NQ59028 PDF

THE EFFECT OF INTERLAYERS ON DlSSlMlLAR
FRICTION WELD PROPERTIES
Cuauhtemoc Maldonado-Zepeda
A thesis subrnitted in conformity with the requirements

for the degree of Doctor in Applied Science
Graduate Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science
University of Toronto
O Copyright by Cuauhtemoc Maldonado-Zepeda (2001)

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THE EFFECT OF INTERLAYERS ON DlSSlMlLAR FRICTION WELD
PROPERTIES
Doctor in Applied Science (2001)
Cuauhtemoc Maldonado-Zepeda
Graduate Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science
University of Toronto
ABSTUACT
The influence of silver interlayers on the metallurgical and mechanical properties
of dissimilar aluminium alloy/stainless steel friction welds are investigated.
An elastic contact model is proposed that explains the conditions at and close to
the contact surface, which produce A1D3 particle fracture in dissimilar MMCIAlSl 304
stainless steel friction welds.
lntermixed (IM) and particle dispersed (PD) regions are forrned in Ag-containing
dissimilar friction welds. These regions forrn very early in the joining operation and both
contain AgdI. Therefsre, an interlayer (Ag) introduced with the specific aim of
preventing Fe,AI, compound formation in MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
promotes the formation of anofher intermetallic phase at the bondline. Since IM and
PD regions are progressively removed as the friction welding operation proceeds
thinner interrnetallic layers are pmduced when long friction welding times are applied.
ii
This type of behavior is quite different from that observed in silver-free dissimilar
MMWAISI 304 stainless steel welds.
Nanoparticles of silver are formed in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
welds produced using low friction pressures. Nanoparticle formation in dissimilar friction
welds has never been previously observed or investigated.
The introduction of silver interlayers decreases heat generation during welding,
produces narrower softened zone regions and improved notch tensile strength
properties. Ali research to-date has assurned per se that joint mechanical properties
wholly depend on the mechanical properties and width of the intemetallic layer fomed
at the dissirnilar joint interface. However, it is shown in this thesis that the mechanical
properties of MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel joints are determined by the combined
effects of interrnetallic formation at the bondline and softened zone formation in MMC
base maten'al immediately adjacent to the joint interface. A methodology for calculating
the notch tensile strength properties of dissimilar friction welds is presented and is
based on a combination of FEM with a ductile failure criterion. There is excellent
correspondence behveen actual and calculated joint strength results.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Doy las gracias mas profundas por el invaluable apoyo recibido del pueblo de
México a través dei Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT) y la
Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo (UMSNH).

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................I I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....................
.... ............................................................... IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... v

LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ xi
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................... XII
CHAPTER 1.THESIS PROPOSAL ...........................................................................1

1.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. 1
1.2. THE INTERLAYER APPROACH ......................................................................... 2
1.3. DETAILED THESIS OBJECTIVES..................................................................... 6
1.4. THE PROCEDURES............................................................................................ 7
1.5. THESIS ORGANIZATION ................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2. THE FRICTION WELDING PROCESS .......................................... . 9
2.1. INTRODUCTION.................
...
........................................................................ 9
2-1.1. lnertia friction welding .................................................................................. 1O
2.1.2. Direct-drive fmion welding .......................................................................... 12
2.1 .2. i. Heating period ........................................................................................ 12

v
2.1 .2.2. Forging stage ......................................................................................... 16
2.1.2.3. Direct-drive friction welding parameten ............................~....................17
2.2. INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IN DISSlMlLAR JOtNlNG ............................. 18
2.2.1 . Fe-AI intermetallic compounds ..................................................................... 18
2.2.2. Ni-AI intemetallic compounds...................................................................... 20
2.2.3 .Ag-AI intermetallic compounds................................................................... 21
2.2.5. Influence of composition on the intermetallic layer-......................................23
2.2.6. lntermetallic compounds and mechanical properties ................................... 25
2.3. FRICTION AND WEAR ...................................................................................... 27
2.3.7.SoR coatings and the coetficient of fn'cfion ................................................... 27

2.3.2. Wear and friction welding ............................................................................. 30
2.4. THERMAL ASPECTS OF FRICTION WELDING ............................................... 31
2.4.7. Calculafion of heat input in friction welding .................................................. 31
2.4.2. Temperature distribution during friction welding.................................... 33
2.5. WELDING METALLURGY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS ........................................ 34
2.5.7. AI-Mg-Si Alloys ............................................................................................. 34
2.5.2 . Effect of the thermal welding cycle on dissolution and reprecipitation.......... 34
2.5.3. The softened zone ................................... ..,,.. ............................................... 36
2.6. MECHANICS OF SLlDlNG CONTACT .............................................................. 38
2.6.1. Line loading of a semi-infinite half-space ..................................................... 39
2.6.2. Torsional loading .............., ......................................................................... 40

2.6.3. Normal pressure and torsional loading. ........................................................ 41
2.6.4. Contact of rigid-ideally-plastic materials.................... .

.............................. 44
2.6.4.1. Combined effect of shear and pressure on a plastic surface.................. 45
vi
2.6.4.2. The wave model..................................................................................... 46
2.6.4.3. Wave removal model............................................................................. 48
.
CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES .................... ............................. 51
3.1. MATERIALS....................................................................................................... 51
3.2. FRICTION JOINING ........................................................................................... 54
3.3. METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ................................................................ 55
3.4. MECHANICAL TESTING ................................................................................... 58
.
CHAPTER 4 INTERLAYERS AND PARTICLE FRACTURE IN DlSSlMlLAR
FRICTION JOINTS .......................... ....................................................... 61
4.1. INTRODUCTION.......,....................................................................................... 61
4.2. RESULTS .......................... .

...
..................................................................... 62
4.2.1. influence of friction welding on particle fracture ........................................ 62
4.2.2. Influence of friction pressure ........................................................................ 64
4.2.3. Influence of friction time .......................,.................................................... 64
4.2 .4. lnterlayers and parficle fracture.................................................................... 68
4.2.5. Influence of silver intelayer on particle accumulation ..................................69
4.3. DISCUSSION..................................................................................................... 71
4.3.1. Friction welding and reinforcement particle morphology .............................. 71
4.3.2. Effect of friction pressure.............................................................................. 72
4.3.3. Influence of fn'cion time ............................................................................... 72
4.3.4. Modelling of pmtruding parficle fracture ....................................................... 74
4.3.5. Retention of fractured particles at the bondline ........... .

...................... 78
vii
4.3.6. Efiect of the interiayer on the stress distribution...........................................80
4.3.7. Summation................................................................................................... 83
.
CHAPTER 5 MICROSTRUCTURE OF A DISSIMILAR FRICTION JOINT
CONTAlNlNG A SlLVER INTERLAYER .......................................................... 84
5.1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 84
5.2. RESULTS .......................................................................................................... 87
5.2.1. lnterlayer microstructure ........................................................................... 87
.....................................................................
5.2.2. As-welded joint rnicmst~cfure 88
5.2.3. Friction pressure and TEM micmstmcture ................................................. 102
5.3. DISCUSSION................................................................................................... 121
5.3.7. Influence of friction welding on the silver intedayer .................................... 121
5.3.2. Similanfies befween sliding Wear and Stage 1 of friction welding................ 122
5.3.3. Formation and removal of PD and IM mgions ....................................... 125
5.3.4. Transition layer in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds ............. 129
5.3.5. Intennetallic compounds and joint strength ................................................129
5.3.6. Mode1 for interlayer rernoval .......................................................................131
5.3.7. Surnmation ................................................................................................. 134
.
CHAPTER 6 THERMAL ASPECTS AND SOFTENED ZONE FORMATION ...........136
6.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 136
6.2. RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 140
6.2.1 . Effect of friction pressure ............................................................................

140
viii
6.2.2. Influence of the silver interlayeri................................................................. 141
6.3. DISCUSSION................................................................................................. 143
Heat entering the stainless steel substrate................................................. 143
Heat paitition during dissimilar friction welding .......................................... 145
Friction pressure and peak temperafure ...................................... .

........ 146
Influence of the silver interlayer.................................................................. 148
Summation ................................................................................................. 149
.
CHAPTER 7 INFLUENCE OF THE INTERLAYER ON THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF DISSIMILAR FRICTION JOINTS ............................................ 155
7.1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................. 155
7.2. RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 156
7.2.1. Joint mechanical properfrés........................................................................ 156
7.3.CALCULATING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF DlSSlMllAR FRICTION

JOINTS ................................................................................................................... 162
7.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 162
7.3.2. The notched fensile specimen.................................................................... 164
7.3.3. Finite element mode1 of the notched tensile specimen............................... 168
7.3.4. Stress and strain distribution in notched tensile specimens ....................... 171
7.3.5. Calculating the notch tensile strength of dissimilar fncton welds ............... 175
7.4. DISCUSSION.................................................................................................. 179
7.4.1. lntermetallic compound formation and joint tensile strength ...................... 179
7.4.2. Soffened zone and joint tensile strength ....................................................190
7.4.3. Failure mode in dissimilar fricion joints ...................................................... 192
ix
7.4.4. FEM analysis of notched tensile test specimens .................................... 194
7.4.5. The notch tensile strength of the dissmilar frictionjoints ........................... 195
7.4.7. Summation ................................................................................................. 196
.
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS ................................................ .........................197
REFERENCES ..............................I...................................................... .............201

LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ............................ ...c...... .............51

Table 3.1. Chernical composition of materials (wt%) ................................................... 53
Table 3.2. Geometric characteristics of reinforcing particles........................................53
Table 3.3.Mechanical properties of materials.............................................................. 59
CHAPTER 6.THERMAL ASPECTS AND SOFTENED ZONE FORMATION ...........136

Table 6.1. Thermal properties of base materials ........................................................ 138
Table 6.2. Relationship between specific heat input entering the stainless steel
substrate (q&) and friction pressure .................................................................. 145

LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1. THESIS PROPOSAL ............................................................................... 1

Figure 1-1. The effects of an interlayer on dissirnilar friction welds. ....................
........ 8
CHAPTER 2. THE FRICTION WELDING PROCESS ................................................ 9
Figure 2.1 . lnertia friction welding process (Wang and Rasmussen 1972). ................. 10
Figure 2.2. Directdrive friction welding process. ......................................................... 13
Figure 2.3. Idealised traces of the variations with time of speed, torque and axial
shortening in the direct-drive friction welding process during the frictioning stage. 1-
Peak torque. 2-Equilibrium torque. 3-Terminal torque (Duffin and Bahrani l976).. 14
Figure 2.4. The heating period based on the work of DuMn and Bahrani (Duffin and
Bahrani 1976). ....................................................................................................... 1S
Figure 2.5. FeAl binary diagram (Kattner et al. 1987). ................................................ 19
Figure 2.6. AI-Ni binary diagram (Hultgren et al. 1973). ............................................. 20
Figure 2.7. AgAl binary diagram (McAlister 1987). ..................................................... 22
Figure 2.8. Effect of holding time at 823 and 873 K on the tensile strength of Ti/(6xlo4
wt% Si) Al and Til(0.12 wt% Si) Al joints O 873 K, Til(0.12 wt% Si) Al; O 873 K,
TV(6x1o4 wt% Si) Al; 0 823 K, Til(6xl o4 wt% Si); * fractured at the interface (Fuji
..........................................................................................................
et al. 1995~). 24
xii
Figure 2.9.Thickness of the intemetallic layer (Ti3AI)vs. heating time in a TiAI
diffusion joint (Suzuki et al. 1994). .......~~..~........~~~.......~..~~...........~...~~

26
Figure 2.10. Joint strength vs. heating time in a TVA1 diffusion joint (Suzuki et a/. 1994).
..,................~............~....~~...................................................................
27
Figure 2.1 1. The dependence of the strength of the weld between stainless steel and
1100 aluminium alloy on the total thickness of the intermetallic layer (Calderon et al.
..................................... 28
1985). ..................--...........................................................
+
Figure 2.12. Examples of dependence of the coefficient of friction of p for a soft coating
on harder substrate materials: (A) pLfKB>l-3; (B) 1 . 3 2L~/p B21; (C) p L/pB>1; (D)
pL/pB4(T = thickness) (Heilmann and Rigney 1981). ........................................... 30
Figure 2.13. Schematic arrangement of friction welding of a solid rod (Grong 1994)... 33
Figure 2.14. Schematic diagram showing the hardness distribution following P"(Mg2Si)
dissolution in the HAZ of 6082-T6 aluminium welds (Grong 1994). ....................... 35
Figure 2.15. Precipitation of P' (Mg2Si) dispersoids during the weld cooling cycle (Myhr
and Grong 1991a). .................... ..............................

.......-.........................-.---.-..-.
36
Figure 2.16. Schematic representation of the HAZ hardness distribution after welding
and subsequent natural ageing. (A) Short duration thermal cycle. (B) Long duration
thermal cycle (Midling and Grong 1994b). .......................-...............~..................

38
Figure 2.17. Line loading of a semi-infinite space. ..............................~.~..~................

39
Figure 2.18. Hemispherical normal pressure distribution (Heteny and McDonald 1954).
......~.................~..................~...........~~................................................................
41
Figure 2.1 9. Displacement components at the surface (Heteny and McDonald 1954). 42
Figure 2.20. Contact area growth of a plastic wedge under the action of a constant
normal load P and an increasing tangential load Q (Johnson 1985). ..................... 45
xiii
Figure 2.21. Wave formation mode1 (Challen and Oxley 1979).................................... 47
Figure 2.22. Theoretical and experimental results for the coefficient of friction
(Kopalinsky and Oxley 1995)................................................................................. 48
Figure 2.23. Wave removal slip-line model (Challen and Oxley 1979)........................ 49
Figure 2.24. Sirnplified wave model used in calculating strains (Kopalinsky and Oxley
1995)...................................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 3.EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES .................................................. 51

Figure 3.1.An optical micrograph showing the microstructure the reinforced 6061 AI-10
vol% A1203-............................................................................................................. 52
Figure 3.2. A backscattered SEM micrograph showing the silver interlayer at the
bondline of dissimilar MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints .................... 53
Figure 3.3. Some examples illustrating the relationship behiveen (a) regular particles,
(b) irregular particles, and (c) misaligned particles, and the cylindrical particles
which were used to represent thern assurning the bar axis is from left to right (Lewis
and Withers 1995).................................................................................................. 57
Figure 3.4. U-Notch tensile testing specimen configuration........................ .

........... 58
Figure 3.5. Round test tension specimen..................................................................... 59
Figure 3.6. Stress-strain diagram for reinforced 6061-T6110 vol% AI2O3..................... 60
Figure 3.7. Stress-strain diagram for AlSI 304 stainless steel...................................... 60
.
CHAPTER 4 INTERLAYERS AND PARTICLE FRACTURE IN DlSSlMlLAR
FRICTION JOINTS ......................... ..........................................................................61
xiv
Figure 4.1 Modes of particle failure observed dunng mechanical testing of a particulate
reinforced metal matnx composite materiai.................................................................. 62
Figure 4.2. Particle fracture in dissimilar MMWAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds. 63
Figure 4.3. Effect of friction joining on the aspect ratio distribution in a 6061-1O vol%
AI2O3MMC/AISI 304 friction joint. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure,
120 MPa; friction time, 4.5 s; forging time 1.5 S. (A) As-weld condition; (B) As-
received condition. ................................................................................................. 65
Figure 4.4. Effect of friction joining on the number of same-size particles in 6061-10
vol% AI2O3MMC/AISI 304 friction joints. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging
pressure, 120 MPa; friction time, 4.5 s; forging time, 1.5 S. (A) As-weld condition;
(B) As-received condition. ...................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.5. Effect of friction joining on the particle volume in a 6061-10 vol% AI2O3
MMCIAISI 304 friction joint. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 120 MPa;
friction tirne, 4.5 s; forging time, 1.5 S. (A) As-weld condition; (6)As-received
condition........................... ...................................................................................... 67
Figure 4.6. Effect of friction pressure and forging pressure on the average particle
radius in the region adjacent to the bondline in 6061-10 vol% AI203/1020 mild steel
friction joint. f o r a friction tirne of 4.5 s, and a forging time of 1.5 S. All
measurernents were made at the half radius location. ..................................... ...68
Figure 4.7. Effect of friction tirne on the percentage of fractured particles in MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel and MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction
pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 30 MPa; friction time from 0.2-4.5s; forging
time, 1.5 S. Al1 measurements were made at the half radius location..................... 69
Figure 4.8. Effect of a silver interlayer on the average particle radius in the region
adjacent to the bondline in an MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. Friction
XV
pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 120 MPa; friction time, 4.5 s; forging time, 1.5
S. All measurements were made at the haif radius location. ....................

........ 70
Figure 4.9. Accumulated particle volume in dissimilar 6061-10vol% AI2O3MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. Ail measurements were made at the half
.....
radius location. ....................... ..................................................................... 71
Figure 4.10. Regular wavy surface model. ................................................................... 75
Figure 4.1 1. Effect of the combined elastic modulus (E*)on the contact pressure @,).
Assuming a nominal pressure, p. of 0.5 MPa, an interparticle distance (A) of 104.8
pm, and protuberance (A) of 1 .O pm. ................................... .

...
. 78
Figure 4.12. Effect of oxide layen on the notch tensile strength of MMCIAISI 304
. . - -
stainless steel friction joints. ................................................................................... 79
Figure 4.13. Distribution of normal stress (ax)produced by the combination of normal
and tangential line loads along the contact surface (y = O unit of length). P = 1 unit
of force per unit of length. ...................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.14. Distribution of normal stress (fi)produced by the combination of normal
and tangential line loads along the line at y = 0.1 unit of length. P = 1 unit of force
per unit of length. ................................................................................................. 82
CHAPTER 5. MICROSTRUCTURE OF A DISSIMILAR FRICTION JOINT
CONTAlNlNG A SILVER INTERLAYER .....................................................................84
Figure 5.1. TEM micrograph of silver interlayer: (A) bright field image; (B)
corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram showing Ag.
xvi
Figure 5.2. Optical micrograph of the bondline of a dissirnilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 friction
joint, showing the wavy interface rnorphology produced by the friction welding
operation.. ......................
....~.........~......~...............................................................
89
Figure 5.3. Backscattered rnicrograph of a dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
friction joint showing the intermixed region (IM) containing alurnina particles. The
nickel layer is not visible in this micrograph. ........~................................................ 90
Figure 5.4. EDX analysis of the intemetallic compound of the IM region. Friction
pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 1 S. Location at 1 mm
from the joint periphery. See Figure 5.3. ................................................................ 91
Figure 5.5. TEM micrograph of the IM region: (A) bright field image, the dark phase is
AgdI; (B) corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram
confirming Ag3AI formation in the IM region. Friction Pressure, 90 MPa; forging
pressure, 15 MPa; friction time, 1.2 S. Half-radius location ....................................92
Figure 5.6. X-ray diffraction pattern at the bondline of a dissirnilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel joint. Friction pressure, 90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; friction
time, 1.2 S. ............................................................................................................. 93
Figure 5.7. PD region in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 comprising particles of AgAI, Ag,
and Ai as identified by EDX. Friction pressure, 90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa;
friction time, 0.2 S. Half-radius location. ....................................~......~..................... 94
Figure 5.8. Optical micrograph showing the presence of a PD region in a
6061/MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. The arrow shows the joint
centreline. .............................................................................................................. 95
Figure 5.9. Effect of friction tirne on the microstructure of a dissirnilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel friction joint: (A) friction time, 0.2 s, and (B) friction time, 1.2S.
xvii
Friction pressure, 90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; forging tirne, 1.0 S. and
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Backscattered micrograph. Centreline location ......... 96
Figure 5.10. Effect of friction time on the thickness of the PD and IM regions in
dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction pressure, 90 MPa;
forging pressure, 15 MPa; forging time, 1.0 s, and rotational speed, 1500 rprn. Half-
radius location ........................................................................................................ 97
Figure 5.1 1. Distribution of IM and PD regions along the bondline of dissimilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints as function of friction tirne. A)
.....
Friction time, 0.2 s; 5) friction time, 1-2S. ........................ ............................ 98
Figure 5.12. Effect of friction pressure on the microstructure of dissirnilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel friction joints: A) friction pressure, 30 MPa, and B) friction
pressure, 240 MPa. Friction tirne, 4s; forging time, 1 s, and rotational speed, 1500
rpm. Backscattered micrographs. Centreline location .......................................... 99
Figure 5.13. Effect of friction pressure on the thickness of the PD and IM regions in
dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, s, and rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half-radius
location................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 5.14. Distribution of IM and PD regions along the bondline of dissirnilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints as function of friction pressure. (A)
friction pressure, 30 MPa, and (6)friction pressure, 240 MPa with a small amount
of IM region (1 prn thick) at the centreline location....................................... 101
Figure 5.1 5. TEM micrographs of the iM region from the bondiine of a dissimilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joint: (A)-(B) bright field images; (C)
corresponding ring diffraction pattern, and (D) key diagrarn showing the presence of
silver. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s;
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline location. .................................................. 104
Figure 5.16. TEM micrograph of the IM region: (A) bright field image; (9) corresponding
selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram showing Ag. Friction
pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction tirne, 4 s; rotational speed,
1500 rpm. Half-radius location. ............................................................................ 106
Figure 5.1 7. TEM micrographs of the IM region: (A)-(6) bright field images; (C)
corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (D) key diagram showing Ag.
Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational
speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline location................................................................... 108
Figure 5.18. TEM micrographs of the IM region: (A)-(B) bright field images. Friction
pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed,
1500 rpm. Centreline location. ............................................................................. 109
Figure 5.19. Microstructural features detected in a dissimilar MMCIAgfAISI 304
stainless steel friction joint showing the boundary between the nickel layer and the
stainless steel substrate. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa;
friction tirne, 4 s; forging time, 1 S. The arrow indicates the particle from which the
EDX pattern was obtained. Centreline location. ................................................... 111
Figure 5.20. Micrograph of a dissirnilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joint
showing the transition layer. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging
pressure, 30 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ..........................

.................................... 112
Figure 5.21. Cracking at the half-radius location in a dissimilar MMClAlSi 304 stainless
steel joint. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; friction time, 1 s; forging pressure, 30 MPa;
forging tirne, 1 s....................................................................................................113
xix
Figure 5.22. EDX analysis of the transition layer. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; friction
time, 4 s; forging pressure, 30 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ......................................... 114
Figure 5.23. Transition layer distribution along the interface..................................... 115
Figure 5.24. TEM micrographs at the bondline of a MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction weld: (A)-(B) bright field images; (C) corresponding selected area diffraction
pattern, and (D) key diagram confirming FeAl formation. Interrnetallic layer width,
1.9 Fm. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s;
Figure 5.25. TEM micrographs at the bondline of a MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction weld: (A)-(8) bright field images; (C) corresponding selected area diffraction
pattern, and (C) key diagram confirming Fe2AI5formation. Intermetallic layer width ,
0.5 p.Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s;
Figure 5.26. TEM micrographs at the bondline of a MMClA1SI 304 stainless steel
friction weld: (A) bright field images; (C) corresponding selected area diffraction
pattern, and (C) key diagrarn confiming Fe4AIl3 formation. Friction pressure, 30
MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction tirne, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half
radius location. .................................... ................................................................. 118
Figure 5.27. Comparison of intermetallic layer widths at the centreline and at the half
radius location in the dissimilar joint produced using friction pressure of 30 MPa and
friction time of 4 s; (A) at the half radius location, and (B) at the centreline. ........ 119
Figure 5.28. Effect of friction pressure (Pl) on the interrnetallic layer thickness in a
dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. Friction time, 4 s; forging tirne,
1 s, and rotational speed, 1500 rpm. ........................... .

..................................... 120
Figure 5.29. Schematic representation of the wave model when f = 0.90.. ...............133
Figure 5.30. Schematic representation of the wave model when f = 0.10. ................ 134
CHAPTER 6. THERMAL ASPECTS AND SOFTENED ZONE FORMATION ...........136

Figure 6.1. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature at 0.2 mm from the bondline
and 4.5 mm from the periphery in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds. Friction time, 3 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S..... 139
and 4.5 mm from the periphery in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
welds. Friction time, 2 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ............... 140
and 4.5 mm from the periphery in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 and MMC/AISI 304
stainless steel friction welds considering a friction time of 1 s.......................... . 141
Figure 6.4. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature-time curves at 0.2 mm from
the joint interface and 4.5 mm from the joint periphery in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 3 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa;
forging time, 1 s........................ .

