable Subjects: An 03/01/08
Overview
Oregon State University (OSTU) 03/01/08

For this Completion Report to be valid, the learner listed above must be
affiliated with a CITI participating institution. Falsified information and
unauthorized use of the CITI course site is unethical, and may be considered
scientific misconduct by your institution.

Paul Braunschweiger Ph.D.

Professor, University of Miami
Director Office of Research Education
CITI Course Coordinator
 International Student Spirituality 20

Appendix B

Timeline for Completion of Study

April 2008 Submission of research proposal to committee

March-June 2008: Complete comprehensive review of literature

June 2008: Submit IRB application; revise as needed

Summer 2008: Continue conducting review of literature and developing the research

design; begin data collection

Fall 2008: Data collection; begin data analysis; begin writing thesis/revising previous

sections; apply to present at NAFSA conference

Winter 2008-2009: Data analysis; complete thesis;

Schedule final exam with committee and Graduate School

April 2009: Defend thesis to committee

May 2009: Submit all revisions to Graduate School;

Present research findings at a NAFSA conference session (hopefully)

June 2009: Graduation