..................................................................... 142
Figure 6.5. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature-time curve at 0.2 mm from the
joint interface and 4.5 mm from the joint periphery in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304
stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 2 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging
time, 1 S. .............................................................................................................. 143
Figure 6.6. Relationship between axial shortening and friction pressure in dissimilar
MMC/AISI 304 and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4
s; forging time, 1 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa.................................................... 144
xxi
Figure 6.7.Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface. Friction pressure, 30
MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. .................. 150
Figure 6.8. Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface. Friction pressure, 60
MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ......,........... 151
Figure 6.9. Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface. Friction pressure,
120 MPa; friction tirne, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1 S. ........... 152
Figure 6.1 0.Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface. Friction pressure,
180 MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ...........153
Figure 6.11. Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface. Friction pressure,
240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S. ........... 154
CHAPTER 7. INFLUENCE OF THE INTERLAVER ON THE MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF DlSSlMlLAR FRICTION JOINTS ............................................155

Figure 7.1. Influence of friction pressure on the notch tensile strength of MMCIAISI 304
and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction tirne. 4s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1s ................................................................156

Figure 7.2. Relationship between the effective plastic strain and notch tensile strength
of MMCIAISI 304 and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time,
4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1 s ......................................... 157
Figure 7.3. Fracture surface morphology in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction
joints: A), 6)friction pressure, 30 MPa; C,D) friction pressure, 240 MPa. Friction
tirne, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
xxii
Figure 7.4. Fracture surface morphology in MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints:
A), 6)friction pressure, 30 MPa; C, D) friction pressure, 240 MPa. Friction tirne, 4 s;
forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. .......... 160
Figure 7.5. lnfluence of friction pressure on the percentage fraction of ductile failure.
Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1 s; rotational speed,
1500 rpm..........................
.................................................................................. 161
Figure 7.6. Fracture surface morphology in a MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel friction
joint. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 2 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa;
forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. ............................................... 162
Figure 7.7. Influence of friction pressure on the softened zone width in MMC/AISI 304
and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm....................... 163
Figure 7.8. Relation between softened zone width and the notch tensile strength of
dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints.
Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed,
1500 rpm. ............................... .. ........................................................................ 164
Figure 7.9. lnfluence of friction pressure on the hardness of the adjoining MMC
substrate in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel and MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel friction joints. Measured at the location 0.125 mm from the bondline.
Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed,
1500 rpm. ............................................................................................................. 165
Figure 7.10. Relationship between the hardness of the adjoining MMC substrate and
the notch tensile strength in dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel and
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Measured at the location 0.125 mm
xxiii
from the bondline. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s;
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. ................................................................................. 166
Figure 7.1 1. The necked region of a hornogeneous notched tensile specimen showing
............... 167
the directions of the normal (Q), radial (O,), and tangential stress (oe).
Figure 7.12. Half of the notch tensile specimen. ....................................................... 169
Figure 7.1 3. Finite element idealisation of the notch tensile specimen. ..................... 170
Figure 7.14. Equivalent stress distribution along the Iine located at 1 mm from the
bondline for two MMCIAISI 304 welds stainless steel friction joints. For an applied
stress = 160 MPa. ................................................................................................ 172
Figure 7.15. Total equivalent strain distribution along the line located at 1 mm from the
bondline for two MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. For an applied stress =
160 MPa............................................................................................................ ...173

Figure 7.16. Triaxiality factor distribution along a Iine located at 1 mm from the bondline
for two MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. For an applied stress = 160
MPa....................................................................................~~~............~..................
174
Figure 7.17. Equivalent stress distribution along Iines parallel to the bondline in a
dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. P l = 240 MPa. Sofîened zone
width = 4.80 mm. For an applied stress = 200 MPa. .......................................... 175
Figure 7.18. Total equivalent strain distribution along lines parallel to the bondline in a
dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. P l = 240 MPa and softened
zone width = 4.80 mm. For an applied stress = 200 MPa. ................................... 176
Figure 7.19. Triaxiality factor distribution along lines parallel to the bondline in a
dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joint. P l = 240 MPa and softened
zone width = 4.80 mm. For an applied pressure = 200 MPa. ............................... 177
xxiv
Figure 7.20. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a line located at 0.1 25 mm
from the bondline. Applied stress = 204 MPa. Notch tensile strength = 293.8 MPa.
............................................................................................................................. 181
Figure 7.21. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a line located at 0.125 mm
............................................................................................................................. 182
............................................................................................................................. 183
.............................................................................................................................184
Figure 7.24. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a line located at 0.1 25 mm
from the bondline. Applied stress = 226 MPa. Calculated notch tensile strength =
325.44 MPa. ......................................................................................................... 185
from the bondline. Applied stress = 260 MPa. Calculated notch tensile strength =
374.4 MPa............................................................................................................ 186
Figure 7.26.Calculated and measured notch tensile strength values in dissimilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure,
240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. ...................................... 187
Figure 7.27. Calculated and measured notch tensile strength values in dissimilar
MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240
MPa; forging tirne, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. ......................................... 188

CHAPTER 1. f HESlS PROPOSAL
.
1.l INTRODUCTION
Dissimilar joining involves the combination of base materials having different
thermophysical, mechanical, and chernical properties. If a traditional fabrication
rnethodology such as fusion welding is applied to join aluminium alloy and steel base
materials, for example, the mechanical properties of cornpleted welds will be extremely
poor. Firstly, aluminium alloys and steel have quite different melting temperatures
which makes the fusion welding process difficult since there will be a strong tendency
to preferential melting of the low melting point base material. Secondly, the fusion
welding operation will produce very thick brittle AI-Fe intermetallic layers at the bondline
because the diffusion rates in the liquid are considerable. Also, an aluminium alloy
base material has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion and during cooling
following the welding operation, thermal stresses will be generated that are high
enough to promote joint failure.
Solid-state joining provides an alternative to fusion joining. In this case the
bonding occurs wholly in the solid state at temperatures lower than the solidus
temperature of the base material. Typical solid-state bonding processes comprise
diffusion bonding, friction welding, and ultrasonic bonding. Even when these welding
processes are applied, the formation of brittle intermetallic is still of concern. Diffusion
bonding and friction welding can be applied directly or with the introduction of an
interlayer material at the contact interface (Elliot and Wallach 1981a, b). Noble or
1
2
reactive interiayer materials have been applied during joining of dissimilar materials,
with much of the research effort being associated with diffusion bonding. It has been
suggested that improved weld properties can be achieved by introducing an interlayer
between the contacting substrates prior to the friction welding operation (Elliot and
Wallach 1981b). t-iowever, this particular approach has not been researched in detail.
Only limited research has been carried out on friction welding using interlayer
materials.
7.2. THE INTERLAYER APPROACH

lnterlayer materials have been applied during dissimilar friction welding of
metallmetal combinations such aluminium and steel base materials (Hartwig and
Kouptsidis 1977, Dunkerton 1982, 1983, and Sassani and Neelam 1988). However,
almost al1 this work has concentrated on evaluating the effects of interlayer selection on
joint mechanical properties. For this reason, almost al1 of the detailed information that
has been published conceming the metallurgical and mechanical effects produced
when interlayers are introdüced during dissimilar joining applies to the diffusion bonding
process.
lnterlayer rnaterials have been used as buffers that bridge the wide differences in
properties (the coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, yield strength or
elastic modulus, and so on) and in mutual solid solubility of the contacting components.
It has been suggested that brittle intemetallic layer formation at the bondline can be
prevented through judicious selection of an interlayer material (Elliot and Wallach
198ib). lnterlayer materials have also been applied with the objective of taking
advantage of the speed and reliability of the friction welding technique.
Much of the published information is incomplete or contradictory concerning the
detailed effects produced when an interlayer is introduced during dissimilar friction

3
welding. For example, it has been reported that the introduction of a 25 pm-thick silver
interlayer produced a substantial irnprovement in tensile strength properties durhg
dissimilar aluminium/stainless steel friction welding (Hartwig and Kouptsidis 1977). No
evidence of intermetallic formation was reported and no expianation for the strength
improvement produced by introduction of the silver interlayer was presented. In
contrast, Dunkerton found only a modest increase in the joint strength when they
introduced a silver interlayer during aluminium/steel friction welding. This researcher
reported the formation of an intermetallic phase at the dissimilar joint interface but did
not identify it or characterise its effect on joint mechanical properties (Dunkerton
l982,i983).
The effects of interlayer materials on joint tensile strength properties has been the
main focus during dissimilar friction welding and this has resulted in a dearth of
information concerning the influence of interlayers on intemetallic phase formation at
the dissimilar joint interface. For example, it is not possible based on the published
literature to detemine whether a particular interlayer will prevent intermetallic layer
formation at the bondline, how it will do SO, under what conditions it is best applied, and
what its overall effect will be vis-à-vis joint mechanical properties. It is even possible
that use of an interlayer material could produce per se harmful intermetallic phases
during the welding operation, i.e. by combining chemically with alloying elements
contained in one or both of the adjoining metallic substrates. The scantiness of
information concerning the influence of interlayer materials on intermetallic layer
formation is al1 the more surprising since it has been stressed that the avoidance of
harmful intermetallic layer formation is the prime incentive for introducing interlayers
during dissirnilar welding operations (Elliot and Wallach 1981a, b).

4
Based on the above discussion, it is apparent that there is need for proper
identification of the composition, morphology, dimensions, location, and mechanical
properties of the intermetallic layers forrned when an interlayer material is applied
during dissimilar friction welding. The effects of the intemetallic layer on weld
mechanical properties also require much clarification. This is highlighted using the
following example. It has been suggested that the interrnetallic layer width has a
critical influence on joint mechanical properties. A critical intermetallic width ranging
from 0.2 to 1 pn has been proposed during dissimiiar aluminium/stainless steel friction
welding (Jessop et al. 1978, Elliot and Wallach 1981b). The tensile strength of
completed welds markedly decreases when this critical dimension is exceeded. In
effect, it has been suggested that a geometric feature (the intemetallic layer width) is
more important than the composition and mechanical properties (yield strength and
ductility) of the intemetallic phase. Not only is a geometric feature emphasised but
also the implication is that intermetallic layer formation and its subsequent growth
depends on interdiffusion. Therefore, the width of the intermetallic layer fomed at the
bondline will increase when the peak temperature attained at the bondline increases
and when the friction tirne increases. There is support for this proposal. For example,
the highest mechanical properties in dissimilar Ti/aluminiurn alloy A5083 welds were
produced using a combination of short friction times and high friction pressures (Fuji et
al. 1995a, b).

However, intermetallic Iayers can be formed as a result of mechanical mixing
during the friction welding operation. When this occurs, the interrnetallic layer width in
completed joints may depend, not on peak temperature or friction time, but on whether
the intermetallic cornpound is forrned early in the joining operation and is then retained
or removed as the welding operation progresses. When intermetallic layer formation

5
during dissimilar welding depends on a combination of interdiffusion and mechanical
mixing early in the welding process, the situation will be even more complicated.
The proposal that a critical intermetallic layer width exists during dissimilar friction
welding may not be applicable when age-hardened aluminium alloys are joined to steel.
The thermal cycle produced by the friction welding operation will create a softened
region in age-strengthened base material irnmediately adjacent to the bondline. With
this in mind, it would be expected that the influence of welding parameters changes on
final joint strength properties would depend on the interplay of intermetallic layer
formation and softened zone in aluminium alloy base material adjacent to the bondline.
It is well documented that contaminants such as lubricating oils, oxide films and
the surface roughness prior to friction welding have a marked influence on joint
mechanical properties (Jessop et al. 1978, Fuji et al. 1992). Lubricating oils and oxide
films alter the coefficient of friction between the contacting surfaces, the amount of heat
generated during the welding operation and the final joint strength (Jessop et al. 1978).
It has been reported that the tensile strengths of dissimilar TifAlSI 304 stainless steel
friction welds increase when the surface roughness decreases from 2.2 pm to 0.05 Pm.
This improvement in joint mechanical properties has been associated with decreased
magnitude of the residual strains and with the removal of surface oxide films and
contaminants from the contacting substrates (Fuji et al. 1992).
Introduction of an interlayer material prior to friction welding will alter the surface
conditions (roughness, oxide film composition, and adherence) and the frictional
coefficient when the adjoining substrates corne into contact, see figure 1.l.
Also,
introduction of an interlayer material will affect joint mechanical properties because it
will modify the type, chernical composition, dimensions, location, and mechanical
properties of the intermetallic layer formed at the bondline. Finally, since the
6
introduction of an interlayer affects heat generation dunng the welding process, this will
rnodiw the dimensions and mechanical properties of the softened zone formed
immediately adjacent to the dissimilar joint interface.
1.3. DETAILED THESIS OBJECTIVES

In the present thesis, friction welding of dissirnilar aluminium alloy 6061(T6)
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel is investigated. The behaviour of a silver interlayer
and the nature, chemical composition, and location of the different intermetallic phases
fonned when using a range of welding parameter settings is examined. The presence
of reinforcing A1201 particles in MMC base material provides information conceming the
events that occur in the aluminium-based substrate very early in the friction joining
process. The specific objectives of this thesis comprise:
Examining the fracture of reinforcing AI2O3 parficles during dissimilar MMCfAlSl
304 stainless steel a ~ dMMCfAg/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welding to
elucidate the effects of silver interlayers on the mechanical processes that occur
in mâterial close to the bondline. Reinforcing particle fracture behaviour is also
used to monitor changes as function of tirne in the region close to the bondline.
Developing a deeper understanding concerning the role that silver interlayers
perform when the friction welding parameters are varied, in particular, how
intermetallic layers are formed and removed at the bondline. It is worth noting that
no published information exists concerning how interlayer rnaterial performance is
affected by welding parameter selection.
Examining the factors determining the mechanical properties of dissirnilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
that contain both intermetallic layers and softened zones in MMC base matenal
irnmediately adjacent to the bondline. The detailed effects of interrnetallic layer

7
and softened zone formation on the tensile strength of dissimilar aluminium alloy
MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds are evaluated using finite element
modelling (FEM).
1.4. THE PROCEDURES

Dissirnilar aluminium alloy 6061(T6)-base MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
welds with and without silver interlayer are produced using a range of welding
parameters (friction pressure and friction tirne). The joint strength is rneasured using
typical notch tensile testing specimens. In particular, the influence of silver interlayers
on the mechanical properties of weids containing both intemetallic layes and a
sofîened zone in MMC material adjacent to the bondline is exarnined and rnodelled
using FEM. This work effort is complemented by extensive microstructural
characterisation (optical, SEM, and TEM microscopy) of rnaterial at and close to the
dissimilar weld interface.
1.5. THESlS ORGANIZATION

Chapter 1 provides a summary of the thesis objectives. Chapter 2 examines
background information concerning the principles of the friction welding process,
friction welding phenornena, dissimilar joining, intermetallic layer formation, and
softened zone. Chapter 3 describes the experimental procedures that were applied.
Chapter 4 discusses how the silver interlayer affects particle fracture during dissimilar
MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welding operations. Chapter 5 examines the
microstructural changes produced in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel and
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction wefds. Chapter 6 examines softenea zone
formation. Chapter 7 examines the interplay of intemetallic layer and softened zone
and their effects on dissimilar weld mechanical properties. Finally, the conclusions are
presented in Chapter 8.
DISSIMI'AR FRICTION
MATERIALS 4 O PARAMETERS
-.
' I I DEFORMATION
1 t 1
-1 HEAT GENERATION
AND TRANSFER
I
F - I
lNTERMETALLIC
'1 FRACTURE
' I 1 I COMPOUNDS 1
I
J I
Z
1
FRICTION JOINT 1
PROPERTIES 1
I - I œ - I - i œ œ - I
Figure 1.1. The effects of an interlayer on dissimilar friction welds.

CHAPTER 2. THE FRICTION WELDING PROCESS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Friction welding is classified by the American Welding Society (AWS) as a solid-
state joining process in which bonding is produced at temperatures lower than the
meiting point of the base matenals (Johnson et al. 1991). However, the underlying
mechanisms that determine both similar and dissimilar friction welding are not
completely understood and the results of recent research do not support the above
view. For example, it has been shown that the solidus temperature is attained at the
contact zone of rotary AIIAI friction welds and at the rotating toolladjoining material
interface in friction stir welded aluminium base material (Bendzsak et ai. 2000 and
North et ai. 2000). The high heating rate during friction welding operation can facilitate
local melting, e.g. undissolved q' particles segregated at the grain boundary regions in
Al 7030 T6 base material promote local melting when the eutectic temperature (475 O C )
is attained (Grong 1994). As a result the above definition may be considered to be
Iimited and controversial.
In an earfy book on the subject (Vill 1962), it is mentioned that in 1956, the
Russian machinist, A.I. Chudikov successfully demonstrated the possibility of achieving
high-quality butt welds between steel rods. It is in this period that study of friction
welding started in order to understand its fundamentals. Friction welding (FRW)
produces a joint under compressive force when the workpieces rotate or move relative
10
to each another producing heat and displacing matenal frorn the faying surfaces.
Finally, the weld is consolidated applying a forging pressure (Johnson et al. 1991,
Elmer and Kautz 1993). Currently two types of friction welding process are used in
industry, the inertia friction welding process and the continuous-drive or direct-drive
friction welding process, see figures 2.1-2.2.
2.7.7. lnerfia fnction welding

In inertia friction welding (see figure 2.1) a rotating spindle with a replaceable
flywheel (or combination of flywheels) is brought up to a speed of N (rpm). The welding
cycle starts when the non-rotating piece is pushed against the rotating cornponent. The
stage
~"";"'t-""'~-~ III f
Start
Welding
Time - Welding
Complete
Figure 2.1. lnertia friction welding process (Wang and

Rasmussen 1972).
11
drive power is cut off simultaneously and produces a rapid drop of rotating speed so
that it stops completely in a short time period. The inertia friction welding process
blends the heating and forging phases. On the other hand the direct-drive process has
a distinct heating period before forging takes place (Wang 1975).
One important difference with the direct-drive process is the number of welding
parameters to control. During inertia friction welding, there are three key parameters:
the friction pressure, the initial rotating speed, and the total moment of inertia of the
rotating mass. Compared with the direct-drive fiction welding, the inertia welding
process is a much simpler process (Wang and Rasmussen 1972).
The inertia welding process produces a torque curve containing two peaks, one in
the initial stage of friction welding and other near the end of the welding cycle. In the
initial stage, the torque reaches the first peak and drops to an equilibrium level during
the steady stage of the friction welding process. It should be pointed out that in elastic
contact the torque produced between a rotating body and a surface depends directly on
the coefficient of friction, the applied load, and the apparent area of contact (Johnson
1985). Since the applied friction pressure remains constant in Stage 1, see figure 2.1,
the increasing torque values can be ascribed to an increase in the area of contact. The
second torque peak occurs when the rotating speed is near to the end of the process.
This particular behaviour results of the cornbined effect of the material viscosity and
strain rate. During deceleration, the material viscosity increases while the strain rate
drops to zero.
Appreciable shortening (burn-off) of the workpieces is produced during welding
since material close to the interface is heated up and extruded producing the typical
bulge or flash of the friction welds.

12
2.1.2. Direct-drive friction welding
2.1.2.1. Heating period

The heating penod of the direct-drive friction welding process can be divided into
three distinct phases, see figures 2.3-2.4.
Stage 1.
During this stage the components are brought into contact under an applied
constant rotational speed (N) and compressive friction pressure (Pl). The torque rises
until it reaches a peak value and the axial shortening is almost equal to zero, see
figures 2.2 and 2.3. The strong adhesion between asperities forms junctions that can
be stronger than the adjoining substrates. The tangential movement between surfaces
breaks these junctions, resulting in mass transfer and heat generation. Since the large
transferred fragments ride over each other, they push the two components apart and
therefore al[ rubbing is confined to an annular area. The size of transferred fragments
grows until they form a continuous plasticised layer, see figure 2.4.
It is convenient to point out that the plasticised layer term has been used to
describe the layer formed close to the bondline during the friction welding process. This
terni cannot be applied during the whole process because during a period of tirne this
layer behaves as a viscous material and is affected by the temperature and strain rates
close to the contacting surfaces.

Friction Time (tl)
Deceleration
Time (t2)
Delay Time (t3) - 1
1
I
Rotational Speed (N)
Forging
Time (t4)
Friction pressure (Pl)
Welding
Starts
Time - Welding
Ends
Figure 2.2. Direct-drïve friction welding process.
Stage II
The flow strength of the plasticised layer decreases and a steady-state condition
is established. The plasticised layer then behaves as a viscous material. The torque
decreases to a minimum value, metal is heated by a viscous dissipation mechanism.
Material on both sides of the joint interface is heated up and extruded producing the
collar observed in friction welds.
Stage III.
In this deceleration phase the viscous layer is displaced radially outwards from the
component centreiine. The torque rises reaching a terminai peak value again and then
decreases to zero, see figure 2.3.

0: : Time ---)
I
1
I
1
a !
0:
I
1 1
:
Time + 1
I
I
1
I
l
l
I
t
I
1
1 I
1 I
I I
1 l
1 1
l I
I l
I I
0; i Time k - b
I
1
I
I
OI
I I 1 l
I I I 1
1 1 1 I
Stage II ? = y
T
i Stage 1
Stage ïïï i
I
I
I
l
l
Frictioning w
l
I
I
Stage I
Figure 2.3. ldealised traces of the variations with time of

speed, torque and axial shortening in the direct-drive
friction welding process during the frictioning stage. 1-Peak
torque. 2-Equilibrium torque. 3-Terminal torque (Duffin and
Bahrani 1976).
Stage 1. Dry fiction occurs in an annular area
at the interface- A plasticised region starts
developing in the surface and subsurface of the
annula area The size of the contact area
depends on the applied fkïction pressure and
increases with 6nction time along with'the
resisting torque. Axiai shortening starts at
the end of this stage.
Stage II. The material of the plasticised

region starts behaving as a viscous material.
The annular contact area expands and the
resisting torque decreases unt il it reaches
the equih'brium value.
Axiat shortening continues. The tipicai
collar of fiction joints starts fonning.
The viscous Iayer region

increases in size and decreases in thickness.
The radial displacement is inwards.
Stage III. Deceleration occurs, the rotating

piece is stopped- The viscous Iayer covers
most of the contact d a c e . The radial
displacement is outwards.
The resisting torque reaches a
second peak value.
Figure 2.4. The heating period based on the work of D u f h and Bahrani
(DufFm and Bahrani 1976).
16
When low friction pressures or short friction times are applied, there is a tendency
to lack of bonding at the periphery of the joint. Good quality friction welds require
spreading of the fully viswus layer across the contacting surfaces- Duffin and Bahrani
consider that Stage III of the friction welding process plays an important role by
spreading this region across the contact region, see figure 2.4, and therefore affecting
the weld mechanical properties (Duffh and Bahrani 1976). However, it is the opinion of
this author, that most of the spreading of the plasticised layer must occur previous to
this stage. This situation is attained applying higher friction pressures and longer
friction tirnes.
2.1 -2.2. Forging stage

It has been suggested that a key objective in the forging stage is to expel the
plasticised layer into the flash and with it, the trapped oxides and contaminants. Rich
and Roberts developed an interfacial dispersion parameter (q) for similar welding,
which they daim it can be used to estimate the removal of oxides, voids and
contamination from the surface during forging (Rich and Roberts 1971a). The interfacial
dispersion parameter is the ratio of the original interfacial cross sectional area, which
becomes expelled into the flash during forging. It ranges from a value of zero where no
dispersion takes place to one where al1 of the original interfacial area has been
dispersed into the flash, see equation 2.1.
where q is the dispersion factor, U, is the axial shortening (burn-off) of each component
17
during the forging stage, and hois the thickness of the plasticised zone at the onset of
forging (Rich and Roberts 1971). From equation 2.1, it is noted that friction pressure
has a great influence on the dispersion parameter. Friction pressure (Pl) detemines
the plasticised layer width (ho) prior to forging because this parameter is inversely
related to the friction pressure (Bendzsak et al. 1997). As result, the higher the friction
pressure, the higher will be the 7 value.
However, the prior model proposed is of Iimited application. Rich and Roberts
assumed that flash formation is produced completely during the forging stage, but flash
formation starts in the frictioning stage of the welding process. At the time that forging
pressure is applied, a large axial bum-off has already been produced. Their suggestion
that forging plays an important role on expelling trapped oxides, voids, and
contamination into the flash is not well supported. In successful friction welds alf
impurities are rernoved previous to the beginning of the friction welding process, a dirty
surface is associated with a low coefficient of friction, and low heat input in Stage I of
friction welding. These welds show low joint strength, see Chapter 4.
2.1.2.3. Direct-drive friction welding parameters

The direct-drive friction welding machine has more parameters that can be set up
compared to the inertia welding machine. This situation makes welding parameter
optimisation more difficult. The basic welding parameters in the direct drive welding
variables comprise: rotational speed (N), friction pressure (Pl), friction time (tl),
upsetting or forging pressure (P2), and forging time (t4), see figure 2.2. Some authors
have investigated as many as seven parameters to determine their respective effects
on weld properties, e.g. deceleration time (t2)and delay tirne (t3) have been included
(Wang 1975).
18
Murîi and Sundaresan applied a statistical approach when optimising dissimilar
friction weld mechanical properties. Parameter optimisation was carried out using a 2"
factonal experimental design. They examined the following combinations: low alloy
steel/stainless steel, high-speed steelfmediurn carbon steel, and alurninium/stainless
steel. They studied the effect of friction pressure, friction time, and forging pressure on
the notch tensile strength. They found that in dissimilar aluminium/stainless steel, high
values of friction pressure, friction time, and forging pressure produced the optimum
joint mechanical properties (Murti and Sundaresan 1983). However, a number of
investigators do not support the idea that long friction times improve the joint strength
(Jessop et al. 1978, Fuji et a/. 1995 a, b, and Zhou et al. 1995).
2.2. INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IN DlSSlMlLAR JOlNlNG

The formation of brittle intemetallic layers is of major concern in dissimilar friction
welds. Therefore, in the following sections the metallurgical and mechanical properties
of relevant intemetallic compounds are reviewed, and reiated to the problem of
dissirnilar friction welds.
2.2.1, Fe-AI intemetaliic compounds

lntermetallic compounds have a well-defined crystal structure and exist within
narrow composition ranges, see figure 2.5. The iron-aluminium binary equilibrium
diagram indicates five stable intemetallic compounds (Fe3AI, FeAI, FeAI2, Fe2AI5,and
FeAI3). At 49.0 wt% aluminium, the FeAI2 compound appears. The intemetallic
compound Fe2AI5, is produced by a congruent melting reaction at 1169 OC and
contains 55 wt% Al. At 1160 O C , a peritectic reaction between the melt and Fe2Ai5
produces FeAI3. The FeAI3 composition ranges from 58.5 to 61 wt% AI. Whereas
between 49 and 53 wt%, Fe2AI5and FeAI2coexist. In this connection, the presence of
Fe2AI5,Fe3AI and FeAl has been detected in dissimilar 1050 aluminium alloy/AISI 304
Atomic Percent Alumulurn
---
Fe Weight Percent Aluminum Al
Figure 2.5. Fe-AI binary diagram (Kattner et al. 1987).
stainless steel friction welds produced using a friction time of 1.5 s (Fukumoto et al.
1997).
The mechanical properties of the iron aluminides are sensitive to many factors,
inciuding aluminium content, heat treatment, test temperatures, alloying additions,
environment, microstructure, and defects. In general, the room temperature tensile
yield strength of iron aluminides tends to rise with increasing aluminium addition,
reaches a peak near the Fe3AI stoichiometric composition and then decreases again.
At room temperature, binary compositions with aluminium contents 4 8 at% Al fail in a
ductile manner by void nucleation and coalescence and exhibit tensile ductilities of over
20%. However, Fe3AIand FeAl characteristically exhibit limited tensile ductility. Typical
tensile elongation values are less than 10% for Fe3Al-base binary compositions, and
less than 4% for compositions above 35 at% Al (Stoloff et al. 1994).

WEiGHT PERCENT NICKEL
Figure 2.6. AI-Ni binary diagram (Hultgren et al. 1973).
2.2.2. Ni-AI internetallic compounds

The binary phase diagram indicates the presence of four intermediate phases:
Ni& (E), Ni2AI2 (ô), NiAl (P'). and N i d l (a').see figure 2.6.There is no previous work
on intermetallic NiAl compounds in dissimilar friction welding but extensive research
has been carried out on the physical and mechanical metallurgy of Ni3AI (a')and NiAl
(P') compounds. The yield strength of N i A l (a')is in the range from 70 to 100 MPa for
aluminium contents from 23 to 25 at% and increases substantially with aluminium

21
content above 25 at% reaching a room temperature yield strength of 220 MPa with
aluminium contents of 27 at%. With the exception of chromium al1 substitutional
elements can increase the yield strength. The mechanical behaviour of NiAI (fi') is
similar to the behaviour of N i d l (a'),
it has a low-temperature brittleness. Also, its yield
strength depends on the aluminium content, Le. when the aluminium content increases
from 45 to 50 at%, there is a drop in yield strength from 660 to 260 MPa. However, the
use of small additions of iron, rnolybdenum, and gallium can improve the ductility from
î to 6 %. As is the case with most intemetallics, low-temperature ductility is inadequate
(Stoloff et al. 1994)
2-2.3. Ag-AI intennetallic compounds

The phase diagram of Ag-AI, shows the presence of three intermediate phases:
Ag3N (p at high temperature), Ag3AI (p at low temperature), and Ag2AI (5). There is no
published information about the mechanical properties of Ag-AI intermetallic
compounds but the effects of these intermetallic compounds in dissimilar aluminium
alloys/Ag/stainless steel diffusion welds are discussed in section 2.2.6.
2.2.4. Growth of intennetallics

Intemetallic formation has been examined during contact between rnolten
aluminium and solid iron. Two phenornena occur simultaneously at the contact
interface, i.e. dissolution of iron into Iiquid aluminium and the formation and growth of
an alloy layer comprising intermetallic compounds produced due to the migration of
molten aluminium into iron. The intermetallic layer was mainly Fe2At5 immediately
adjacent to the iron substrate and FeAI3was immediately adjacent to liquid aluminium
(Vaillant and Petitet 1995).

WEIGHT PERCENT ALUMINUM
Figure 2.7. Ag-AI binary diagram (McAlister 1987).
The growth rate of the intemetallic layer was limited by the diffusion of reacting
species through the intemetallic layer and not by interface chernical reaction (Vaillant
and Petitet 1995). As result, the intermetallic growth rate (&dl) was inversely
proportional to the interlayer thickness (x), see equation 2.2.
where k, is the parabolic growth rate constant (m2s") and r the contact tirne (s). The
intermetallic layer thickness increased in accordance with equation 2.3.

From equation 2.3 it is apparent that the intermetallic thickness (x) depends on
holding time (t). In dissirnilar diffusion bonding, holding time plays an important role, the
width of the intermetallic layer increases with the holding time (Calderon ef al. 1985).
However, there is an important difference between friction welding and diffusion
bonding, interdiffusion is not the only mechanism involved in intermetallic formation in
friction welding, mechanical mixing is also important, and its role on intemetallic layer
formation is not completeiy understood.
In friction welding, friction tirne is an important parameter and it has been
suggested that decreased intermetallic layer thickness is promoted when short friction
times are applied (Fuji et al. 1995a, b). However, high friction pressures produces thin
intermetailic layers. Fuji et al. suggested that a high friction pressure squeezes the
plasticised region and the intermetallic layer from the bondline. This statement is Iimited
because the plasticised region close to the bondline in dissimilar welds can be
considered as stationary. Therefore, the complete removal of the intermetallic layer is
difficult. The only possible effect of friction pressure is to decrease the width of the
plasticised layer and consequently the growth of the intermetallic compounds.
2.2.5. Inmence of composition on fhe intemetallic layer

There is no information about the effects of chemical composition on the
intemetallic layer in dissimilar aluminium/steel friction welds. However, during the
contact of molten aluminium and steel it has been observed that alloying additions such
as silicon, nickel, and copper, reduce the intennetalfic layer thickness (Vaillant and
Heating tirne (h)
Heating time (ks)
Figure 2.8. Effect of holding time at 823 and 873 K on

the tensile strength of ~ i l ( 6 x l 0wt?h
~ Si) Al and
Til(0.12 wt% Si) Al joints O 873 K, Til(O.12 wt?! Si) Al;
O 873 K, ~ i l ( 6 x l 0
wt?!
~ Si) Al; 823 K, ~ i l ( ô x 1 0 ~
wt% Si);
1995~).
*fractured at the interface (Fuji et al.
Petitet 1995).Though, the case is not the same because the diffusivity of an element in
Iiquid metal is much higher than in a solid material. It can be expected that the
presence of some elements may decrease the width of the intemetallic layer at the
bondline of a friction weld.
Although there is no much information on the effect of alloying elements on the
intermetallic layer formed in dissimilar aluminium alloys/steel friction welds, there is
plenty of information on the effect of alloying additions on the strength and ductility of
monolithic iron aluminides. The results of past studies show that only chromium
improves the tensile ductility of FeAl-based iron aluminides. Additions of 2-6% of
chrornium have resulted in doubling the room temperature ductility. The high
temperature tensile and creep strengths in ail iron-alurninide compositions have been
25
improved with additions of elements such as silicon, thallium, cerium, titaniurn,
molybdenum, zirconium, hafnium, or niobium, but usually at the expense of room
temperature ductility (Stotoff et al. 1994).
It is convenient to examine the influence of silicon on the intermetallic layer
formed during dissirnilar friction welding of titanium and aluminium base materials (Fuji
et al. 1995~).Fuji et al. examined the influence of two residual silicon contents (6x1o4
and 0.12 wt%) on the mechanical properties of dissimilar TVA1 friction welds following
post-weld heat-treatment. The joint tensile strength and bend test properties were quite
different in the base materials containing different silicon contents, see figure 2.8. The
tensile strength and bend test properties of dissimilar TVA1 welds containing the lowest
silicon content ( 6 x 1 0 ~wt% Si) were markedly decreased by heat treatment compared
to Ti/AI joints made using an aluminium alloy containing higher silicon content (0.12
wt% Si). Weld failure was associated with AI3Ti formation at the dissimilar joint interface
and occurred when the width of the intermetallic layer formed at the bondline exceeded
10 Pm. The rate of growth of the AIJTi intermetallic layer was faster in post-weld heat-
treated TVA1 containing low residual silicon contents. More silicon segregated to the
titanium side of the dissirnilar joint suggesting that silicon segregation retarded AI3Ti
formation by acting as a barrier to titanium and aluminium diffusion (Fuji et al. 1995~).
2.2.6. lntermetallic compounds and mechanical propetfies

The formation of brittle intemetallic layers is of major concern in dissirnilar
aluminium alloys/steel friction welding. In a recent study, it is suggested that the poor
weld strength found during tensile testing of aluminium-based MMWAISI 304 stainless
steel friction welds resulted from the retention of an FeAI3 intermetallic layer and an
oxide Fe(AI,Cr)204 or FeO(AI.Cr)203film at the dissimilar joint interface (Pan et al.

Figure 2.9. Thickness of the intermetallic
layer (Ti3AI) vs. hea.ing tirne in a TilAl
diffusion joint (Suzuki et al. 1994).
1 996).
The deleterious effect of interrnetaliic layers on the mechanical properties of
dissirnilar diffusion welded joints have also ibeen investigated. In pure aluminium/pure
titaniurn diffusion welds, the width of the intenetallic layer was 100 pm following a
holding tirne of 400 Ks (approximately 100 hrs) at 600 OC.The joint strength increased
and attained a peak value when the intermef!iataliic thickness was 35 pm, see figures 2.9-
2.10. However, joint strength decreased when this intermetallic thickness was
exceeded. Although these test results are consistent with the suggestion that a critical
intennetallic thickness exists, which produces optimum weld mechanical properties,
this result is not always the case. For example, in dissimilar aluminiurn/silver/stainless
steel diffusion joints. the joint tensile strengtti decreased linearly frorn 240 MPa to 100
MPa when the intermetallic layer thickness imcreased frorn O to 16 pm, see figure 2.1 1
(Calderon et al. 1985).

Heating time I ks
Figure 2.10. Joint strength vs. heating time

in a TilAl diffusion joint (Suzuki et al. 1994).
The proposal that improved joint strength properties are produced when the
intermetallic layer width is less than a critical value in dissimilar friction welds has also
been suggested (Fuji et al. 1992). For example, Fuji et al. found that the mechanical
properties of dissimilar Almi friction welds decreased markedly when the intermetallic
layer width exceeded 0.5 Pm. In addition, they suggested that the critical width
depended on the mechanical properties of the adjoining substrates. This particular
issue is discussed in detail in Chapter 7 of the present thesis.
2.3. FRICTION AND WEAR
2.3.1. Soft coatings and the coefficientof friction

Friction is the resistance encountered when one body rnoves over another with
which is in contact. This resistance to sliding is described using the coefficient of
friction. This parameter is particularly important during friction welding. Heat generation,
This Work :
Unaged
O Aged a t 473 "K
A Aged a t SI3 "K
Other Results :
x Ref (10)
- --- Best Fit,
\ x Ref (10)
Figure 2.11. The dependence of the strength of the weld

between stainless steel and 1100 aluminium alloy on the total
thickness of the intermetallic layer (Calderon et al. 1985).
the onset of plastic yielding, delamination, and other friction related phenomena
depend on the coefficient of friction (Johnson 1985).
The coefficient of friction depends on many factors, among them the contacting
materials, the environmental conditions, and so on. The coefficient of friction can t;e
rnodified using a soft coating or interlayer material. In a system containing an interlayer,
the interlayer thickness, the mechanical properties of the interlayer and adjoining
substrate materials play important roles. For exampie, if a steel substrate is covered
with a silver interlayer, the coefficient of friction decreases (Iliuc 1980).
In a sliding system containing an interlayer, the energy-mode1 proposed by
Heilmann and Rigney provides some insight concerning the effect produced by
29
interlayers on the coefficient of friction value (Heilmann and Rigney 1981). According to
this model, the coefficient of friction in a coated substrate depends on the strength and
thickness of the selected rnaterials. For a soft interlayer on a hard base material, e-g. a
silver film on a steel substrate, the coefficient of friction has values between the
coefficient of friction of the interlayer material Of) and that of the base material OB),
see figure 2.12. The expressions obtained by Heilmann and Rigney are cumbersome.
They indicate that the coefficient of friction p is a function of the interlayer thickness (T),
the applied shear stresses in the interlayer and the base material and #),and their
respective shear strengths (kL. and kB). Figure 2.12 shows the coefficient of friction as
function of the interlayer thickness (T). This figure indicates that the coefficient of
friction can reach a minimum value when the interiayer is in the range from 0.1 to 10
Fm. This prediction seems to be in agreement with results obtained by Jahanmir et al.
These researchers examined the influence of the 0.1-pm thick cadmium plating on
annealed AlSI 1018 steel. However, the influence of the thin cadmium layer depended
on the testing atmosphere; it was not effective in an oxidising atmosphere. The
coefficient of friction (p)of the 0-1-pm thick cadmium plated steel was 0.4 in air and 0.2
in argon. In unplated steel p = 0.65 in air and 0.8 in argon (Jahanmir et al. 1975). Thus,
the introduction of a thin soft interlayer material can decrease the frictional coefficient.
Figure 2.12. Examples of dependence of the coefficient of friction of p for a
soft coating on harder substrate materials: (A) pL1pBM.3; (B) 1 . 3L1~p8~
SI; (C)
L B
pLlpB>l;(O) p 1p 4 (T = thickness) (Heilmann and Rigney 1981).
2.3.2. Wear and fricion welding

In Wear, avoiding seizure between contacting substrates has been a matter of
much concern for tribologists. However, in friction welding one is interested in the
conditions that promote seizure (since this leads to joint formation). Seizure has been
associated with severe Wear between contacting surfaces. The conditions that promote
seizure have been investigated for aluminium alloysfsteel pairs. Since this research is
of direct relevance to friction welding, Wear in such systems will be examined.
Wear mechanisms when testing aluminium alloys and aluminium metal matrix
composites have been examined in detail (Ames and Alpas 1995, and Zhang and
Alpas 1996). Ames and Alpas studied the Wear properties of a combination comprising
an hybrid A356 composite containing 20 vol% Sic and steel. Zhang and Alpas
31
examined the sliding Wear behaviour of an aluminium alioy 6061-10 vol% A120&teel
combination. They found that Wear properties were related to a transition temperature,
severe Wear and seizure occurred when the temperature in the surface was higher than
the transition temperature of the test material. The transition temperature is an inherent
feature of the aluminium alloy base material. For example, A356 aluminium alloy MMC
base material containing 20 vol% Sic had a transition temperature of 162 2 OC.
However, Wilson and Alpas indicated quite different values for the transition
temperature of the same composite material (440450 OC). ln unreinforced 6061
aluminium alloy the transition temperature ranged from 110 to 175 OC.Aluminium alloy
6061-MMC containing 20 vol% AI2O3particles had transition temperatures ranging from
310 to 350 OC (Wilson and Alpas 1996). These results are of interest in friction welding
of aluminium alloys, because they indicate a possible minimum temperature above
which welding may happen. Therefore, in friction welding it would be necessary to
reach temperatures higher than the corresponding material transition temperature. For
example, in similar friction welding of aluminium alloy substrates, material close to the
bondline is subjected to peak temperatures around 550 O C (Midling and Grong 1994a).
Such temperatures are much higher than the transition temperature values found in
Wear testing of aluminium alloy base materials.
2.4. THERMAL ASPECTS OF FRICTION WELDlNG
2.4.1. Calculation of heat input in friction welding

The temperature distribution in friction welds is deterrnined by factors such as the
power input, the thermophysical properties of the adjoining base materials and by flash
formation. A key problem during modelling of the friction welding process is in
obtaining an accurate description of the heat generated at the bondline. In sliding
friction, heat generation has been described using equation 2.4:

where Q (W) is the heat generation rate during frÏctional sliding, p is the coefficient of
friction, P (N) is the applied load, and ~ ( m s - ' )is the velocity (Johnson 1985).
In friction welding, the problem is complicated by the effect of the radius on factors
such as the rubbing speed, the pressure distribution, and the coefficient of friction. The
heat generation rate ( g )is expressed by equation 2.5:
where n is the rotational speed (rpm), r is the distance from the centre, p is the
coefficient of friction, and P(r) is the pressure distribution. The coefficient of friction (p)
and pressure distribution P(r) are affected by the rubbing speed, the surface
temperature, the material hardness, and the surface condition (Wang 1975).
When a torque T is applied on the contact surface, see figure 2.13, almost al1
plastic work produced by shear loading is transfomed into heat; the average heat input
is therefore:
where qd.2 ( ~ r n r n -is

~ the
) net power, P (MPa) is the friction pressure, and V,, (ms-') is
the maximum speed at the periphery of the rotating cornponent. Equation 2.6 serves as
33
the basis for calculating heat generation at the bondline (Grong 1994). However, it is
worth to keep in mind that equation 2.6 is valid only for Stage I of friction welding. which
involves dry sliding friction or relative velocity between contacting surfaces. Once, the
relative velocity between contacting surfaces is zero, heat is generated mainly by a
viscous dissipation rnechanisrn.
2.4.2 Temperatum distribution during friction welding

The factors deterrnining the temperature distribution in friction welds have been
studied by a number of researchers (Cheng 1963, Rich and Roberts 1971b, Sluzalec
and Sluzalec 1993, Midling and Grong 1994a. The rnodel originally proposed by Rikalin
considers a continuous plane heat source in a long rod (Midling and Grong 1994a). In
this mode1 the temperature of the contact section at the end of the heating periodi is Th
the temperature distribution is given by equation 2.7:
Figure 2.13. Schernatic arrangement of friction welding of a solid

rod (Grong 1994).
where Th= temperature at the end of the heating period, OC,
T, = ambient temperature, OC,
t = tirne, s,
t,: = duration of the heating period, s,
x = distance to the contact surface, mm,
a = thermal diffusivity, mm2s-1 .
Equation 2.7 describes the temperature at different distances from the contact
surface during the heating period (Midling and Grong 1994a). This equation is applied
in Chapter 6.
2.5. WELDING METALLURGY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS
2.5=1. AbMg-Si Alloys

Age-hardenable AI-Mg-Si alloys are widely used as structural materials and offer
tensile strength values exceeding 350 MPa when the base material is in the artificially-
aged T6 condition. Strengthening results from the presence of very fine, needle-shaped
precipitates P" (Mg2Si) fomed along the crystallographic direction c l O O > within the
aluminium matrix. The problem with this type of aluminium alloy is that softened zones
are formed due to the thermal cycle in friction welding. Softened zones are produced
by the reversion (dissolution) of the p" (MgzSi) precipitates during the weld thermal
cycle. This reversion produces a reduction of solute content that softens the matrix.
The presence of softened zones impairs the mechanical properties of completed welds
(Grong 1994).
2 - 5 2 Effect of the thermal welding cycle on dissolution and reprecipitatîon

The microstructural changes in the softened zone are summarised as follows:
1. reversion (dissolution) of the Pn(Mg2Si)phase;

a
-
. Peak Temperature
9 reverted
1 HAZ
b
Distance from fusion line -+
Figure 2.14. Schematic diagram showing the hardness distribution
following pS'(Mg2Si)dissolution in the HAZ of 6082-T6 aluminium
welds (Grong 1994).
2. precipitation of P' (Mg2Si) during the cooling period following the welding
cycle; and,
3. natural ageing.
The effects of these microstructural changes on the hardness profile are shown in
figure 2.14. The partially reverted region attains temperatures in the range from 250 O C
to 500 O C . The peak temperature is 250 OC at the location where the heat affected zone
teminates. It follows from figure 2.14 that reversion of P' (MgrSi) precipitates will occur
to an increasing extent for peak temperatures ranging from 250 to 500°C. This
reversion produces a continüous decrease in the softened zone hardness until the
particle dissolution process is completed. During cooIing following friction weiding,
some solute recombines to form coane metastable P' (Mg2Si) precipitates, see figure
2.1 5; these precipitates do not contribute to strengthening. However, in the region close
to the bondline where al1 the precipitates have been dissolved, the material will be
Figure 2.15. Precipitation of (3' (MgzSi) dispersoids
during the weld cooling cycle (Myhr and Grong 1991a)-
supersaturated in alloying elements. Extensive hardening (natural ageing) of this
region will occur during a period of 5 to 7 days at room temperature. However,
enhanced strength recovery can be achieved through the use of artificial ageing in the
temperature range from 150 to 180°C (Grong 1994).
2-53,The sotlened zone

The strength distribution in the softened zone following the welding operation and
the subsequent natural ageing can be calculated. Figure 2.16 shows sketches of the
superimposed hardness profiles, as evaluated from the equations developed by Myhr
and Grong (Myhr and Grong 1991a, b). The resulting strength level in the partly
reverted region depends on the interplay between two competing processes,
dissolution and re-precipitation.
It can be observed from figure 2.16 that particle dissolution is the major softening
mechanism during friction welding of age-strengthened aluminium alloys and

37
aluminium-based MMC materials. Also, a substantial strength recovery will occur as
result of plastic deformation in combination with intrinsic precipitation of hardening P"

(Mg2Si) precipitates following prolonged room temperature ageing. Depending on the
operational conditions, this recovery may produce different shaped hardness
distributions following friction welding. From figure 2.16(A) it is apparent that short
friction times produce the narrowest HAZ regions. In contrast, high heat input during
welding increases the width of the HAZ region. A similar effect is obtained when longer
friction tirnes are applied, see Figure 2.16(B). Mowever, it should be pointed out that the
model of Midling and Grong (MIDLING 1994) is not clear in one aspect, it does not
compare different heat inputs for the sarne friction tirne. Also, this model does not
consider the effect of friction pressure on the softened zone width. As result, it is not of
general application. It will be shown later in Chapter 6 that an increase of the heat input
produced by higher friction pressure results in narrower softened zones

4 , (*) I I Reversion mode1
-- Work hddening model

I
t 1- -
' Nat 'alageing model
7 r
Axial distance -b
Reversion mode1
Unaffected
base material
- Work har+ning mode1
Ï--Y
i
I
% - ,Naturd ageing mode1
Axial distance -b
Figure 2.16. Schematic representation of the H M
hardness distribution after welding and subsequent
natural ageing. (A) Short duration thermal cycle. (B)
Long duration thermal cycle (Midling and Grong
1994b).
2.6. MECHANICS OF SLIDING CONTACT

Friction welding is a process that involves the application of normal and tangential
loads when the substrates to be weld are in contact. The problem of sliding loading in a
serni-infinite space has already been examined in contact mechanics. Although, there
are some differences cornpared to friction welding, it is convenient to examine the
effect of this type of loading on the nature and distribution of the stress and strain at
and close to the contacting surface in a semi-infinite space.

Figure 2.17. Line loading of a semii'nfinite space.
2.6.1. Line loading of a semi-infinite haif-space

During Stage I of the friction welding process, loads are transferred frorn one body
to the other via surface asperities. A qualitative picture of the stress distribution in the
region close to the contact interface in a semi-infinite space can be derived assuming
lineal loading contact and plain strain conditions. Plane strain conditions are justified
because the dimensions of the asperity contacts are small compared to the surface
area of the contacting substrates. The semi-infinite space is subjected to normal and
tangential forces (see figure 2.17) with the relation between the normal load (P)and
tangential load (Q)being given by equation 2.8, where p is the coefficient of friction.
The normal and shear stresses in a semi-infinite space can be calculated using
equations 2.9 and 2.10 (Johnson 1985). These equations are applied to calculate the
stress distribution at and close to the contact surface, see Chapter 4.

2.6.2. Torsional loading
Although in friction welding contact occurs between the flat surfaces of two rods,
the tangential load acting on a circular area in a semi-infinite surface is relevant to the
friction welding process. The tangential load on a circular surface is applied
perpendicular to the circle radius and results in surface rigid rotation. Considering the
displacements produced by this type of loading, the only non-zero displacement is in
the circumferential direction (us). Thus, torsional loading does not result in radial
displacement (u,) or axial displacement (u=). Moreover, the torsional load does not
affect the distribution of pressure on the contact region (Johnson 1985).

Figure 2.18. Hemispherical normal pressure distribution (Heteny and
McDonald 1954).
2-6-3. Normal pressure and torsional loading

When a circular punch applies normal and torsional loading to a semi-infinite
space, the surfaces are subjected to the combined action of normal pressure and
torque, see figure 2.18 (Heteny and McDonald 1954). In this problem, Heteny and
McDonald calculated the stresses and displacements at and near the contact surface.
It was assumed that at any point on the surface, the tangential load (Q) produced by
the applied torque was proportional to the normal load (P),with the factor of
proportionality being the coefficient of friction (p),see equation 2.8. in the semi-infinite
solid problem loaded on its plane-surface with a normal pressure distribution P(r), the
distributed shear or tangential loading Q(r) equals pP(r). Considering the cylindrical
system of coordinates (r, 8, and z), the displacements in the positive directions are
denoted by u,,ua and u=,respectively.

Figure 2.19. Displacernent components at the surface (Heteny and
McDonald 1954).
In a combined loading problem, the normal pressure distribution does not produce
a circumferential displacement (us}, which is the only displacement produced by the
torque (see section 2.6.2).The effects of torque and normal pressure are independent
of each other and consequently can be considered separately.
Heteny and McDonald obtained a corresponding solution for the displacements
for elastic and plastic conditions. They assumed there was slippage on the contacting
surface. This slippage produced a hemispherical normal pressure distribution, see
figure 2.18.
At z = 0,and d a 51, assuming a Poisson's ratio of 0.3, which is typicai of rnetals,
figure 2.19 indicates the calculated surface displacements. The radial displacement (u,)
is negative suggesting that rnaterial at the surface moves inwards reaching a peak
value near the periphery. Extending this result to friction welding, it is suggested that
43
any trapped oxide or contaminant at the surface will be pushed towards the centre of
the weld. As result, cleaning the interface from any oxide layer in the subsequent
stages of the friction welding process is more difficult. On the other hand, the
circumferential displacernent (ue) reaches a peak value at the half radius location, while
the axial displacement (u=)attains a maximum at the centre of the contact surface.
Since surface displacements are not unifonn, strains are not uniform in the surface and
the region close to the contact interface. As result, straindependant phenornena such
as heat generation, and particle fracture during friction welding of an MMC materiai will
be affected.
At the surface, z = 0, the radial displacement u, is given as:
where,
where p, = hemispherical distribution of Hertzian pressure, Pa,
P = applied normal load, N,

A = Lame's constant, Pa,
v = Poisson's ratio,
G = modulus of elasticity in shear, Pa,
E = Young's modulus, Pa,
a = radius of the punch, m.
When Poisson's ratio is equal to 0.5, the material is in the plastic condition and
Lame's constant A = CO, see equation 2.13. In this case the radial displacement
becomes u = 0. see equation 2.11 (Heteny and McDonald 1954). Once again, this
result suggests that when the surface is in the plastic condition. it is difficult to expel the
impurities. Although, this result stands for material in the plastic condition at the
surface, it suggests that in friction welding the case might be the same. This result
confirms the importance of a clean surface at the beginning of the friction welding
process.
2.6.4. Contact of rigid-ideally-plastic materials

In the present study a silver interlayer is applied during friction welding of
dissirnilar substrates. The interlayer is deforrned and worn away during the welding
process. Deformation and Wear in the bondline are analysed using methods such as
slip-line field theory and upper bound lirnit analysis. Upper bound lirnit procedures are
applied in the present thesis, and their basics are found elsewhere (Dieter 1986,
Hosford 1993).
Figure 2.20. Contact area growth of a plastic wedge under the action of a
constant normal load P and an increasing tangential load Q (Johnson 1985).
2.6.4.1. Combined effect of shear and pressure on a plastic surface

The application of a tangential force Q produces an increase in contact area even
though the nomal load P remains constant. This process has been called junction
growth, and it can be examined using a sliding wedge and a flat. The relation between
the coefficient of friction, junction growth, and interface strength is shown in figure 2.20.
The interface strength (the interface shear q/k parameter) is plotted versus the
coefficient of friction or traction coefficient (Q'P), and area growth (ALA,). In the event of
contamination or lubrication the interface shear (q/k) will be less than one and the
junction growth process will be interrupted prematurely as result of sliding at the
contact interface. For values of q close to k (q/k-1) the coefficient of friction approaches
to one, a value obsenred in a chemically clean ductile material tested in vacuum
(Rabinowicz 1995). If contamination decreases the interface shear ( q h ) by one tenth,

46
the coefficient of friction (Q/P) decreases by one haIf. This situation explains the effects
of surface contamination during friction welding; the wntaminants will decrease the
coefficient of friction, avoid junction growth and surface plastic deformation during the
friction welding process. As result, the generated heat input is low, and the temperature
at the bondline will not be high enough to gromote formation of a plasticised iayer, a
necessary condition for the weld to proceed.
2.6.4.2. The wave model

Wear of the silver interlayer has been observed in dissimilar MMCfAgIAISI 304
stainless steel welds (see Chapter 5). Also, the silver interlayer affects the coefficient of
friction during Stage I of the friction welding process (see Chapter 6). It is believed that
slip-line field models such as the wave model (see figure 2.21) provide some insight
concerning Wear and frictional behaviour of the soft interiayer during the friction welding
operation. This model is applied in the present thesis in Chapter 5.
The wave model was developed to explain Wear and friction during the interaction
between rigid and soft rnaterials. This model can explain different types of friction and
Wear regimes that are present when two surfaces contact. It should be pointed out that
this type of slip-line field rnodel has also been proposed by other researchers for the
analysis of problems such as junction formation, rolling contact, and wire drawing
(Johnson 1985 and Suh 1986).
It is assumed that the soft material is a rigid-ideally plastic material behaving
under plain strain conditions. During contact between soft and rigid materials a wave
forms as shown in figure 2.21, and the area of contact grows along ED until the system
is in equilibrium. This process is aiso known as junction growth.

2 Sofi layer
Figure 2.21. Wave formation model (Challen and Oxley

1979).
In the slip line model the independent variables are the rigid asperity dope (a),
and the nonnalised strength V), see equation 2.15, of the interfacial film along ED:
where r i s the interfacial film strength and k is the soft substrate shear strength.
The values of the nonnalised strength are within the range O<f;cl. The lowest
values off correspond with a well-lubricated surface, or surfaces containing weak oxide
layers or other type of soft organic films. A low value o f f results in limited junction
growth, narrow contact area, low surface shear strain, and consequently low
temperature in the contact region. In friction welding the presence of lubricant films or
surface contamination markedly decreases the joint strength. For exarnple, it has been
reported low strength properties of dissimilar pure aluminium/stainless steel friction
welds when the contacting surfaces were initially contaminated using oil or grease
(Jessop et al. 1978).

Figure 2.22. Theoretical and experimental results for the coefficient of friction
(Kopalinsky and Oxley 1995).
The values of the coefficient of friction increases with a and5 see figure 2.22. For
example, for f = 0.9 and a = IO0, the predicted coefficient of friction is 0.7; for f = 0.14
and a = IO0, the coefficient of friction is 0.15. These predicted values are in good
agreement with experimentally measured results for 5086-H32-aluminum alloy base
material (Kopalinsky and Oxley 1995). Detailed procedures on how to apply the slip-
line model of figure 2.21 to calculate the effects of the interfacial film and surface
roughness on the coefficient of friction are detailed in the work of Challen and Oxley.
2.6.4.3. Wave removal rnodel

The repeated deformation of the contact surface will eventually remove the wave
formed at the contact surface to produce a particle. Theoretically, the wave is removed
when the angle ( is ( O (see figure 2.23) and this condition is given by equation 2.16
Figure 2.23. Wave removal slip-line model (Challen and Oxley
1979).
(Challen and Oxley 1979). The value of # depends on a and f. High values of a and f
increase the chances of particle formation. These conditions correspond to the
presence of a rough or clean oxide-free surfaces.
An important aspect is the amount of strain that the surface can sustain. The
strain can be calculated using the upper bound rnethod. The slip line field of figure 2.21
is modified as shown in figure 2.24 and the upper bound method is applied to calculate
the shear strain (y) at the surface, see equation 2.17.

50
A
t'
Pde
Figure 2.24. Simplified wave model used in

calculating strains ( ~ o ~ a l i n s k
and
y Oxley 1995).
Where v, , V, , and v;, are the velocity changes parallel to the discontinuity
lines AB, BE, and CD, see figure 2.24. v > , vL,and v&-, are the normal velocities to the
corresponding discontinuity line. The values of the previous velocity parameters
depend on a and f: Kopalinsky and Oxley rneasured experimentally the shear strains
on the surface during wave formation and wave rernoval. They found that the waves
did not exhibit cracks for shear strains 4 0 ;above this value cracks were apparent and
the wave was removed producing a particle. This model is applied in Chapter 5 to
explain particle formation and Wear of the silver interlayer.

CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
3.1. MATERIALS
Al! dissimilar friction welds were made using 19-mm bars of 6061-T6 base
material containing '!O vol% of reinforcing AI2O3particles. This material was supplied by
ALCAN LTD of Kingston, Ont. The MMC material displayed some evidence of particle
clustering and had a banded morphology as a result of particle alignment and
agglomeration during processing. This morphology produced a slightly inhomogeneous
and anisotropic composite base material. Figure 3.1 shows the typical base rnaterial
microstructure. The chernical compositions and metallographic characteristics of the
MMC and AlSI 304 stainless steel base materials are given in tables 3.1 and 3.2.
One objective of this research work is to study the properties and behaviour of
dissimilar friction welds with and without a silver interlayer. The required silver
interlayer is electrodeposited onto the stainless steel substrate, which has been
previously coated with a nickel strike layer. The nickel strike serves as a base for
subsequent coatings and it has been used in dissimilar friction welding and dissimilar
diffusion bonding; in these cases a 5-pm thick nickel strike was applied when
electroplating stainless steel with chromium, zinc, and silver (Dunkerton 1982 and Dini
et al. 1983).
Figure 3.1. An optical micrograph showing the
microstructure the reinforced 6061 AI-10 vol%
Al2&.
Table 3.1. Chernical composition of materials (wt %)'
MMC Al Mg Si C Cu Fe Zn
606 1 97.76 1.15 0.535 0.099 0.225 0.121 0.022
STEEL C Si Mn Ni Cr Mo V
AlSl 304 0.040 0.006 1.15 9-5 17.9 0.540 0-08
*As deterrnined by a commercial laboratory
Table 3.2. Geometric characteristics of reinforcing particles
Reinforced 6061 Al Average radius Average particle Aspect ratio

Pm area
Blocky AI2O3 5.82 156.81 1 .O21

(Mean value)
1 Standard deviation 1 5.30 1 289.3 1 0.0434
Figure 3.2. A backscattered SEM micrograph showing the silver

interlayer at the bondline of dissimilar YMClAglAlSl 304 stainless
steel friction joints.
54
The electroplating procedure cornprised surface degreasing and cleaning in! 10
vol% NaOH for 2 min, followed by deposition of an 8 pm thick nickel barr-ier layer i n a
nickel chloride bath for 5 minutes. The current density was 538 A h 2 ; the temperature
bath was 25 OC. Silver electroplating was carried out for 20 min using a silver
potassium cyanide plating solution (with a current density of 50 ~ r and

n a temperature
~
bath of 25 OC). The average thickness of the silver interlayer was 20 Pm. The plating
procedure applied to the stainless steel substrate is based on the procedure outlined
for dissimilar 6061 aluminium alloylAlS1 304 stainless diffusion joints by Dini et al. The
electroplating was carried out by a commercial plating Company in Toronto, Ont. Figure
3.2 shows a completed weld containing the silver interlayer.
3.2. FRICTION JOlNlNG

The contacting surfaces of stainless steel and MMC substrates were machined
perpendicular to the axis of the as-received bar. The test sarnple deviation from
perpendicular axis was 4 degree. Al1 stainless steel test sampies were subsequently
polished using 1 pm diarnond particles prior to friction joining, the MMC substraaes
were polished using 1200 grade emery paper and the electroplated stainless steel and
the MMC specimens were cleaned using acetone. Adhesion between the nickel barrier
layer and the stainless steel substrate substrates was improved via vacuum heat
treatment of the electroplated stainless steel samples at 650 O C for 1 hour and at 8 0 0
OC for 15 minutes (Hartwig and Kouptsidis 1977). All welds were produced using a
continuous-drive machine rated at 15 kW transmission power with a maximum axial
thrust of 110 KN. The friction welding machine was provided with a self-centring
hydraulic clamp and a butt recognition system with a resolution of 76.2 Pm.
55
The friction pressure (Pl) was varied from 30 to 240 MPa with the rotational
speed held constant at 1500 rprn and the forging pressure equal to 240 MPa.
However, in some trials friction pressures of 30 and 120 MPa were applied. A friction
time of 4.0 s and a forging tirne of 1.0 s were applied in almost al1 cases. During short-
term welding of dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds, these joints were
produced using friction times ranging from 0.2 to 1.2 S. During these tests the friction
pressure was 90 MPa, the forging pressure was 15 MPa, and the rotational speed was
1500 rpm. This range of friction times encompasses the initial heating period (Stage 1)
and part of the steady-state period (Stage II) in friction joining, see figure 2.2-2.3.
The microstructure of material in the region immediately adjacent to the bondline
of MMCIAISI 304 was investigated using specially-designed test joints where an MMC
capping was applied to particle-free alloy 6061-T6 base material. A 500 pm thick disk
of alloy 606A/A1203composite material was joined to a 19-mm diarneter section of alloy
6061-T6 base material using TLP (Transient iiquid Phase)-bonding. TLP-bonding was
carried out at 580 O C using a 10 pm-thick copper foi1 for a holding time of 4 hours.
Following TLP-bonding the aluminium alloy test sections were heat-treated at 530 OC
for 2 hours and then aged at 160 OC for 16 hours.
3.3. METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

All joints were sectioned perpendicular to the joint interface and polished. The
dimensions of the silver and nickel interlayers and the reinforcing particle
characteristics (average radius, particle area, and particle ratio) at the half-radius
locations in the test joints were evaluated using a Global Lab SP0550 image analyser
and SEM microscopy. During image analysis the magnification was x250 and the
56
measurernent involved examining 0.158 mm2fields at 0.318 mm distances up to 6 mm
from the dissimilar joint interface.
It is important to stress that the particle size distributions and the aspect ratio in
the as-received base material are quite different from those characteristics in material
irnmediately adjacent to the bondline- The as-received base material had a wide range
of particie dimensions and aspect ratios. It will be shown later in this thesis that a much
narrower particle size distribution and aspect ratio exists in material close to the
bondline because of particle fragmentation during the joining operation. The friction
welding process produced clearly measurable differences in the dimensions of particles
at the bondline compared to those dimensions in material away frorn the joint interface.
Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine the frequency of fractured
reinforcing particles and the aspect ratio of reinforcing particles at and close to the
bondline. These parameters were examined in 0.232 mm2 areas at the joint interface
(using scanning eiectron micrographs taken at x400 and x500). The aspect ratios of
the reinforcing particles were evaluated using the procedure outlined by Lewis and
Withers- In this procedure, the particles are modelled as cylinders. Figure 3.3 shows
how the dimensions of particles were assigned. In this case the particle diameter, dl is
related to the measured width, w, by a factor 4 / see

~ equation 3.1 (Lewis and Withers
1995). Once the diameter d, is obtained the volume of each particle can be calculated
and therefore the accumulated particle volume in a particular location.

Figure 3.3. Some examples illustrating the relationship
between (a) regular particles, (b) irregular particles, and (c)
misaf igned particles, and the cylindrical particles wh ich were
used to represent them assuming the bar axis is from left to
right (Lewis and Withers 1995).
The average radius of each particle was taken as half the square of the mean of
the particle cross-sectional area observed using the Global Lab SP0550 image
analyser. When the short-term friction welding tests were examined, al1 measurements
were made at the half-radius locations in these joints.
During TEM microscopy the sample preparation technique was as follows. A
section of the dissimilar joint was cut into slices and polished to a thickness of 0.120
mm. 3-mm dis- were then punched out from each of the slices. Each disc was then
thinned to a thickness of 15 pm using a dimple grinder. A perforation was made in the
centre of the test specimen using an ion beam-milling machine with the test specimen
rotated during bombardrnent at incident angies of 15'.

58
3.4. MECHANICAL TESTING
Notch-tensile testing was applied throughout this study since the notch stimulates
bondline failure and altows a quantitative estimate of final weld quality- Since notch-
tensile testing promotes bondline failure, it well-illustrates the effects produced when
welding conditions are varied.
Weld -
d=3.01
R 6
R 0.8
- 133.4 -- C
Units: mm
Figure 3.4. U-notch tensile testing specimen configuration.
The design of the notch tensile test specimen is shown in figure 3.4. The tensile
strength properties of the M M C and AlSI 304 stainless steel base materials were
evaluated using standard round tension test specimens. The aluminium alloys were
tested according to the ASTM B 557M standard, while the steel was tested using the
standard ASTM A 370 test. The dimensions of the test specimens are shown in figure
3.5. The mechanical properties of materials are given in table 3.3, and the
corresponding stress-strain diagrams in figures 3.6 and 3.7.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS STEEL
G-Gage length 45.00 2 0.09 mm 35.0 2 0.10 mm
D-Diarneter 9.00 -+ 0-10 mm 8.75 2 0.18 mm
1
-
R-Radius of fillet, min 1 8 mm 6 mm

A-Length of reduced
section. min
Figure 3.5. Round tension test specimen.
Table 3.3. Mechanical properües of materials
MATERIAL ULTIMATE YIELD ELONGATION E (GPa) POISSON'S -
TENSILE STRENGTH (%) RATIO (v)

STRENGTH (MPa)
(MW
MMC 338(303)'11 296(255)'" 7.6"' 81 -4"'

(10 vol%)
A1203
MMC 322"' 290'~' 7.gtL' -
1. Supplied by ALCAN? The number in parentheses is the minimum value reported

by the material supplier.
2. Measured by the author
3. Page 932. (Mochida et ai. 1991)
4. Page 8. (Hertzberg 1989)
5. Page 34. Metals Handbook, Vol. 3., Ninth Edition
6. Page 384. (Kim et al. 1995)
Figure 3.6. Stress-strain diagram for reinforced 6061-T6110 vol% A1203.
Figure 3.7. Stress-strain diagram for AlSI 304 stainless steel.

CHAPTER 4. INTERLAYERS AND PARTICLE FRACTURE IN
DlSSlMlLAR FRICTION JOINTS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
During Stage I of friction welding, the physical situation is similar to that in s i i d h g
Wear testing. In sliding Wear testing of aluminium-based alloy A356120 vol% S i c base
rnaterial, strains as high as 30 are produced near the contact interface and pairticle
fracture occurs when the applied load exceeds the fracture strength of the r e i n f o d n g
material (Alpas and Zhang 2992). It is possible to modify the particle fracture frequiency
by modifying the loading conditions at the contact surface.
In the present thesis the effect of a silver interlayer on particle failure is exarnined
and compared with that observed in dissirnilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel welds
produced without interlayer. The presence of a soft interlayer material can affect the
coefficient of friction, plastic deformation in the substrate materials, and particle failure.
The processes that occur during Stage I of the friction welding operation are also
investigated by examining changes in size and distribution of reinforcing particles in
MMC base rnaterial immediately adjacent to the joint interface.
The likelihood of particfe fracture decreases during tensile testing ai temperatures
above 200 O C because the matrix flow strength decreases and the local stresses are
not high enough to break the reinforcing particles (Zhao et al. 1994). Consequently,
there is a transition from particle fracture to particle void nucleation at the e n d s of
particles and in the regions between particle clusters when the testing temperature
61
Cracking Shattering Debonding
Figure 4.1. Modes of particle failure observed during mechanical testing of a

particulate reinforced metal matrix cornposite material.
rises. In friction welding the temperature rises with friction tirne, therefore it is
convenient to observe particle fracture for short friction times.
4.2. RESULTS
4.2.1. influence of friction weiding on particle fracture

Three particle failure modes are commonly observed during mechanical testing of
wrought M M C base material, namely: cracking, shattering, and debonding (see figure
4.1) (Mochida et ai. 1991). However, in friction welded joints only debonding and
particle cracking were observed in material close to the bondline (see figure 4.2). It is
possible to have particle shattering, but it is difficult to observe because large plastic
strains are produced close to the friction weId interface and the broken particles rnight
have moved apart and separated; in such an event, evidence of this particle failure
mode may have been obliterated.

Figure 4.2. Particle fracture in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304
stainless steel friction welds.
Figure 4.3 shows the changes in the number of reinforcing particles and the
particle aspect ratio in rnaterial close to the bondline (in an MMC/AISI 304 stainless
steel weld and in as-received MMC base material). The measurements were made at
the half-radius location in the joint (see Chapter 3). The average aspect ratio of
reinforcing particles at the dissirnilar joint Interface was 0.55 while that in the as-
received MMC base material was 1.02. The aspect ratio was measured parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the rod. The friction welding process altered the particle orientation
and re-aligned particles parallel to the joint interface.
Figure 4.4 shows the influence of the friction welding operation on the average
particle radius at the bondline of a dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joint;
this situation is compared with that found in as-received MMC base material. Larger
numbers of small-diameter reinforcing particles were observed in rnaterial close to the

64
joint interface. Also, the total volume of reinforcing particles (529 369 in an area
(0.232 mm2) close to the bondline was up to 2 . 8 ~higher than in the as-received MMC
base material (187 922 see figure 4.5. All measurements were made at the half-
radius location in the weld. The particle volume was evaluated by taking into account
the volume of individual particles in the area concemed assuming that al1 particles had
cylindrical shapes, section 3.3 of Chapter 3 (Lewis and Withers 1995).
4.2.2. Influence of friction pressure

Figure 4.6 shows the influence of friction pressure on the average particle radius
in material close to the bondline in dissimilar MMCfAISI 7020 mild steel welds. The
average particle radius decreased when higher friction and forging pressures were
applied. However, friction pressures in the range from 90 to 120 MPa did not exert a
noticeable effect on the average particle radius.
4.2.3. Influence of friction tirne

Figure 4.7 shows the changes in the percentage of fractured particles as a
function of fiction time. In welds produced using a short friction tirne (0.2 s) and a
friction pressure of 120 MPa. The percentage of fractured particles in MMClAlSl 304
stainless steel friction welds decreased markedly with friction time. The percentage of
fractured particles decreased from 11-1% to about 3.8 % when friction tirne increased
from 0.2 to 4 S. In this connection, the percentage of fractured particles was measured
along a line perpendicular to the dissimilar interface at the half-radius location of the
dissimilar weld.
.,
M d axidition
100-
-an fit
Mean: 0.55358
80- Sd: 0.27940
w-
40-
i .I,.
O. O O.5 1.0 1-5 20 25
ASPE- RAT10
ASPECT RAliO
Figure 4.3. Effect of friction joining on the aspect ratio

distribution in a 6061-10 vol% AI203 MMCIAISI 304 friction
joint. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 420 MPa;
friction time, 4.5 s; forging time 1.5 S. (A) As-weld condition;
(B) As-received condition.
AVERAGE P.4RTICi-E RADIUS, pm
Figure 4.4. Effect of friction joining on the number of same-

size particles in 6061-10 vol% AI2O3 MMCIAISI 304 friction
joints. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 120
MPa; friction time, 4.5 s; forging time, 1.5 S. (A) As-weld
condition; (B) As-received condition.
CI)
8
F
fY
d
8
fY
W
m
4Z
Figure 4.5. Effect of friction joining on the parade volume in

a 6061-10 vol% A1203 MMCIAISI 304 friction joint Friction
pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 120 MPa; friction time,
4.5 s; forging time, 1.5 S. (A) As-weld condition; (B) As-
received condition.
P l = 30MPa
PI=60MPa
A P l =A20 MPa
Figure 4.6. Effect of friction pressure and forging pressure on the

average particle radius in the region adjacent to the bondllne in 6061-10
vol% A1203/1020 mild steel friction joint For a friction t i m e of 4.5 s, and
a forging time of 1.5 S. Ail measurements were made at the half radius
location.
4.2.4. lnterlayers and particle fracture

Introduction of a silver interlayer between the contacting MMC and AISI 304
stainless steel substrates affected the particle fracturing process. The percentage of
broken reinforcing particles ranged from 6.1 to 2.5% in MMCfAgJAISI 304 stainless
steel friction joints this result compared to dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds where particle fracture ranged from 11.1 to 3.8%, see figure 4.7. It is
apparent from figure 4.7 that the percentage of fractured particles is affected by the
introduction of a silver interlayer during dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel friction
TlME (SEC)
Figure 4.7. Effect of friction time on the percentage of fractured

particles in MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel and MMCfAgfAISI 304
stainless steel friction joints. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging
pressure, 30 MPa; friction time frorn 0.24.5 s; forging time, 1.5 S. All
measurements were made at the half radius location.
welding. lntroducing a silver interlayer during MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel joining also
changed the average particle radius at the bondline from 4.6 to 3.9 Pm, see figure 4.8.
4.2.5. Influence of sihrer interlayer on particle accumulation

When a silver interlayer is introduced, the volume fraction of particles decreased
in an area adjacent to the joint interface at the half-radius location of the joint (see
figure 4.9). However, friction pressure did not markedly affect the volume fraction of
particles in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds. The particle volume fraction at the
bondline was 8.2 % in a joint produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa, while the
particle volume fraction was 7.0 % in a joint produced using a friction pressure of 240
Figure 4.8. Effect of a silver interlayer on the average particle radius in
the region adjacent to the bondline in an MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction joint Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure, 120 MPa;
friction time, 4.5 s; forging tirne, 1.5 S. All measurements were made at
the half radius location.
MPa. In effect, friction pressure had negligible influence on particle volume fraction at
the bondline.
The above results apply to particle fracture in MMClAglAISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds. In welds produced without silver interlayers and a friction pressure of 30
MPa, the particle volume fraction was 15.7 %. When the friction pressure increased to
240 MPa, the particle volume fraction was 17.8 %, see figure 4.9. In effect, the particle
volume fractions were higher in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
free of silver interlayers.

30 MPa 240 MPa
FRICTION PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 4.9. Accumulated particle volume in dissimilar 6061-10 vol%

AI2O3MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel and MMClAglAlSl 304 friction joints.
Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1 S. All
measurements were made at the half radius location.
4.3. DlSCUSSlON
4.3.1. Friction welding and reinforcement particle morphology

Examination of the friction welds provided evidence of particle realignment, with
the longer axis of the reinforcing particles being aligned parallel to the bondline (figure
4.3). This feature combined with an increased particle frequency (figure 4.4), markedly
altered the particle aspect ratio measured in the direction perpendicular to the joint
interface. The aspect ratio changed from 1.02 to 0.55 after friction welding. Also, the
total volume of reinforcing particles at the bondline (at the half-radius location in the
greater than in the as-received MMC base materia! (see figure

joint) was up to 2.8~
4.5).
The influence of friction welding on the fragmentation of reinforcing particles and
on particle realignment at the bondline is similar to the changes that occur in the grain
structure of complete friction welds. Plastic deforrnation resulting from the combined
action of normal and torsional loads during friction welding promotes grain refinement
and grain alignment in matrix material close to the interface (Midling and Grong 1994b),
while the reinforcement particles close to the interface are realigned and reduced in
size.
4.3.2. Effect of friction pressure.

Figure 4.6 shows that the average particle radius decreased when high friction
pressures were applied. However, friction pressures higher than 120 MPa did not
further decrease the average particle radius. This observation may be due to the
relative mechanical properties of the reinforcing particle and the matrix, which has
Iimited shear strength. It is worth noting that the matrix shear strength limits the load
that can be transferred to the reinforcing particles (Clyne and Withers 1993).
4.3.3. Influence of friction time

The similarities between friction welding and Wear are restricted to the initial
phase of the friction welding process (Stage 1). This stage involves short friction times,
probably lower than 1 S. As pointed out previously, particle fracture has been observed
in both sliding Wear (Alpas and Zhang 1992) and friction welds (Zhou et al. 1995).
During sliding Wear a highly strained region close to the contact surface of the
aluminium alloy substrate facilitates delamination Wear and particle fracture. Strains as
high as 30 are produced immediately adjacent to the contact surface when an
aluminium alloy A 356 20 vol% Sic substrate contacts a high carbon steel slider (Alpas
and Zhang 1992). The highly strained region close to the interface exhibits extensive
particle fracture in a similar manner to that observed in friction welded MMC base
material.
As friction joining proceeds, dry friction rapidly increases the temperature of the
contact zone and the base material deforms plastically. As result, the load transferred
to the reinforcing particle decreases and the Iikelihood of void formation at the
matrix/particIe interface will increase. The dramatic decrease in the percentage of
fractured particle observed at the bondline of welds produced using friction times
exceeding 1 s (see figure 4.7) can be explained due to an increase in the matrix
temperature (this promotes void formation rather than particle fracture).
Figure 4.7 shows the change in percentage of fractured particles with friction time.
The percentage of fractured particies decreased with friction time, attaining a stable
value of 3.8 % in MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds and 2.4% in MMC/Ag/AISI
304 friction welds. These results can be explained as follows. Stage II initiates when a
fully-plasticised region foms across the whole component diameter, see figure 2.4. In
MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel welds, this condition may occur when a friction time
between 0.8 s and 1.2 s is applied. Stage II in friction welding is characterised by low
torque and high peak temperature values. The peak temperature that can be attained
during similar friction welding of AI-Mg-SIC base material is 550 OC,and the measured
peak temperature at 2.5 mm from the interface for a friction time of 0.9 s is 440 O C
(Midling and Grong 1994a). The Iikelihood of particle fracture is very low for
temperatures ranging from 440 to 550 OC;in this temperature range the MMC flow
strength is around 25 MPa (Singh and Alpas 1996). This situation readily explains the
negligible change in the percentage of fractured particles in joints produced using
friction times 5 1 s (seefigure 4.7).
The percentage of fractured particles in material within 100 pm of the joint
interface was as high as 11.1% in joints produced using a friction time of 0.2 s (see
74
figure 4.7). It is worth noting that the percentage of fractured particles in MMC friction
joints is much higher than that observed in aluminium-based composite material which
has been tensiie tested (Lloyd 1990). For example, during tensile test samples of 6061-
15 vol% AI2O3 base material, Lloyd found that less than one percent of the alumina
particles fractured. However during sliding Wear testing of A356-20 vol% SIC base
material, 20% of the reinforcing Sic particles were fractured in material 100 prn from
the contact surface (Alpas and Zhang 1992). It must be borne in mind that during
friction welding the particles are subjected to different types of loading (compression
plus torsion).
4.3.4. Modelling of protruding particle fracture

The following rnodel considers fracture of reinforcing particles at the contact
surface behveen stainless steel and MMC base material with a normal contact without
sliding. When the two substrates corne together, contact occurs between the stainless
steel and reinforcing particles (assurning that ail the particles at the surface protrude
uniformly from the surface of the MMC substrate). The magnitude of the contact
pressure will depend of the combined elastic modulus of the contacting substrates and
on the surface topography. Since the MMC substrate has a wavy surface profile (see
figure 4-10), the initial substrate contact is considered as Hertzian. In this wavy model,
the distance between the contact points is equal to the interparticle distance (A).The
interparticle distance is calculated using equation 4.1 (Zhang et al. 1995a), where d is
the particle diarneter andf ,the particle volume fraction.

MMC
Figure 4.10. Regular wavy surface rnodel.
The load acting on any protuberance is given by equation 4.2 (Johnson 1985):
P= (4-2)
where p = nominal pressure, Pa ,
A = interparticle distance, ml
P = normal load acting on the asperity, N.
From equation 4.1, for an MMC cuntaining 10 vol% of reinforcing particles having
an average particle diameter of 11.64 Pm, the interparticle distance (A) 2)s 104.8 Pm.
Considering an example with a nominal pressure ( p ) of 0.5 MPa, using equation 4.2 the
normal load acting on every asperity is 5 . 4 9 ~ 1 0N.~ The

~ contact pressure (p,) can be
calcuiated using equation 4.3.

The equivalent elastic modulus (E*)is given by the relation:
where VI, vz , El, and E2 are the Poisson's ratio and elastic modulus of substrate 7 and
substrate 2. respectively (both substrates are in contact). The equivalent ratio of
cutvature (R) is obtained from equation 4.5:
where A is the asperity protuberance, see figure 4.1 0.
The elastic rnoduli and Poisson3 ratios of MMC ( E = 81.4 GPa and v = 0.322)
and AIS1 304 stainless steel (E = 196 GPa and v = 0.3) can be combined to produce
the equivalent elastic modulus (E* = 63.88 GPa). For a protuberance (A) of 1 Pm, the
equivalent radius of cutvature ( R ) is 2 . 7 8 4 ~ 1 0m,

~ see equation 4.5. and the contact
pressure @), acting on the protuberance can be obtained using equation 4.3.
Substituting these values, the contact pressure (p,) is 384.4 MPa. For a protuberance
(A) of 5 Fm, from equation 4.5, the equivalent ratio of curvature (R)is 5564x10" m. and
77
from equation 4.3 the contact pressure (p,) is 1118.8 MPa. The fracture strength of
Al& is about 2620 MPa in compression and 262 MPa in tension (Dowling 1993). The
alumina strength is in the range of the calculated contact pressure (384.4-1

118.8 MPa).
Thus, the present results indicate that fracture of reinforcing particles may occur at low
friction pressure.
It is worth mentioning that this calculated value is in the range of the
experimentally measured and calculated normal pressure value of 1 -06MPa found
during sliding Wear testing of an aluminium-based composite containing 10 vol% A1203
(Zhang et al. 1995b).This value is the critical nominal pressure necessary to produce
extensive Wear and involves the detachment and fracture of reinforcing particles at and
close to the surface of the MMC substrate. Since the friction pressure applied during
friction ranges from 30 to 120 MPa and higher, the fracture of reinforcing particles must
occur early in the friction welding process, immediately following contact between the
adjoining substrates.
Figure 4.11 shows the variation in the contact pressure, p, for different base
materials (MMCIMMC, 606?/MMC, Ag/MMC, and MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel). This
contact pressure was calculated assurning a nominal pressure, p, of 0.5 MPa during
welding. Based on a bi-dimensional wavy surface model assumption, the contact
pressure will increase when the equivalent elastic modulus ( E ) increases. However,
the particle fracture tendency during friction joining cannot be wholly ascribed to
changes in the contact pressure resulting from the combined elastic modulus value at
the contact interface. This mode1 can only be applied to reinforcing particles on the
contacting substrates and therefore to friction welds produced using short friction times
(4 s). However, this model cannot explain the particle fracture observed at a distance
Figure 4.11. Effect of the combined elastic modulus (E*)on the contact
pressure (po). Assuming a nominal pressure, p, of 0.5 MPa, an
interparticle distance (A)of 104.8 Fm, and protuberance (A) of 1.O Pm.
of 100 O r n from the contact surface. In this case, other factors such as plastic
deformation rnust be considered.
Although the contact model has limitations, it indicates that particle fracture at the
surface can be produced at low appiied pressures (0.5 MPa). The calculated value in
the present thesis therefore indicate that there is no possibility of avoiding particle
fracture based on a consideration of the friction pressure values typically ernployed
during fabrication. For example, 30 MPa was the lowest friction pressure ernployed
during friction welding in this study.
4.3.5. Retention of fractured particles et the bondline

MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds show evidence of an increase in
particle volume at the bondline, see figures 4.4 and 4.5. This effect was not observed in
joints produced using a silver interlayer, see figure 4.9.

Figure 4.12. Effect of oxide Iayers on the notch tensile strength of
MMCIAlSl304 stainless steel friction joints.
In similar MMC/MMC welds it has been confirmed that material is retained at the
bondline during the whole of the steady-state period (Stage II). It has been suggested
that particle retention results from fluid flow during the friction joining operation
(Bendzsak et al. 1997). In similar MMClMMC joints, there is preferential transfer of
reinforcing particles from the stationary to the rotating boundary of the joint. In
dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel joints, a quiescent layer forms immediately
adjacent to the stainless steel boundary and it has been suggested that the absence of
17owat the joint interface promotes retention of alumina particles at the bondline (North
et al. 1997).
However, retention of fractured particles at the joint interface rnay be explained
using another approach. Heteny and McDonald examined the behaviour of a serni-
infinite surface under the simultaneous action of normal and torsionai ioads. When this
semi-infinite surface becomes fully plastic (Poisson's ratio equal to 0.5), the radial
80
surface displacement (u,) (see equation 2.11) will be zero and the only non-vanishing
displacement components will be the circumferential ( u ~and

) axial (w)components of
displacement. In the absence of radial displacement, it follows that particles are
retained at the bondline. Particle retention can be explained using either Heteny's
plasticised surface model or Bendzsak's fluid flow model, or combining both models.
The critical point is that the expulsion of surface oxide debris or trapped reinforcing
particles from the bondline becomes difficult as the friction welding operation proceeds.
The above mechanisms can afso be used to explain the welt-documented
influence of surface finish prior to joining on the joint strength of dissimilar friction
welds, see figure 4.12. Entrapment of oxide layers at the bondline of completed joints
will decrease the notch tensile strength and promote preferential failure at the joint
interface.
4.3.6. EHect of the interlayer on the stress distribution

Analytical methods (Johnson 1985) can be used to provide a simplified picture of
the stresses produced at the contact region (seeequations 2.9 and 2.10).Consider that
the surface is subjected to a line load (see figure 2.17). This Iine load is cornposed by a
normal load (P)and a tangential load (Q) related by the coefficient of friction (p).In this
particular analysis two coefficients of friction are considered (p=0.35 and 0.50). It is
shown later in this thesis (Chapter 6) that electroplating silver onto the stainless steel
substrate decreases the coefficient of friction during dissirnilar friction welding reaching
a calculated value of 0.35.
Figure 4.13 shows the stress (o,)distribution produced along the contact surface
(y = O) when a semi-infinite substrate is Iine loaded. Both tensile and compressive
stresses are generated at the contact surface (at y = O) in the region close to the
a
-25 -20 -1.5 -1-0 5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 20 25
DlSTANCE (x), UNIT OF LENGTH
Figure 4.13. Distribution of normal stress (a,) produced by the

combination of normal and tangential line loads along the contact surface
(y = O unit of length). P = 1 unit of force per unit of length.
loading point. With a coefficient of friction of 0.35, at the contact surface and distances
x = + 0.15 frorn the loading point the stresses can be as high as 1 . 4 9 ~(tensile) and -
1 . 4 9 ~(compression) the magnitude of the applied normal pressure (P). At the same
location but with the coefficient of friction of 0.5, the stress values are + 2 . 1 2 ~the
magnitude of applied pressure.
At y = 0.10 the calculated tensile stresses range from 0 . 1 8 ~to 0 . 3 5 ~for
coefficients of friction from 0.35 to 0.5, respectively, see figure 4.14. These calculated
values show that a lower coefficient of friction (p=0.35) decreases the value of
stresses developed at the contact sutface and in the subsurface region. Consequently,
in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel, reinforcement particles close to the
contact surface will be subjected to lower stresses. This condition might explain the
DlSTANCE (x), UNiT OF LENGlH
Figure 4.14. Distribution of normal stress (G,J produced by the

combination of normal and tangential line loads along t h e line at y = 0.1
unit of length. P = 1 unit of force per unit of length.
lower particle fracture tendency observed in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 srtainless steel welds
(see figure 4.7). It must be borne in mind that a sirnplified approach has been employed
in the present thesis and more detailed methods considering other loading situations
have been elucidated elsewhere (Johnson 1985 and Suh 1986).
Finally, based on the previous results, the contact surface wlll be subjected to a
combination of tensile and compressive stresses during friction joining whose
magnitude will decrease with depth below the contact surface. The nature of the
applied stresses (tensile and compressive) will influence the surface damage
mechanisrn.
83
4.3.7. Summation
The percentage of fractured reinforcing particles markedly decreases when silver
interlayers are introduced during dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainfess steel friction
welding. An elastic contact mode1 is proposed, which explains the conditions at and
close to the contact surface that produce A1203 particle fracture and explains the
beneficial effects observed when silver interlayers are introduced. This mode! is the first
time that this particular aspect has been explained during dissimilar friction welding of
MMC substrates
CHAPTER 5. MICROSTRUCTURE OF A DlSSlMILAR FRICTION JOINT
CONTAlNlNG A SILVER INTERLAYER
5.1. INTRODUCTION
In past studies the influence of interlayer materials on the friction joining process
and on interrnetallic phase formation at the bondline region has received limited
emphasis. With this need in mind, the present chapter examines the effects produced
when a silver interlayer is introduced during friction joining of aluminium-based MMC
and AIS1 304 stainless steel base materials. Prior research on dissimilar friction joining
has emphasised the influence of interlayer materials on joint mechanical properties.
For example, Sassani and Neelam investigated the influence of rnetallic interlayers on
the mechanical properties of dissimilar brass/copper, bronzekteel, and titaniumlnickel
friction. The introduction of a pure copper interlayer during bronzelsteel joining
increased the room tensile joint strength by 40% joints (Sassani and Neelam 1988). In
dissimilar aluminium/steel friction joints the introduction of a silver interlayer produced
welds with tensile strengths exceeding the weaker (aluminium) substrate (Hartwig and
Kouptsidis 1977). In this connection, Dunkerton examined dissimilar friction joints
produced using AISI 321 and AlSI 304 stainless steels, and 5154 and 5083 aluminium
alloys base mâterials A nurnber of interlayers (zinc, chromium, and silver) were
investigated. 60th 5 pm thick zinc and chromium electroplated layers produced poor
quality welds between 5154 aluminium alloy and 321 stainless steel. The zinc interlayer
85
did not bond readily to the aluminium alloy and the chromium electroplate
demonstrated poor adherence with the steel. When 13 pm thick silver electroplate was
applied to join 5083 aluminium alloy to 304 stainless steel there was a significant
improvement cornpared to interlayer-free joints (Dunkerton 1982, 1 983).
The introduction of a soft (low yield strength) interlayer material such as silver at
the bondline during aluminium and stainless steel friction joining can produce unique
mechanical properties in this region. Prior work has shown that the introduction of a
silver interlayer at the bondline between aluminium and stainless steel substrates may
not result in poor strength properties compared to the monolithic interfayer material
(Henshall et al. 1990). Also, if the silver interlayer inhibits brittle FeAl intennetallic layer
formation at the bondline the final joint strength can be greater than in joints completed
without an interlayer.
A key feature of any interlayer material is that it must promote excellent adhesion
between itself and the contacting substrates (Sassani and Neelam 1988). However, It
has been pointed out in his compatibility chart that there is poor compatibility between
silver and steel (Rabinowicz 1995). The compatibility is considered as the tendency
between two metals to form solid solutions. Since substrates such as silver and iron
have low compatibility, poor mutual adhesion is expected. However, the combination of
aluminium and silver substrates has good compatibility and as result, there is good
adhesion between them.
Another aspect to consider when using an interlayer is the coefficient of friction.
The introduction of an interlayer modifies the coefficient of friction between contacting
substrates (see Chapter 6). If the interlayer decreases the coefficient of friction, less
heat will be generated during the friction welding process. With this behaviour in rnind,
it would be expected that the joining parameters required during dissimilar friction
86
welding using an interlayer would be quite different from those parameters needed
when an interlayer was not present.
lnterlayers have been applied with the specific airn of preventing interrnetallic
phase formation and weld cracking during aluminium/stainless steel friction joining. The
presence of FeAI3, FeAI. and Fe2AI5intennetallics has also been detected in dissimilar
aluminium/stainless steel joints (Elliot and Wallach I 9 8 l a . b). Also, in a recent study. it
is suggested that the poor joint mechanical properties of aluminium-based MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds resulted from the retention of a mixture of intermetallic
films at the bondline (Pan et al.

(FeA$) and oxide Fe(AI, Cr)*04 or F~O(AI,CT)~O~
1996).
Although intermetallic phases do not form in Ag-Fe binary alloys, the Ag-AI binary
equilibrium phase diagram does indicate the formation of intermediate phases, Ag3AI
and Ag2AI phase formation has been observed in 1100 aluminium/Aglstai~lesssteel
and 6061 aluminium/stainless steel diffusion welds. When Calderon et al. heat-treated
their 6061 aluminium/stainless steel diffusion welds at 473 K for 100 hours the width of
the intermetallic layer increased from 0.5 to 4 pm and the joint mechanical properties
decreased markedly (Calderon et al. 1985).
It is important to point out that remarkably different conditions exist at the bondline
of diffusion and friction welded joints. During diffusion weiding, dissimilar aluminium
and steel substrates are bonded at a specified temperature and interrnetallic layer
formation results from interdiffusion during the holding period at the bonding
temperature. During friction weiding of aluminium alloy substrates, the contact zone is
at high temperature (around 550°C), the strain rate is extremely high (up to l o 4 s-')
(Midling and Grong 1994b) mechanical mixing occurs and flow of fully-plasticised
material redistributes material from the stationary to the rotating boundary of the
87
welded joint (Bendzsak et al. 1997). In dissimilar MMClstainless steel joints it has been
suggested that the steady-state penod in friction joining is characterised by the
absence of material Row due to the formation of dynamically quiescent layers
immediately adjacent to the stainless steel boundary (North et al. 1997). It has been
suggested that the presence of the quiescent layers may affect the size and formation
of the intermetallic layers at the dissimilar interface. This suggestion may not be the
case in diffusion bonding because the presence of quiescent layer has not been
detected in this specific process.
The present chapter investigates the influence of a silver interlayer on
intermetallic formation durÎng MMC/stainless steel friction welding. MMC/AISI 304
stainless steel friction welds produced without silver interlayers were examined for
cornparison purposes.
5.2. RESULTS
5-2-1. lnterlayer microstmcture

The microstructure of the silver interlayer prior to the friction welding operation
was examined using transmission electron microscopy. The silver interlayer exhibited
spot diffraction patterns, see figure 5.1. The spot diffraction pattern suggests that a
single grain is diffracting the electron beam. The micrograph was obtained at relatively
high magnification (x100 000) and no grain boundaries were observed. It can be
concluded that the silver interlayer is polycrystalline prior to the friction welding
operation.
Figure 5.1. TEM micrograph of the silver interlayer: (A) bright field
image; (6)corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key
diagram showing Ag.
5.2.2. As-welded joint microstnrcture

A wavy interface profile formed at the bondline of MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless
steel friction joints (see figure 5.2). The different regions in figures 5.2 and 5.3 comprise
AlSI 304 stainless steel, the nickel barrier layer separating the AlSI 304 and the silver
interlayer, an intermixed region (IM) containing a mixture of silver, an intemetallic
phase, and entrained Al& particles. The veined microstructure in the IM region
comprised 4 prn thick silver ribbons that separated regions of the intermetallic phase
(see figure 5.3). EDX analysis of materiai in the IM region indicated that the
89
intemetallic phase had an approximate chemical composition comprising 19.1 at% Al -
80.9 at% Ag (see figure 5.4). Ag3AI formation was confirmed during subsequent
transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, see figures 5.5 and
5.6. The composition of the intemetallic phase corresponds to the p phase in the
binary equilibrium phase diagram (see figure 2.7). In this connection, Dunkerton also
indicated the formation of an intermetallic layer in aluminium/Ag/stainless steel friction
joints (Dunkerton 1982, 1983). However, this investigator did not identify the
intermetallic compound.
A wide particle-dispersed region (PD) region was observed immediately adjacent
to the IM region (see figure 5.7). EDX analysis confirmed that the PD region cornprised
a mixture of granular silver, Ag3AI, aluminium plus entrained A1203 particles. A PD
Figure 5.2. Optical micrograph of the bondline of a

dissimilar MMClAglAlSl 304 friction joint, showing the
wavy interface morphology produced by the friction
welding operation.
Figure 5.3. Backscattered micrograph of a dissimilar MMCIAgIAISI 304
stainless steel friction joint showing the intemixed region (IM)
containing alumina particles. The nickel layer is not visible in this
micrograph.
region was also observed in MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel joints where the alloy 6061-
T6 substrate was capped with a 500 prn thick MMC layer prior to the joining operation
(see figure 5.8). The TLP bonding procedure used in capping the 6061-T6 is detailed in
Chapter 3. section 3.2. In this case. the PD region was 500 pm wide at the component
centreline. The characteristic rotational flow patterns in figure 5.8 are the result of
mechanical rnixing.
Figures 5.9-5.11 show the development of the MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
joint interface when the friction time increased from 0.2 to 1.2 S. The width of IM and
PD regions varied along the bondline. large IM and PD regions were observed in the
0.2 s friction weld; the widths of the IM and PD regions at the half radius location were
X-ER'?: O - 20 KeU
L iv c : 5 0 s Préset.: 50s R e m a i ri i ng: O4
Real: 102s 51% Dead
Figure 5.4. EDX analysis of the intermetallic compound of the IM region.

Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 1 S.
Location at 1 mm from the joint periphery. See Figure 5.3.
44 and 120 pm, respectively (see figure 5.10). However, the widths of the IM and PD
regions markedly decreased in joints produced using a friction time of 1.2 s, the width
of the IM region was 10 pm while the width of the PD region was 39 pm (see figure
5.10). Dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using a friction time
of 1.2 s showed a pronounced shift in the location of thick PD region from the
component centreline towards the weld periphery compared to dissimijar friction welds
using a friction time of 0.2 s, see figure 5.1 1. The present results indicate that the
widths of the IM and PD regions change as the friction welding operation proceeds.
Figure 5.5. TEM micrograph of the IM region: (A) brigth field image, the dark
phase is Ag3AI; (8)corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key
diagam confirming AgJAl formation in the IM region. Friction Pressure, 90
MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; friction time, 1.2 S. Half-radius location.
Figure 5.7. PD region in dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 comprising
parücles of Ag3A1, Ag, and Al as identified by EDX. Friction
pressure, 90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; friction time, 0.2 S.
Half-radius location.
'igure 5.8. Optical micrograph showing the
mesence of a PD region in a 60611MMCIAlSl 304
rtainless steel friction joint The arrow shows the
oint centreline.
Figure 5.9. Effect of friction time on the
microstructure of a dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel friction joint: (A) friction time, 0.2
s, and (B) friction tirne, 1.2 S. Friction pressure,
90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; forging time,
1.0 s, and rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
Backscattered micrograph. Centreline location.
FRICTION TIME, s
Figure 5.10. Effect of friction time on the thickness of the PD and IM
regions in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction
pressure, 90 MPa; forging pressure, 15 MPa; forging time, 1.0 s, and
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half-radius location.
SPECIMEN RADIUS, mm
"j-
rn 4
12
SPECIMEN RADIUS, mm
Figure 5.11. Distribution of IM and PD regions

along the bondline of dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304
stainless steel friction joints as function of friction
tirne. A) Friction time, 0.2 s; B) friction time, 1.2 S.
Figure 5.12. Effect of friction pressure on the
microstructure of dissimilar MMCIAglAlSl 304
stainless steel friction joints: A) friction pressure,
30 MPa, and B) friction pressure, 240 MPa.
Friction time, 4s; forging time, 1 s, and rotational
speed, 1500 rprn. Backscattered micrographs.
Centreline location.
120 MPa

Figure 5.13. Effect of friction pressure on the thickness of the PD and IM
regions in dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints.
Friction time, 4s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s, and
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half-radius location.
SPECMEN RADIUS. mn
P-
s
m-
8 'O-
0 -r
-10
SPMMEN RAMUS, mn
Figure 6.14. Distribution of IM and PD regions

along the bondline of dissimilar MMCIAglAlSl 304
stainless steel friction joints as function of friction
pressure. (A) friction pressure, 30 MPa, and (B)
friction pressure, 240 MPa with a small amount of
IM region (1 pm thick) at the centreline location.
102
Figures 5.12-5.14 show the changes in dimensions of the IM and PD regions at
different radial locations along the joint interface when friction pressures ranging from
30 to 240 MPa were applied. In the joint produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa.
the width of the PD region was greatest at the half-radius location, see figure 5.14(A).
When the friction pressure was 240 MPa, the IM region was only observed in locations
near the cornponent centreline and close to the joint periphery. In this particular joint,
the width of the IM region was 1 pm at the component centreline and was 12 pm in
regions close to the joint periphery (see figure 5.14(8)). In summation, when the friction
pressure increased from 30 to 240 MPa the width of the PD and IM regions decreased
resulting in the removal of the Ag interlayer. Although, there is no experimental
evidence, it is believed that the silver interlayer is totally or partially expelled during the
flash formation.
5.2.3. Friction pressure and TEM microstrucfure

The influence of friction pressure on the microstructure in dissirnilar MMC/Ag/AISi
304 stainless steel and MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints was examined in
detail. The friction welding process deforms and removes the silver interlayer,
promoting microstructural changes at and close to the dissirnilar joint interface.
Using a friction pressure of 30 MPa, figure 5.15 shows that the interlayer at the
bondline consists of small silver particles. Examination of the bondline region at high
magnification (x100 000 and x200 000) together with the specific rnorphology of this
region indicated the formation of silver nanoparticles, having sires in the range from
10-20 nm. When the friction pressure increased to 120 MPa, TEM examination of
region at half radius location in the weld did not indicate the presence of silver
nanoparticles, figure 5.16 shows the presence of silver grains. When the friction
1O3
pressure increased to 240 MPa, the microstructure at the centreline comprised
recrystallized silver and Ag3AI grains (see figures 5.17-5.1 8).
The interface between the nickel barrier film and the stainless steel substrate was
also examined using STEM microscopy and EDX analysis. This interface confinned the
presence of a complex Fe-AI-Ag-Ni-Cr compound (see figure 5-19) indicating that silver
and aluminium diffused into the stainless steel and formed a complex intermetallic
phase. Because of equipment limitations it was not possible to determine quantitatively
the chemical composition of the observed intemetallic compound.
A detailed examination of dissimilar MMC1'AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
confirmed the presence of a discontinuous transition layer along the length of the joint
interface (see figures 5.20-5.23). EDX chemical analysis of the transition layer
indicated peaks of aluminium and iron, see figure 5.22. The presence of FeAl and
Fe4Al13 was confinned using TEM rnicroscopy at the centreline and at the half radius
location in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using friction
pressures of 30 and 240 MPa, see figures 5.24-5.26.
Figures 5.24 and 5.25 show the influence of the friction pressure on the
dimensions of the intermetallic layer formed at the joint centreline, when the friction
pressure increased from 30 to 240 MPa the thickness of the intermetallic layer
decreased from 1.9 to 0.5 pn at the centreline. Analysis of diffraction patterns
confirmed the formation of FeAI. These particular joints were produced using a friction
time of 4 S. Figure 5.26 shows the presence of Fe4AIl3 af the dissimilar MMCIAISI 304
stainless steel friction joint interface produced with a friction pressure of 30 MPa and
friction time of 4 s, the intemetallic compound was observed at the half radius location.
Figure 5.27 shows the intermetallic layer at the half-radius and centreline
locations in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 welds produced using a friction pressure of 30

1O 4
MPa and a friction time of 4 S. it is observed that the intermetallic layer is narrower at
the centreline location compared to the half-radius location.
Figure 5.28 shows the influence of the friction pressure on the width of the
intermetallic layer formed ai the half-radius location of completed welds. When the
friction pressure increased from 30 to 240 MPa, the thickness of the intermetallic layer
decreased from 4.6 to 2 pm at the half-radius location.
Figure 5.15. TEM micrographs of the IM region from the bondline of a

dissimilar MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joint: (A)-@) bright field
images; (C) corresponding ring diffraction pattern, and (D) key diagram
showing the presence of silver. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline
location.
Figure 5.15 (Cont) TEM micrographs of the IM region from the bondline of
a dissimilar MMClAglAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joint: (E) bright field
images; (F) corresponding ring diffraction pattern, and (G) key diagram
showing the presence of silver. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline
location.
Figure 5.16. TEM rnicrograph of the IM region: (A) bright field image; (B)
corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram
showing Ag. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging pressure. 240 MPa;
friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half-radius location.
Figure 5.16. (Cont) TEM micrographs of the IM region: (D) bright field
image; (E) corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (F) key
diagram showing Ag in the IM region. Friction pressure, 120 MPa; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half-
radius location.
Figure 5.17. TEM micrographs of the IM region: (A)-(B) bright field
images; (C) corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (D) key
diagram showing Ag. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240
MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline location.
Figure 5.18. TEM micrographs of the 11111 region: (A)-(B) bright field
images. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction
time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline location.
Figure 5.18. (Cont) TEM micrographs of the IM region: (C) bright field
images; (D) corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (E) key
diagram showing Ag& Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging pressure,
240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline
location.
III
Figure 5.19. Microstructural features detected in a dissimilar MMClAglAlSl

304 stainless steel friction joint showing the boundary between the nickel
layer and the stainless steel substrate. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s;forging time, 1 S. The arrow indicates
the particle from which the EDX pattern was obtained. Centreline location.
Figure 5.20. Micrograph of a dissimilar MYCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction joint showing the transition layer. Friction pressure, 30 MPa;
friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 30 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
Figure 5.21. Cracking at the half-radius location in a dissirnilar
MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel joint. Friction pressure, 30 MPa; friction
time, 1 s; forging pressure, 30 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
Figure 5.22. EDX analysis of the transition layer. Friction pressure, 30 MPa;
friction tirne, 4 s; forging pressure, 30 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
DISTANCE ALONG BONDUE, mm
Figure 5.23. Transition layer distribution along the interface.

Figure 5.24. TEM micrographs at the bondline of a MMClAlSl 304
stainless steel friction weld: (A)-(B) bright field images; (C)
corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (D) key diagram
confirming FeAl formation. lntermetallic layer width, 1.9 Pm. Friction
pressure, 30 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction time, 4 s; rotaüonal
speed, 1500 rpm. Centreline location.
Figure 5.25. TEY mictographs at the bondline of a MMCIAISI 304
stainless steel friction weld: (A)-(B) bright field images; (C)
corresponding selected area diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram.
Intennetallic layer width, 0.5 Fm. Friction pressure, 240 MPa; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; friction üme, 4 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
Centreline location.
Figure 5.26. TEM micrographs at the bondline of a MMCI.AIS
steel friction weld: (A) bright field images; (C) corresponding selected area
diffraction pattern, and (C) key diagram confinning Fedl13 formation.
Friction pressure, 30 MPa; forging pressure, 240 MPa; friction tirne, 4 s;
rotational speed, 1500 rpm. Half radius location.
Figure 5.27. Comparison of intemetallic layer widths at the centreline and
at the half radius location in the dissimilar joint produced using friction
pressure of 30 MPa and friction time of 4 s; (A) at the half radius location,
and (8)at the centreline.
30 MPa 120 MPa 240 MPa
Figure 5.28. Effect of friction pressure (Pl) on the intemetallic layer

thickness in a dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joint Friction
time, 4 s;forging time, 1 s, and rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
5.3. DISCUSSION
5.3.7. Influence of friction welding on the silver inferiayer

Friction welding involves rapid heating caused by a combination of dry friction and
numerous adhesion/seizure/failure events (Stage 1) prior to the establishment of a
steady-state period when the torque, temperature distribution, and rate of axial
shortening become essentially uniform (Stage II).The welding process is completed by
the forging operation.
During the steady-state period, the welding process depends on deformation at
high temperature. At first sight it might appear that the steady-state period in friction
joining would be the determining phase of the friction joining operation. However, the
results in the present thesis suggest that the metallurgical and mechanical properties of
dissimilar friction joints are determined by processes that occur very eariy during the
first 0.5 s in the welding process. This observation is supported by the results
exarnining particle fracture in friction welded joints (that show that almost al1 of the
particte fracture process occurs early in Stage f of the welding process).
The joint interface regions in dissirnilar friction welds had wavy surface profiles.
This wavy profile was produced early in the process (it was observed in welds
produced using a friction tirne of 0.2 s). This interface profile is in many respects similar
to the surface layer observed during sliding Wear testing. During sliding Wear testing,
the surface layer results from the transference of material from the substrate to the
counterface. For example, in a study examining sliding Wear between a steel pin and a
Cu-15 wt%Ni disk, nickel transfers preferentially to the 3-mm diameter steel pin and a
widespread system of patches is formed on the surface (Rigney et al. 1984). These
patches form after a relatively few (15) cycles of the 6-mm rotating disk (for a sliding
122
speed of 50 mm/s, a sliding distance of 56 mm, and a nominal load of 0.78 N). In
friction welds produced using a friction time of 0.2 s and rotating speed of 1500 rpm,
the sliding distance at the half-radius location is 113 mm. Thus, it would be expected
that the wavy surface is fomed early in the friction joining process.
5.3-2. Similarities between sliding Wear and Stage 1 of friction welding

Since the physical situation early in friction joining is similar to that during sliding
Wear testing (Ames and Alpas 1995, Zhang and Alpas 1996) the results produced
during Wear testing using aluminium-based MMC and steel substrates are of direct
interest. A detailed microstructural examination of samples produced during sliding
Wear testing using aluminium alloy and steel substrates has confirmed that fully-
plasticised material forrns when the temperature at the contact interface exceeds 162 *
10 OC (Ames and Alpas 1995). This critical temperature marks the change from mild to
severe Wear. Severe Wear is characterised by adhesion of aluminium material to the
steel counterface and thermal softening which produces dynamically recrystallised
grains in the aluminium alloy substrate. With this model in mind, it is suggested that the
microstructures in the IM and PD regions (in the 0.2 s friction weld) are formed when
the average temperature of material close to the joint interface exceeds a transition
temperature which depends on the contacting substrates.
One important aspect is the formation of nanoparticles in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel joints produced using a low friction pressure (30 MPa) and a friction
tirne of 4 S. This nanocrystalline microstructure was observed in the region close to the
component centreline and had particle dimensions ranging from 10 to 20 nm. Figure
5.15 shows bright field TEM micrographs of the interface region in a dissimilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction weld produced using a friction pressure of 30
MPa. Figures 5.17-5.1 8 show bright field TEM micrographs of the centreline location in
123
a friction weld produced using a friction pressure of 240 MPa. In this weld there was no
evidence of nanoparticle formation. It is suggested that the nanoparticle formed in the
silver interlayer (in joints produced using low friction pressures) may result from the
formation of a transfer layer early in the welding process resulting from Wear or
mechanical alloying.
A nanocrystalline microstructure was observed in the transfer layer formed during
sliding Wear testing involving OFHC copper and M2 tool steel counterface. The sliding
speed was 0.1 mis, the load was 1.33 N, the testing time was 1 hr in argon atmosphere
and the relative humidity was 0.21%. The Wear surface temperature was 56 OC (Rigney
ef al. 1984). The size of the grains in the transfer layer depended on the sliding speed;
Rigney et al. observed that the dimensions of the crystallites were larger when faster
speeds were applied. These investigators associated the increased size with higher
temperature being produced during the Wear process. Rigney et al. also indicated that
the microstructure of the transfer layer was similar to that produced during mechanical
alloying of OFHC copper and M2 steel balls. During mechanical alloying, the rnean
processing temperature was 60 OC. Based on this similarity, they suggested that the
transfer layer formation involved processes sirnilar to those process in mechanical
alloying, i.e. plastic defornation and fracture of powder particles. The temperature at
the contact interface had an important influence on nanoparticle formation and on the
size of the crystals formed during the Wear process. The size of nanoparticles
increased and the likelihood of nanoparticle formation decreased when higher
temperatures were produced at the contact interface (Rigney et al. 1984).
Nanocrystalline alloys are produced during mechanical alloying of intermetallic
compounds or metallic powders. To produce a nanocrystalline structure it is necessary
that the arnorphous phase should be less stable than the nanocrystalline phase since
124
this situation avoids transformation into the amorphous state (Oehnng and Bormann
1991). This requirement has been applied when examining the Ag-AI binary system.
Paruchuri et al. produced nanocrystals of the a, p, and < phases when they
investigated mechanical alloying of AgAl alloys. They studied four nominal
compositions corresponding with the p, and < single phase fields, and with a+p, and
pfc; phase fields in the binary phase diagram. The compositions of the alloys were 23,
37, 20, and 26 at% Al, respectively. The apparent particle sizes for a, p, and < phases
were approximatety 13, 21, and 18 nm. During mechanical alloying they estimated that
the temperature rise was around 100 O C . This increase in temperature occurred since
the heat of mixing of the intermediate phases in the Ag-AI system is negative. It is
worth mentioning that the t; phase forrned first when the alloy contained 23 at% Al; 8
hours of milling were required to produce the phase p (Paruchuri et al. 7994).
In a dissimilar friction weld produced with a friction pressure of 120 MPa, the
presence of silver was identified at the half radius location, but no nanoparticles were
observed, see figure 5.16. The highest temperature is attained at the half radius
location in the joint. Moreover, at this particular location the silver interlayer is worn
away preferentially, see figures 5.9-5.14. As a result, the presence of nanoparticles
would not be expected at the half radius location, especially in welds produced using
increasing friction pressures.
At the centreline location, in dissimilar friction welds produced with a friction
pressure of 240 MPa, there is no evidence of silver nanoparticles. The TEM bright field
micrographs show the presence of silver and AgAl grains, see figures 5.17-5.18. It is
worth of noticing that the presence of Ag and AgAI grains is associated to the IM
region.
53.3- Fo-n and removaf of- and 1M mgbms
Thepresenceofentrained r & n f O r c i i n g m partides,theveined sh
ir
w m plus
mer morphology in the IM region and the fad that the IM and PD regions were
okewed in W - o n joints produ& using a friction tirne of 0 2 s suggeçt that these
features formed as resutt of mechanid mEng earfy in the friction

mÏ~~OSfi'Ucturaf
welding procesç. When the friction time increased to 1.2 s the widoi of the IM region
decreased andon
c
is
a
lt at half radius of wrn~letedwelds showed no evidence of IM
region formato
in (see figures 5.10-5-1 1 and 5.13-5.14). In a similar rnanner very thick
PD regions were observed in a weld made using frc
ito
in time of 0.2 S. In contrast, the
joint produced using a friction time of 1.2 s had much thinner PD regions at the
bondline. Also, there was a pronounœd shift in the location of the thick PD region from
the component centreline towards the joint periphery when the friction time increased
from 0.2 s to 1.2 S. When a higher friction pressure was applied (240 MPa) the IM
region was only retained in locations near the component centreline and at the joint
periphery. Also, there was no evidence of PD region formation along the rernaining
length of the dissimilar joint interface (see figures 5.13-5.14).
The shift in the location of the PD region from the component centreline towards
the joint penphery can be explained as follows. When the two substrates contact each
other, the normal pressure has its peak value at the component centreline and the
shear stress has its highest value at the hat radius location in the cornponent (Heteny
and McDonald 1954). (Johnson 1985). However, as friction welding progresses the
normal and shear stress distributions are altered, Le. the normal pressure decreases at
the centreline and increases near the periphery of the component. This type of
behaviour has been observed when examining rotating spherical indenters (Johnson
1985). Bearing in rnind the changes in location of the normal and shear stress during
126
friction welding, it is suggested that thick PD region forms initially at the component half
radius since this region deforms preferentially compared to the component centreline
and periphery
Another explanation for the shift in the location of the PD region relates to
changes in surface displacement. For example, the contact surface is subjected to
radial (u,), circumferential&

II( and axial surface displacements (uJ. During Stage I of
the welding process the radial displacement (u,) has an inward direction with a
maximum value at the weld periphery. The circumferential displacement (uO) has a
maximum value at the half radius location and decreases as the weld periphery and the
centreline are approached. The axial displacement (uJ has a maximum value at the
sample centreline (Heteny and McDonald 1954). Consequently, it is suggested that the
shift of the IM and PD regions may result frorn the combined action of the radial and
tangential displacements.
The influence of friction time on the widths of the IM and PD regions can be
explained due to the progressive wearing away of these regions as the friction welding
process progresses. This suggestion is consistent with the marked influence of
increased friction pressure in decreasing the widths of the IM and PD regions (see
figures 5.12-5.14). For example, the maximum width of the PD region decreased from
,190 Fm to zero when the friction pressure increased from 30 MPa to 240 MPa. In this
connection, Fuji et al. also suggested that the intemetallic layer at the dissimilar joint
interface in TVA5083 aluminium alloy joints was acted on and was removed by the
action of plasticised A5083 material being continuously squeezed out of the weld (Fuji
et al. 1995). This particular process may explain the removal of the PD region in welds
produced using high friction pressures.

Although it is generally assumed that intemetallic layer formation in dissimilar
friction welds results from interdiffusion and/or mechanical mixing during the welding
operation, the exact manner in which this occurs is unclear. For example, Fukumoto et
al. suggested that FeAI, FeAI and Fe2AI, formation in 1060 aluminium/ AlSI 304
stainless steel friction joint resulted from interdiffusion during the joining operation.
Since the aluminium diffused 450 pm into the steel, the joint interface temperature was
calculated as 911 K (638 OC). However, Fukumoto et al. presented no evidence
confirming how the FeAI, FeAI, and Fe2AIintemetallics actually formed in completed
joints and considered the forging time, not the friction time, during friction welding as
the period during which interdiffusion occurred (Fukumoto et al. 1997). In effect, these
investigators assurned that intemetallic formation occurred following completion of the
steady-state period in friction joining when the fabricated component was cooling to
room temperature. This assumption is not supported by the results presented in a
nurnber of investigations indicating that intemetallic thickness and joint mechanical
properties are essentially determined by the friction pressure and friction time during
the joining operation (Jessop et al. 1978 and Fuji et al. 1992, 1995a, b).
Assuming that al1 the deformation occurs in the dissimilar substrate, which has the
lowest flow strength at high temperature, the contacting interface of the other (higher
flow strength) substrate will be essentially stationary during the welding operation.
When this condition occurs, intemetallic growth at the dissimilar joint interface can be
visualised as occurring along a planar boundary and the width of the intenetallic layer
will depend on the tirne available for interdiffusion and on the temperature at the
bondline. This form of intemetallic growth explains the numerous references indicating
that thin intemetallic layers and optimum joint mechanical properties are produced
when the friction time is as short as possible and the average temperature at the joint
128
interface is lowered via selection of high friction pressure values (Jessop et al- 1978
and Fuji et al. 1992, 1995a, b).
The results in the present study have confirmed that when a silver interlayer is
introduced during MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welding a wavy-shaped
interface is produced and large mechanically-mixed IM and PD regions containing
AgAI are formed adjacent to the joint interface in the MMC base material. In a joint
produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa, the maximum thickness of the IM and PD
regions were 1 and 23 Pm, respectiveiy. In joints produced using a friction pressure of
240 MPa, the IM and PD regions were not observed at the half radius location. The
influence of friction pressure on the width of IM and PD region can be cornpared with its
effect on the dimensions of the intermetallic interlayer formed in dissimilar MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds. In dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 friction joint produced
using a friction pressure of 30 MPa and a friction time of 4 S. the width of the
intermetallic layer was 4.6 pm at the half-radius location and 2 pm when the friction
pressure was 240 MPa (see figure 5.28).
In a joint produced using a friction time of 0.2 s, the maximum thickness of the IM
and PD regions were 45 pm and 120 Pm, respectively (see Figure 5.10). In joints
produced using a friction time of 1.2 s, the width of the IM and the PD regions were 40
and 10 pm at the half radius location, see figure 5.10 and 5.14(8). The critical feature is
that Ag3AI forms early in the dissimilar friction welding operation (it is part of the IM and
PD regions). Since the width of the PD and IM regions decreases with friction time (see
figures 5.9-5.11) the amount of Ag3AI retained in compieted welds decreases, not
increases, when longer friction times are applied.

5.3.4. Transition layer in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds
During friction welding, material is transferred from the stationary side of the joint
to the rotating side during Stage I of the friction welding process. A transition layer
(see figure 5.20-5.21) forrns because of the movement of the plasticised region. An
annular area of transferred material is preferentially forrned near the half-radius location
in the friction joint. This particular area is subjected to higher friction pressure and
temperature resulting in the formation of a plasticised region (Duffin and Bahrani 1976
and Bendzsak et al. 1997). Wide interrnetallic layers are fonned at half-radius location
in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel produced using a low friction pressure (30
MPa), see figure 5.22. However, in this case, growth of the intermetallic layer is not
detenined by diffusion across a cornpletely stagnant region in the MMC base material
since it has been confimed that dynamically quiescent regions fonn in MMCIAISI 304
stainless steel welds produced using a low friction pressure. This dynamically
quiescent terminology is employed since fluid flow occurs in this region, although it is
only of the order of a few micrometers per second (North et ai. 1997). The dynamicalfy
quiescent regions are widest at half radius location where the peak temperatures occur
during dissimilar friction welding. It is believed that the width of the quiescent region is
directly related to the width of the intermetallic layer.
5.3.5. Intennetallic compounds and joint strength

It has been suggested that the formation of brittle intermetallics at the joint
interface has a markedly detrimental effect on the rnechanical properties of dissimilar
friction welds. For exarnple, Fuji et al. indicated that the bend ductility of dissimilar
TVAfSI 304 L stainless steel friction weld was detrimentally affected by the formation of
intemetallics at the dissimilar joint interface. However, interrnetallic layer formation had
iittle influence on tensile strength when it was measured using a standard unnotched
130
tensile testing design (Fuji et al. 1992). The bend ductility properties were improved
through post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) at temperatures ranging from 500-600 OC.
However, PWHT at temperatures exceeding 700 OC and the use of long holding times
at that temperature had a markedly detrimental influence on both tensile strength and
bend ductility properties. When the PWHT temperature equalled 900°C, FezTi
formation was confirmed and was associated with the poor mechanical properties
obtained during mechanical testing.
In another study, Suzuki et ai. found a relationship between the tensile strength
and the width of the intermetallic layer fomed at the dissimilar joint interface in pure
Allpure Ti diffusion joints. Weld tensile strength fell dramatically when the intermetallic
layer width reached 200 Fm. However, Suzuki et al. did not indicate the nature of the
intermetallic compound formed at the bondline (Suzuki et al. 1994).
Based on these results, it has been suggested that the detrimental influence of
intemetallic compounds on weld properties depends on the rnechanical properties of
the intennetallic phase (its yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility) and on the
width of the intermetallic layer formed at the dissimilar joint interface. Although much of
the published research has dealt with dissimilar joints that contain well-documented
mechanical properties e.g. Fe2Ti, FeAI, and FefiI, it is worth noting that the influence of
intermetallic layers on weld rnechanical properties will be affected by the rnechanical
properties of the adjoining substrates (Fuji et al. 1992).
in the present thesis FeAl and Fe4AIi1 formation were confirmed following TEM
examination of dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel welds (see figures 5.24-5.26).
The FeAl intermetallic phase has an aluminium content in the range from 35 to 50 at%.
lron aluminides are brittle at room temperature and the strength of the FeAl is
dependent on aluminium content and temperature; for example, the yield strength
431
increases and ductility decreases when the aluminium content increases (Vedula
1994). The iron aluminide with the highest yield strength is the Fe3AI compound and
has yield strength of about 780 MPa and an elongation of 8% at room temperature. The
FeAl intermetallic has yield strength of 350 MPa and an elongation of 2% at room
temperature (McKarney et al. 1991).
In summary, the strengths of the intermetallic phases and adjoining substrates
(MMC and AlSI 304 stainless steel) are similar. However, their ductilities are markedly
different. Stainless steel AlSl 304 has an elongation of 64% while the MMC (10 vol%
AI2O3) substrate has an elongation of 7% (at room temperature). Hence, if the total
plastic strain at the bondline equals the failure strain of the intermetallic layer, the
friction weld will fail along the dissirnilar joint interface.
5.3.6. Model for interlayer removal

Silver coatings have been used as solid lubricants to reduce friction and Wear
between sliding steel substrates (Iliuc 1989 and Holmberg and Matthews 1994).
However, these coatings have limited life and operate in conditions involving the
application of low normal sliding loads and substrate materials with low compatibility
with silver. In the present thesis, dissimilar friction welding involves contact between a
silver interlayer and an aluminium alloy based MMC. Since silver and aluminium form
intermetallic compounds and solid solutions, Wear of the silver interlayer should be
expected during the friction welding operation. Evidence presented in this thesis
supports the contention that the silver interlayer is rernoved from the bondline during
the friction welding operation.
During Stage 1 of friction welding, a sequence of adhesionlseizure events takes
place when the silver interlayer and the aluminium substrate contact each other. This
132
contact process can be explained using the wave mode1 to decribe the different Wear
regimes when soft and hard materials corne into contact.
In this rnodel, the critical parameters are the aspenty angle of the hard surface
(a) and the nomalised film strength,f; see equation 5.1
where .r is the film shear strength and k the shear flow strength of the defoming
material (Le. the silver interlayer). Assuming that the silver interiayer is oxide free, the
value of the nomalised film strength V) is high. When the surface is well-lubricated or
covered with an oxide film, fwill be low.
In the schematic representation in figures 5.29 and 5.30, a rigid asperity angle (a)
of 10 O, high and low values o f f are assumed and the shear strain (fi of the soft
rnaterial is calculated using the upper bound method. For a high value off (O.SI), the
resulting shear strain (j) is 20.7, see figure 5.29. For a low value o f f (0.1),the
calculated shear strain is 1.29, see figure 5.30. These results indicate that clean
surfaces undergo increased shear deformation, which may result in particle formation,
and an intimate contact between substrates improving the final joint quaiity. Since low
values off are associated to the presence of an oxide layer, the mechanical properties
of dissimilar joints with oxide layers wiil be impaired as shown in figure 4.12.
Figure 5.29. Schematic representation of the wave model when f = 0.90.
The angle in the wave model is important in terms of explaining the formation of
silver particles found in the PD region of dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds. When the angle CD is zero, the wave in the soft material is removed
resulting in the formation of a silver particle. It is worth noting that the wave model was
developed to explain the behaviour of rigid ideally plastic materials. However, particle
formation is also infiuenced by strain hardening and low-cycle fatigue properties of the
interlayer material. In strain hardening materials, particle detachment may occur at high
values of (20') and at low shear strains (y = 10.0) (Kopalinsky and Oxley 1995). In
figure 5.29 for f = 0.9, the resulting shear strain is 20.7, as result a particle may form.
The wave model can therefore be used to explain the presence of silver particles
observed in the PD region of welded joints produced using low friction times.
It follows that the conditions which favour minimal retention of A g A I in
MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel joints are the employment of high friction pressures
Figure 5.30. Schematic representation of the wave model when f = 0.10.
and long friction times (> 2 s). In direct contrast, long friction times favour the growth of
intermetallic layers at the bondline of MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced
without silver interlayers. When a silver interlayer is introduced, the intermetallic layer
forms early in the welding process as result of mechanical rnixing and is progressively
removed from the bondline region as the friction welding operation proceeds. In effect,
the introduction of a silver interlayer radically alters the rnanner in which intermetallic
iayers form during dissirnilar friction welding of MMC and AlSI 304 stainless steel base
materials. The remarkable effect of silver depends on its ability t o be worn away as the
friction welding operation proceeds.
The present study is the first detailed examination of the effects produced when a
silver interlayer is introduced prior to friction welding. In partieular, the chernical

135
compounds formed at the joint interface have been characterized. lntermixed (IM) and
particle dispersed (PD) regions are formed in Ag-containing dissimilar friction welds.
The IM region contains a mixture of silver, aluminium and Ag3AI while the PD region
contains a granular mixture of silver, aluminium, Ag3AI, and entrained Al& particles.
These regions form very early in the joining operation and both contain Ag3AI. It
follows that an interlayer (Ag) introduced with the specific aim of preventing Fe,AI,
compound formation in MMWAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds promotes the
formation of another intemetallic phase at the bondline. Since the IM and PD regions
are progressively removed as the friction welding operation proceeds thinner
intermetallic layers are produced when welding using long friction times. This type of
behavior is quite different from that observed in silver-free dissimilar MMC/AISI 304
stainless steel welds. Thin Fe,AI, intermetallic layers are formed when the friction time
decreases in Ag-free welds. Therefore, the present thesis has found quite new results,
which provide a rnuch better understanding of the factors that determine intermetallic
layer formation and its removal at the bondline of dissirnilar friction welds.
Nanoparticles of silver were formed in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
welds produced using low friction pressures. Nanoparticle formation in dissimilar friction
welds has never been previously observed or investigated.

CHAPTER 6. THERMAL ASPECTS AND SOFTENED ZONE
FORMATION
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Friction welding is a joining operation that alters the microstructure and
mechanical properties in material close to the joint interface. In age-hardened materials
such as aluminium alloys, friction welding produces a softened zone that has a marked
influence on the joint strength. Previous studies have established that the width of the
softened zone depends on the specific heat input and the friction time (Midling and
Grong 1994a. b). In particular, narrow softened zones are produced when high specific
heat inputs and short friction times are applied (Grong 1994).
Heat generation during friction welding depends on the applied friction pressure,
the rotational speed, and the coefficient of friction (Wang 1975 and Grong 1994). The
presence of an interlayer such as silver will alter the surface conditions and
consequently, the coefficient of friction, heat generation, and heat partition into the
adjoining substrates. It is shown in Chapter 7 that changes in the softened zone
rnarkedly affect the strength of completed dissimilar welds.
The influence of mechanised fusion welding (GMAW) on the dimensions of the
softened zone in age-hardenenable aluminium alloy base material was examined and
modelled for 6082 aluminium alloy base material (Shercliff and Ashby 1990a, b and
Mhyr and Grong 1991a, b). Midling and Grong examined the problems of softened
137
zone formation during similar friction welding of 6082 aluminium alloy and AI-Sic
composite base materials (Midling and Grong 1994a, b). The calculated width and
hardness of the softened zone correlated well with the measured dimensions and
hardness in both friction and GMA welds. However, Midling and Grong investigated
friction welding of similar base materials and Iimited their research tu friction pressures
ranging from 30 to 50 MPa. The present thesis examines the influence of friction
pressures ranging from 30 tu 240 MPa on the softened zone during dissimilar friction
welding when a silver interlayer is applied.
During sliding friction, heat generation at the contacting surfaces depends on the
coefficient of friction, the normal pressure, and the sliding speed. In similar manner, in
friction welding heat generation at the bondline depends on the coefficient of friction
between contacting substrates, the friction pressure, the rotational speed, and the rod
diameter. Calculation of the heat generated at the bondiine during friction welding
involves specific problems such as the selection of the coefficient of friction, the
pressure distribution at the contacting interface when a rod is employed during the
welding operation. In spite of these difficulties, an equation has been proposed
indicating the heat generated per area unit during friction welding, see equation 6.1,
(Grong 1994).
where q, = net power, W,
A = cross section, mm2,
P = friction pressure, MPa,

,u = coefficient of friction
Frm = maximum velocity at the outer periphery of the test sample, m/s.
In modelling the softened zone in similar friction welding of aluminium alloys,
Grong applied a coefficient of friction of 0.5 and assumed a uniform friction pressure at
the contact interface. The calculated heat input served as the basis for predicting the
dimensions of the softened zone formed in the aluminium alloy friction welds. However,
the problem is more cornplex in dissimilar friction welding since the joints involve
aluminium alloy and stainless steel substrates, which have different thermophysical
1.
properties, see table 6 -
Table 6.1. Thermal properties of base materials
- - - - - - - - -
Tm= Melting Temperature
Since aluminium has a higher thermal conductivity it is expected that the
aluminium substrate will conduct more heat. A simple analysis involving two materials
in static contact proposes a heat partition ratio depending on the thermal conductivities
of the contacting substrates (Suh 1986). The partition ratio is calculated using equatior:
6.2:
m?-i
m m
a- I
350-
300-
m-
m-
150 x I 1 I I I I
O 60 la) 180 240 300 360 4ZC
FRiCllON PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 6.1. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature at 0.2 mm

from the bondline and 4.5 mm from the periphery in dissimilar
MMCIAglAlSl 304 stainless steel friction wetds. Friction tirne, 3 s;
forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
where kr and k2 are the thermal conductivities of the contacting substrate materials.
The thermal conductivity of the aluminium alloy 6061-T6 is 167 W/m-K while
stainless steel has a thermal conductivity of 16.2 W h - K at 20 OC. Hence, using
equation 6.2, it would be expected that 91% of the heat generated at the bondline
would transfer into the aluminium component and 9% into the AlSI 304 stainless steel
substrate. Although the presence of an interlayer rnay alter the heat partition ratio at the
bondline, no published information is available indicating exactly how an interlayer will
affect this parameter and the softened zone. In the following sections the influence of
friction pressure and the silver interlayer on the softened zone are discussed in detail.

MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds. Friction time, 2 s;
forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
6.2. RESULTS
6.2.1. Effectof friction pressure

In the present study the temperature in the stainless steel substrate was
measured at 200 pm from the joint interface and at a depth of 4.5 mm from the
component periphery. In dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction weld
produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa and friction time of 3 s, figure 6.1 shows
that the temperature attains values as high as 435 OC. When the friction pressure
increased from 120 to 240 MPa the measured temperature decreased in about 30 OC.
In dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced without an interlayer
the temperature was 340 O C when using a friction pressure of 30 MPa and friction time

MMCIAgIAISI 304 and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
considering a friction time of 1 S.
of 2 S. The temperature decreased when higher friction pressure were applied, see
figure 6.2. The decrease in temperature is in the same range observed in dissimilar
MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel welds. In both types of joints, friction pressure had a
niarked influence on the temperature values.
6.2.2. Influence of the silver interlayer

Considering a friction time of 1 s, the introduction of a silver interlayer decreases
the measured temperature in about 50 O C , see figure 6.3.The temperature values in
figure 6.3 are obtained from the temperature-time cutves for MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel welds and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using different
friction pressure values (30 MPa, 120 MPa and 240 MPa), see figures 6.4-6.5.
Figure 6.4. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature-tirne
curves at 0.2 mm frorn the joint interface and 4.5 mm from the joint
periphery in dissimilar MMClAglAlSl 304 stainless steel friction
joints. Friction time, 3 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1
S.
Figure 6.6 shows the relationship between the axial shortening of the MMC
substrate and the friction pressure applied during welding. In dissimilar MMC/AglAISI
304 stainless steel joints, the friction welding process produced less axial shortening
than welds produced without silver interlayers.
Also, dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints have narrower
softened zones than dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless welds (see figures 6.7-6.11).
For example, in MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel welds the sofiened zone width varied
from 10.02 mm (in joints produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa) to 3.40 mm (in
welds produced using a friction pressure of 240 MPa). The softened zone width ranged
from 17.25 to 4.80 mm in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
Figure 6.5. Effect of friction pressure on the temperature-time curve
at 0.2 mm from the joint interface and 4.5 mm from the joint
periphery in dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joints.
Friction time, 2 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
produced using friction pressures ranging from 30 to 240 MPa. The introduction of a
silver interlayer, therefore, decreased the width of the softened zone adjacent to the
bondline of dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds.
6.3. DISCUSSION
6.3.1. Heat entering the sfainless steel substrate

Heat input is an important quantity when examining friction welding because
together with friction time detemines the softened zone width and the temperatures in
material at and close to the joint interface. The heat input entenng the stainless steel
I
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Figure 6.6. Relationship between axial shortening and friction

pressure in dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 and MMClAglAlSl304 stainless
steel friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging time, 1 s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa.
component during the heating period is obtained using the temperature-time curves in
figures 6.4-6.5 and equation 6.3.
where % = net power, W,
pc = volume heat capacity, ~ / r n r n

O ~
C
a = thermal diffusivity, mm2/s,

z = distance from the contact section, mm,
e$c (U) = complementary error function.
it is worth noting that equation 6.3 is valid for the heating period of the friction
welding process. Table 6.2 shows the calculated heat inputs entering the stainless
steel substrate for dissimilar MMCIAlSl 304 and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds produced using friction pressures of 30, 120, and 240 MPa.
6.3.2. Heat partition during dissimilar friction welding

An assumption during similar friction welding is that heat generated at the
bondline is divided equally between the contacting substrates. Equation 6.2 was
developed assuming static conditions when two substrates contact each other and the
heat originating at the bondline partitions depending on the thermal conductivities of the
adjoining components. Considering the properties of stainless steel and 6061 alloy
substrates (see table 6.1) the static partition ratio suggests that 91% of the generated
heat input will transfer into the aluminium alloy MMC substrate.
Table 6.2. Relationship between specific heat input entering the stainless steel
substrate @/A) and friction pressure
Friction Pressure MMCfAISI 304 JOINTS MMC/Ag/AISI 304 JOINTS
(MW w/mm2 w/mm2
30 MPa 3.25 2.98
120 MPa 3.5 3.34
240 MPa 3.72 3.59

146
Singh and Alpas measured a coefficient of friction of 0.5 during sliding Wear
testing of MMC and stainless steel substrates (Singh and Alpas 1996). Midling and
Grong applied a frictional coefficient of 0.577 and 0-5when analysing heat generation
during simifar MMC friction welding. In the present thesis, a coefficient of friction of 0.54
is applied to dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds. In dissimilar
MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel produced with a friction pressure of 30 MPa, the specific
heat input is 16.1 w/mm2. Assuming a static heat partition ratio, 91% of the generated
heat enters the MMC substrate (14.49 wlmm2). As result, with a heat input of 14.49
w/mm2, the calculated temperature in the MMC would be 809.65 OC,see equation 6.3.
However, this temperature is much higher than the temperature of melting of aluminium
alloys and considerably higher than the temperature assumed by Midling and Grong
when examining heat transfer during similar friction welding of MMC materials (555 OC)
(Midling and Grong 1994a). Also, using equation 6.3 and data presented in figure 6.5,
the calculated heat input entering the stainless steel substrates is 3.25 w/mmz, and this
heat input is greater than the 1.3 w/mm2 value predicted using equation 6.2. It is
therefore apparent that the static heat partition ratio (equation 6.2)cannot be applied to
dissimilar friction welding.
6.3.3. Friction pressure and temperature

The influence of friction pressure on the temperature produced during friction
welding is discussed. The Zener-Hollomon constitutive equation for MMC base material
is shown below (Davies et al. 1992):

where Z = Zener-Hollomon parameter,
s= strain rate, s-A

Q = activation energy, J/mol,
R = universal gas constant, Jlmol K
T = absolute temperature, K
a= material flow stress, Pa
A, a and n are material constants.
For 6061 base material containing 10 vol% of particulate material, Q = 216
oi4 s-l. To understand the influence of

kJ1mol; a =O.OZ3 M P ~ " ;n = 5.24 and A = 9.42~1
friction pressure on the temperature values let us consider the situation during forging
of a 9.5mm radius cylinder made of MMC base material. A 5 mm upset is considered
here since this value equals the amount of burn-off produced during dissimilar
MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel friction welding (see figure 6.7). The forging pressure
required to upset the cylinder is given by equation 6.5 (Mielnik 1991):
where p = applied pressure, Pa
m = sticking friction factor,
DO= material flow stress, Pa
R = cylinder radius, m
h = upset height, m.
148
For an applied pressure (p) of 30 MPa (which is typical of friction welding
operations), rn = 1, R = 9.5 mm, and h = 5 mm, equation 6.5 indicates that the required
material flow stress (O,) to upset the cylinder is 17.3 MPa. With a flow stress of 17.3
MPa and a strain rate of 0.5 s-', using equation 6.4, the temperature of the MMC
cylinder should be 579 OC. However, the material temperature is rnuch lower (266 OC)
when the MMC cylinder is deformed using a higher pressure (240 MPa). In effect,
deformation initiates at lower temperatures when the applied pressure is increased. It is
suggested that the temperature attained in dissirnilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds relates to the temperature at which the MMC base material starts
deforming plastically. This suggestion rnay explain the lower temperatures measured
when higher friction pressures were applied during dissirnilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless
steel and MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel friction welding.
6.3.4. Influence of the silver intedayer

The introduction of a silver interlayer decreases the softened zone width during
dissirnilar friction welding. Softened zones are produced in age-strengthened
aluminium base materials because of the thermal cycle in friction welding and wider
softened zones are produced when higher heat inputs are applied. In the present
thesis, the softened zone is the region extending from the bondline to the location
where the temperature was 250 OC in the adjoining MMC base material (Grong 1994).
In dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds, the width of the
softened zone was 10.02 mm in a joint made using a friction pressure of 30 MPa and a
friction tirne of 4 s (see figure 6.7(A)). The amount of axial shortening in this weld was
c0.5 mm, see figure 6.6. When this softened zone width (10.02 mm) and a temperature
of 250 OC are substituted into equation 6.3 the calculated bondline temperature is 422
149
OC.This temperature is produced in the MMC substrate when a specific heat input of
7.6 w/rnm2 is applied during a friction time of 4 S. During MMC/Ag/AISI 304 friction
joining the calculated heat input in the stainless steel substrate is 2.98 w/rnm2.
Therefore, for a dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel weld produced with a
friction pressure of 30 MPa the specific heat input is 10.33 wlmm2. With this heat input,
and using equation 6.1, the calculated frictional coefficient is 0.35. It follows that the
introduction of a silver interlayer during friction welding of MMC and AlSI 304 stainless
steel substrates reduces the arnount of generated heat during the dissimilar welding
operation. In fact, the frictional coefficient decreases to 0.35 by the introduction of a
silver interlayer. There is support for this contention in the published literature. For
example, silver coatings have been used to decrease the frictional coefficient and the
arnount of Wear between sliding rnetals (Iliuc 1980, Holmberg 1994). Since dissimilar
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welding presents lower heat input entering the
MMC side of the joint, lower axial shortening and narrower softened zone are produced
in the MMC substrate, see figures 6.6-6.1 1.
6.3.5. Summation
Introduction of a silver interlayer decreased the coefficient of friction at the contact
region during dissimilar welding and decreased the heat generated during the welding
process. This effect explained the decreased particle fracture tendency and the
narrower softened zone regions in the MMC base rnaterial and the decreased axial
shortening (burn-off) cornpared to dissimilar welds produced without interlayers.

Frictiorr Prasoure = 30 MPa
HAt = 10.02 mm aprica
290 Min. hardness = 73.7 HV
at 1.- mm
- 1 0 - 8 8 - 2 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
DISTANCE FROM INTERFACE, mm
MMClAlSl3û4
FrictionPressure, 30 MPa
HAZ = 17.25 mm
Min. Hardness = 70.8
ai 2-14 mm
DISTANCE FROM INERFACE. mm
Figure 6.7. Vickers hardness distribution across the joint interface.

Friction pressure, 30 MPa; friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240
MPa; forging time, 1 S.
246
- (4 MMCIAe(AlSI:304
220- I FWon Preusure, 60 MPa
mm .mm HAZ = 7.24 mm
200 - Irn Min. hudnars = 76.3 MI
at 1.73 mm
g 180-
m- 160-
CD
W:
Z 140-
n
3 l2O:
100 -
80- NS1304
- STAINLESS STEEL MMC
60 a l v l - ~ - ~ - I - I - I ~ I . ~ ~
-10 -8 ô 4 -2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12
-- - -
MMClAlSl304
FMon Pressure. 60 MPa
W =11.10 mm
Min. fiarcines = 81.8 HV
at 254 mm

irmrilCIAs/AlSI 304
Friction Pretssure, 120 MPa
HAZ = 5.43 mm
Min. Hardness: T72
at 0.94 mm
- 1 0 8 4 4 - 2 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
MMCIAISl3û4
Friction Pressure = 120 MPa
HAL = 6.34 mm
M n - Hardness = 85.5 HV
at 209 mm
t . l ' l . l . , . ~ . l . l . l . , . l . l
-10 -8 -6 4 -2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12

240- (4 I
MMClAs/AlSl304
Friction Pragsum = 180 MPa
P
220
MO-
:1
,
-
= = = m .
.. a
W\Z = 3.81 mm
Min- hardness: 83.7 MI
at 0.89mm
*cn'
w 160-
Z
140-
E
2 rm-
100- I
AlSI 304
80 - STAJNLESS STEEL MMC
i m l - l ~ l 1 ~
. 1 - I . l . I . 1 ~
-10 4 ô 4 -2 O 2 4 6 8 ?O 12
MMCIAiSi 304
Friction Pressum = 180 MPa
HAZ = 5.14 mm
Mi. H a r d m : 867 HV
200
at 2 4 1 mm
180

W A g J A l S I 304
FWon F V e s m = 24û MPa
HAZ = 3.48 mm
Min. hardrmss: 84.2 MI
200 et 0.53 mm
1 1,
AlSl3W
STAJNLESS STEEL
-10 -8 ô 4 -2 O 2 4 6 8 10 12
I
W A l S I 304
=.
Friction Ressum = 240 MPa
m
I HAZ = 4-80 mm
Min. Hardness: 91.6
I
at 1-76mm

CHAPTER 7. INFLUENCE OF THE INTERLAYER ON THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF DlSSlMlLAR FRICTION JOINTS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
It has been shown that the introduction of a silver interlayer decreases heat
generation during friction welding (by lowering the frictional coefficient at the contact
region during Stage 1), the width of the softened zone (Chapter 6), and the percentage
of particle fracture in the MMC side of the joint (Chapter 4). However, in both dissimilar
MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steei friction welds,
increasing friction pressure produces thinner intermetallic layers at the bondline and
narrower softened zones. From the tensile testing results it is not possible to know if
the strength improvement in dissimilar joints is produced by thinner intemetallic layers,
by inhibiting brittle Fe-AI intermetallic compounds or by changes in the width and
hardness of the softened zone. It will be shown in this chapter that the improved tensile
strengths of dissimilar friction welds depend, not only on the prevention of intermetallic
cornpound formation at the bondline, but mainly on the softened zone formed in
completed joints. The influence of the softened zone is evaluated using finite element
modelling, and the calculated and actual joint strengths are compared for both
MMC/AISI 304 stainless steei and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds.
la 1
O
1
50
r I
100
I
150
1
200
I
2SO
FRlCliON PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 7.1. Influence of friction pressure on the notch tensile

strength of MMClAlSl 304 and MMClAglAlSl 304 stainless steel
friction joints. Friction time, 4s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging
time, 1s.
7.2. RESULTS
7.2.1. Joint mechanical properties

Figure 7.1 shows the relation between friction pressure and the notch tensile
strength properties of dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304
stainless steel joints. During these tests al1 other friction welding parameters (friction
tirne, rotational speed, forging pressure, and forging time) were held constant. Higher
notch tensile strengths were produced in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds. Also,
the effective plastic strain (see equation 7.1)measured on the fractured section of the
tensile test specimen corresponding with the MMC substrate was higher in dissimilar
joints produced using silver interlayers.

200 - 2bo - 3100 - i50 - 400
NOTCH TENSILE STRENGTH, MPa
Figure 7.2. Relationship between the effective plastic strain and

notch tensile strength of MMClAlSl 304 and MMCIAglAISI 304
stainless steel friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure,
240 MPa; forging time, 1 S.
where E, = the effective plastic strain, which is constant across the notch,
do = the original diameter,
d = the final diameter of the specimen at the neck.
The effective plastic strain increased from 0.25 to 5.0% in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel friction welds, see figure 7.2. These joints have the highest tensile
strength. In dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds, the effective plastic
158
strain values ranged from 0.25 to about 0.1% when the friction pressure was increased
from 30 to 240 MPa, see figure 7.2.
The failure modes observed in MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds
were quite different from those failures in joints made without silver interlayer. In
MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using a low friction pressure (30
MPa) failure occurred via a combination of brittle, interfacial, and ductile fracture, Le.
brittle failure through regions containing Ag3AI, interfacial failure at the silver/aluminium
interface, and ductile fracture through the MMC base material, see figure 7.3 (A-8).
However, when the friction pressure was raised to 240 MPa the failure mode was
wholly ductile through the MMC base material, see figure 7.3 (GD).
In dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using a friction
pressure of 30 MPa, failure resulted from a combination of ductile and brittle failure,
see figure 7.4 (A-B). When the friction pressure increased from 30 MPa to 240 MPa
brittle failure became the dominant mode of fracture (see figure 7.4(C-D)) and the area
fraction of ductile failure decreased rnarkedly, see figure 7.5.
The effect of friction t h e on the mechanical properties of dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 was also investigated. Figure 7.6 shows the fracture surface of a joint produced
using a friction time of 2 s and a friction pressure of 240 MPa. Joint failure occurred via
a combination of brittle, interfacial and ductile fracture, Le. brittle failure through regions
containing Ag3AI and ductile fracture through the MMC base material. The resulting
fracture surface was similar to the fracture of MMCIAglAISI 304 produced with a friction
pressure of 30 MPa and 4 S.

Figure 7.3. Fracture surace morphology in MMClAglAlSl 304 stainless
steel friction joints: A), 6) friction pressure, 30 MPa; C, D) friction
pressure, 240 MPa. Friction time, 4 s;forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging
time, i s; rotational speed,1500 rprn.
Figure 7.4. Fracture surface morphology in MMCIAlSl 304 stainless steel
friction joints: A), B) friction pressure, 30 MPa; C, D) friction pressure,
240 MPa. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 o;
rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
O ', I 1 I 1 1
O 50 100 150 200 250
FRlCTiON PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 7.5. Influence of friction pressure on the percentage fraction

of ductile failure. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa;
forging tirne, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
When friction pressure increases from 30 to 240 MPa, the width of the softened
zone decreased in both the MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds (from 10.02
mm to 3.48 mm) and the MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds (from 17.25 mm
to 4.8 mm), see figure 7.7. The relation between notch tensile strength and the
softened zone width is shown in figure 7.8.
The mechanical properties of the softened zone were monitored using
microhardness testing. In particular, the mechanical properties of MMC base material
immediately adjacent to tne bondline have a critical influence on the tensile strength of
dissimilar joints. In the present thesis the hardness values at the location 0.125 mm
from the bondline were taken as representative of the mechanical properties of material
close to the bondline. Figure 7.9 shows the relation behnreen friction pressure and
Figure 7.6. Fracture surface rnorphology in a MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless
steel friction joint Friction pressure, 240 MPa; friction tirne, 2 s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
microhardness values at 0.125 mm from the bondline. Higher hardness values were
produced in MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
welds made using high friction pressures, see figure 7.10. Also, the lowest hardness
values were observed in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds.
7.3. CALCULATING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF DISSIMILAR FRICTION JOINTS
7.3.1. Introduction
Alrnond et al. used finite etement analysis when they examined the tensile
strength properties of brazed steellCu1steel joints. The stress and strain distribution in
the copper interlayer were calculated using FEM analysis and satisfactorily predicted
FRlCTlON PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 7.7. influence of friction pressure on the softened zone width

in MMCIAISI 304 and MMCIAgiAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints.
Friction tirne, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s;
the stresdstrain relations in welds containing different interlayer thicknesddiameter
ratios (t/D) (Almond et al. 1983).
Henshall et al. also applied finite element analysis when examining the properties
of brazed dissimilar AlSI 304/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel joints. These investigators
suggested that finite element method could be used to calculate the final strength of
dissimilar brazed joints provided that a satisfactory failure criterion was applied
(Henshall et a/. 1990). However, these investigators did not suggest a specific failure
criterion.
Since the finite elernent method has been applied to examine the mechanical
behaviour of dissimilar brazed joints. FEM is applied in the present thesis when
Figure 7.8. Relation between softened zone width and the notch tensile
strength of dissimilar MMClAISI 304 and MMCIAglAlSl 304 stainless steel
friction joints. Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne,
1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
analysing the influence of softened zones on the mechanical properties of dissirnilar
MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints.
7.3.2. The notched tensile specimen

A "U" notched tensile test specirnen design was employed during the present
research, see figure 3.4. When this tensile specimen test design is applied, the notch
acts as stress concentrator that produces located plastic deformation in material close
to the notch root. During the tensile test, an element located at the notch root is acted
on by a triaxial state of stress consisting of a radial stress (a,),a tangential stress (a)
Figure 7.9. Influence of friction pressure on the hardness of the
adjoining MMC substrate in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
and MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. Measured at the
location 0.125 mm from the bondfine. Friction time, 4 s; forging
pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s; rotational speed, 1500 rpm.
see figure 7.1 1. The triaxial state of stress must be considered

and an axial stress (a,),
during failure of the notch tensile specimen; for this reason a triaxiality factor is
introduced, see equation 7.2:
where o, is the average stress given by the relation,

Figure 7.10. Relationship between the hardness of the adjoining
MMC substrate and the notch tensile strength in dissimilar
MMCiAlSl 304 stainless steel and MMCIAgIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction joints. Measured at the location 0.125 mm from the bondline.
Friction time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging time, 1 s;
where a,,a2, and are principal stresses. The equivalent stress (m) is calculated by
the relation:
The triaxiality factor is related to the failure strain. Metals yield when the
equivalent stress reaches a critical value, the yield strength (5).

However, when voids
Figure 7.11. The necked region of a homogeneous notched tensile
specimen showing the directions of the normal (cQ), radial (a,),and
tangential stress (ae)-
nucleate and grow, or when cleavage cracks nucleate and propagate, the volume of
the test sample increases and the failure process depends on both OË and o, (Teirlinck
et ai. 1988). This situation explains why the triaxiality factor must be taken into account
when the failure process is investigated.
The effective plastic strain to failure initiation (E,) depends on the triaxiality factor.
For example, E, was 0.35 in notched HY 80 steel samples, which had a triaxiality factor
of 0.75 (Hancock and McKenzie 1976). However, E, was 0.62 when the triaxiality
factor was 0.6. In unnotched HY80 steel test specirnens, E,- was 1.1. In effect, when
the triaxiality factor decreased the plastic strain to failure initiation (&,) increased.
In unnotched testing specirnens the triaxiality factor attains a value of 113 at the
periphery and a maximum value at the centre of the notch (Hancock and McKenzie
168
1976). The maximum value of the triaxiality factor is determined by the relation:
where a = d/2 is the radius of the minimum cross-section of the notched specimen,
R = the profile radius of the notched specimen as shown in figure 3.4.
The triaxiality factor is required to calculate the failure stress during testing of
notched and unnotched tensile specirnens. Although, equation 7.5 is applied to
calculate the maximum triaxiality factor in homogeneous specirnens, this relation
cannot be applied to dissimilar friction joints since the mechanical properties of the
MMC and AISI 304 stainless steel substrates friction joints are markedly different.
Also, the softened zone in MMC base material adjacent to the bondline makes the
situation even more complex. For these reasons the mechanical situation during failure
of notched tensile specimens extracted from dissimilar friction welds was investigated
using finite element modelling.
7.3.3. Finite element mode1 of the notched tensile specimen

Commercial software (ANSYS 5.5m, university version) was used when
modelling the mechanical situation in notch tensile specimens extracted from dissimilar
welds. All calculations were performed using triangular Snode elements. The geometry
and meshing of the finite element rnodel are shown in figures 7.12 and 7.13. Because
of the axy-syrnrnetrical shape of the tensile test specirnen, a two dimensional analysis
of one half of the specimen was possible. The left edge of the rnodei (r = 0)
corresponds with the centre axis of the notch tensile specimen. The mesh contained
2257 elernents and 4694 nodes.

Zone
Units: mm
Figure 7.12. Half of the notch tensile specimen.
At r = 0, the nodes are allowed to move only in the axial direction and at z = -15
mm, the bottom edge is fixed (the axial displacement, Uz = O). Simulated tensile loads
were applied on the upper edge of the mode1 (at z = +15 mm), with the applied stress
continuously increasing with time from O to 400 MPa.
Elastic behaviour was represented using linear isotropic elasticity theory, while the
time-independent plastic deformation was represented using isotropic Von Mises
plasticity theory. Both substrates (MMC and AlSI 304 stainless steel) were assumed to
behave as bilinear kinematic hardening materials.
The yield strength (5) of the softened zone in the

and tensile strength (a~) MMC
substrate were calculated using equations 7.6 and 7.7; these mathematical
expressions are rnodified versions of the regression equations developed by Myhr and
Grong (Myhr and Grong 1994a). These equations relate microhardness to yield and
BON
wc/ns/nrsI
Figure 7.13. Finite eiement idealisation of the notch tensile specimen.
tensile strength values and agree with measured tensile strength properties of the
MMC material, see table 3.3 and figure 3.6. Throughout this thesis, the unnotched
failure stress au^) of the MMC material was assumed to be equal to the tensile
strength of the metal matrix composite material calculated using equation 7.7:
The hardness values across the softened zone were transformed into yield
strength values using equation 7.6. For example, a location having a microhardness of
88 HVN has a yield strength of 205.5 MPa and a tensile strength of 262.9 MPa. Since it
is assumed that the MMC and the stainless steel behave as bilinear kinematic
171
materials, the value of the tangential modulus in the softened zone (ET) equals the
tangential modulus of the MMC base material prior to the friction welding operation.
This assumption is based on the knowiedge that the softened zones in aluminium
alloys are produced as result of an over-ageing process (Shercliff and Ashby 1990a, b
and Grong 1994). Also, Hval et al. examined the properties of simulated softened
regions with different yield strength in aluminium alloy 6083 and confinned there was
no change in the tangential modulus value (Hval et al. 1998). The tangential rnodulus
(ET)was calculated using equation 7.8 and figures 3.6-3.7.The tangential moduli were
375 MPa for the MMC substrate and 2260 MPa for the stainless steel (for a true strain
of 0.1).
where 8, = equivalent plastic stress,
q,= yield strength,
E = Young's modulus,
El= tangential modulus,
Ê= equivalent plastic strain.
7.3.4. Stress and strain distribution in notched tensile specimens

The finite element method is used to investigate the influence of softened zones
during mechanical testing of dissimilar rnaterial notch tensile specimens. In this work
effort, the influence of softened zone width on the equivalent stress (Von Mises stress),
the total equivalent strain, and the triaxiality factor are investigated. The distribution of
key quantities such as the equivalent stress are calculated along lines parallel to the
- --
-i-MMUASl304- P l= 30 MPa
4- MMUASI 304. P l=24O MPa
\
Figure 7.14. Equivalent stress distribution along the line Iocated at 1

mm from the bondline for two MMCIAlSl 304 welds stainless steel
friction joints. For an applied stress = 160 MPa.
bondline and are expressed as function of the r/a ratio, where r is the radial distance
measured from the centreline of the tensile test specimen to the point under
consideration, and o is the specimen radius in the notch region, see figure 3.4.
The equivalent stress distribution in dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 welds produced
using friction pressures of 30 and 240 MPa is examined along the horizontal line
located at 1 mm from the bondline. An applied stress of 160 MPa is considered during
FEM modelling. Frorn O to 0.8 da, the equivalent stress is lower in a weld produced
using a friction pressure of 240 MPa (softened zone width = 4.8 mm) than in the weld
produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa (softened zone width = 17.25 mm), see
figure 7.14. In a dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction weld produced using a
Figure 7.15. Total equivalent strain distribution along the line
located at t mm from the bondline for two MMCIAISI 304 stainless
steel friction joints. For an applied stress = 160 MPa.
friction pressure of 30 MPa, the equivalent stress is 191.32 MPa (at 0.85 da); this
calculated value exceeds the yield strength at this particular location (180.6 MPa,
calculated using equation 7.6).As result. the softened zone is plastically deforrned at
this location, see figure 7.15. In dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel welds
produced using a friction pressure of 240 MPa, applied stresses exceeding 160 MPa
are required to attain the material yield strength at this particular location.
The triaxiality factor reaches a maximum value at the joint centreline in dissirnilar
MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using a friction pressure of 240 MPa. 1n
contrast, the peak value of the triaxiality factor is reached at the 0.81 r/a location in a
weld produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa, see figure 7.16. As result, the
failure mode in joints produced using low and high friction pressures will be quite
1 I I I ' 1 . 1
O~O ' 0.2 0.4 O.6 O-8 1.0 1.;
Figure 7.16. Triaxiality factor distribution along a line located at 1

mm from the bondline for two MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
joints. For an applied stress = 160 MPa.
different, with joints made using low friction pressures exhibiting ductile failure between
the centreiine and the periphery of tensile test specimen. This feature is illustrated in
figures 7.4 (A) and 7.4 (C).
In a dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel friction weld produced using a friction
pressure of 240 MPa, finite element modelling indicates that the equivaient stress
acting on the line located at 0.5 mm from the bondline shows a peak value close to the
specimen periphery. However, when the equivalent stress is calculated at 1.O and 1.5
mm from the bondline, the peak stress moves towards the centreline of the tensile test
specimen and away from the bondline, and the equivalent stress bemmes uniform, see
figure 7.17. The calculated total equivalent strain follows the same tendency, see figure
7.18. The triaxiality factor has higher values in regions close to the bondline,
Figure 7.17. Equivalent stress distribution along Iines parallel fo the
bondline in a dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joint. Pl=
240 MPa. Softened zone width = 4.80 mm. For an applied stress = 200
MPa.
decreasing its magnitude in regions away frorn the bondline, see figure 7.19. Simiiar
changes in location have been previously observed in dissimilar maraging
steel/Ag/maraging steel joints (Kassner et al. 1992); the peak stresses moved from the
location at 0.8 r/a to the specimen centreline.
7.3.5. Calculating the notch tensile strength of dissimi'lar friction welds

Although FEM modelling allows determination of stress and strain distribution in
notch tensile specirnens, it does not indicate at which applied stress the specimen wili
fail. To calculate the notch tensile strength it is necessary to introduce a failure
criterion. This failure criterion must consider both the material properties and the test
specimen geometry.
Figure 7.18. Total equivalent strain distribution along lines parallel
to the bondline in a dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
joint. P l = 240 MPa and softened zone width = 4.80 mm. For an
applied stress = 200 MPa.
The model proposed by Teirlinck et al. is applied to calculate the strength of
notched tensile specimens (Teirlinck et al. 1988). In this procedure, it is assumed that
failure occurs as result of void formation and void coalescence in the MMC substrate.
One important feature of Teirlinck's rnodel is that is stress-based. Teirlinck et al.
proposed this model to predict the stress at which ductile fracture occurred in
unnotched and notched tensile test samples (Teirlinck et al. 1988). Applying this model
to dissirnilar friction welding involves the following steps:
1. Calculating the volume change parameter D.
2. Calculating the faiiure stress.

Figure 7.19. Triaxiality factor distribution along lines parallel to the
bondline in a dissimilar MMCIAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joint.
P l = 240 MPa and softened zone width = 4.80 mm. For an applied
pressure = 200 MPa.
In unnotched and notched samples the volume change parameter
deterrnined by the relation:
3 a",
D = 0.56sinh - --
2 O-"
In equation 7.9 the triaxiality factor (O,&) can be obtained either analytically
(using equation 7.5) or numerically. Since MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel and
MMCIAlSl 304 stainless steel welded welds involve dissimilar materials and softened
zones the use of an analytical solution (see equation 7.5) greatly oversimplifies the
problem. The limitations of the analytical approach were overcorne by using finite
178
element analysis to calculate the tnaxiality factor. The failure stress was calculated
using equation 7.10:
where ONF = failure stress in notched tensile specimens, MPa,
cm = failure stress in unnotched tensile specimens, MPa,
m = strain hardening index.
For clarity, the procedure used to calculate the notch tensile strength of dissimilar
MMCfAgIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using a friction pressure of
240 MPa will be explained in detail. In this particular joint, the softened zone (3.48 mm)
was divided into eight rectangular areas, which extended from the centre to the
periphery of the tensile specimen, see figure 7.12. These rectangular areas had a
height of 0.5 mm. The hardness values and the calculated yield strengths of the
softened zone are indicated in the following table:
1 Area 1 1 2 3 I
4 5
- 6- 7 1 8
-
HVN 94.0 91.8 86.2 88.9 100.0 107.5 112.4 117.5
GY 223.5 217.1 200.0 208.4 241.4 263.9 278.6 294.0
These yield strength values are used as material properties in the finite element
program. The finite elernent model is subjected to a tensile load applied on the upper
edge of the model. The applied load increases from O to 400 MPa in steps of 4 MPa.
The effective stress and the tnaxiality factor are calculated along a line parallel to the
bondline located at 0.125 mm from the bondline. This location is selected since ductile
179
failure occurred close to the bondline in MMC base material in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel and MMC/AISI stainless steel friction welds produced using a low
friction pressure (30 MPa). This fracture behaviour suggested that the MMC properties
of the region close to the bondline had a major influence on the joint strength
properties.
Figures 7.20-7.25 show the equivalent stress, hydrostatic stress, and triaxiality
factor distributions corresponding to the calculated failure condition during mechanical
testing of MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel and MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel weld
specimens made using friction pressures of 30, 120, and 240 MPa.
In dissimilar MMClAgIAISl 304 stainless steel weld produced with a friction
pressure of 240 MPa, the failure conditions are attained when a load of 260 MPa is
applied in the upper edge of the finite element model. From figure 7.25, at r/a =0.7,the
triaxiality factor is 0.91, substituting this value into equation 7.9, the volume change
parameter, D = 1.043. Using equation 7.7 and a hardness value of 94 HVN, the
unnotched failure stress (wF)is 279.7 MPa. Substitution of the above values in
equation 7.1 0 (D = 1.043, vup 279.7 MPa, and rn = 0.075) produces a notched failure
stress of ahF= 270.01 MPa. This failure stress is reached in the area close to the
bondline (94 HVN) when the applied load is 260 MPa producing a notch tensile
strength of 374.4 MPa (1.44X the applied load of 260 MPa). The calculated strength
values are close to the measured values in both dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless
steel and MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds, see figures 7.26-7.27.
7.4. DISCUSSION
7.4.1. lntemetallic compound formation and joint fensile strength

It has been suggested that the mechanical properties of dissimilar friction welds
180
markedly decrease when the width of the intermetallic Iayer exceeds a critical value
(Elliot and Wallach 1981b, Fuji et al. 1992, Fuji et al. 1995a, b). Also, it has been
suggested that the critical intermetallic layer thickness depends on the mechanical
properties of the neighbouring substrates (Fuji et al. 1995b). Critical intemetallic layer
widths ranging from 0.2 to 1.O pm have been suggested. However, much higher critical
thickness values have been found when examining dissimilar diffusion bonded joints.
For example, in AüTi joints produced without an interlayer, the notch tensile strength
reached a peak value for an intemetallic layer width of 200 prn and then decreased
substantially (Suzuki et al. 1994). This result suggests that the critical intermetallic
width is 200 pm in TifAl diffusion welds. In contrast, the joint strength of aluminium
alloy/steel diffusion welds produced using a silver interlayer decreased frorn 238 to 80
MPa, when the intermetallic layer increased from 0.5 to 16 pm (Calderon et al. 1985).
(A,
Figure 7.20. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along

a line located at 0.125 mm from the bondline. Applied
stress = 204 MPa. Notch tensile strength = 293.8 MPa.
Figure 7.21. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a
line located at 0.125 mm from the bondline. Applied stress =
232 MPa. Notch tensile strength = 334.08 MPa.
Figure 7. 22. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a
az
vZ
E
Il)
Figure 7.23. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions aiong a

Iine Iocated at 0.925 mm frorn the bondiine. Applied stress =
Figure 7.24. Stress and triaxiality factor distributions along a
fine located at 0.125 mm from the bondline. Applied stress =
226 MPa. Calculated notch tensile strength = 325.44 MPa.
i n .
Figure 7.25. Stress and triaxiaiity factor distributions aiong a

260 MPa. Calculated notch tensile strength = 374.4 MPa.
Figure 7.26. Calculated and measured notch tensile strength values
in dissimilar MMClAglAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction
time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging timke, 1 s; rotational
speed, 1500 rpm.
l l I ' l ' i = l
1 150 180 210 24 270
FiüCilON PRESSURE, MPa
Figure 7.27. Calculated and measured notch tensile strength values

in dissimilar MMClAlSl 304 stainless steel friction joints. Friction
time, 4 s; forging pressure, 240 MPa; forging tirne, 1 s; rotational
speed, 1500 rpm.
189
In dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel welds, the width of the IM and PD
regions decreased from >20 pm to 1 pm and from >190 pm to zero when the friction
pressure increased frorn 30 to 240 MPa, see figures 5.13-5.14. Since ASSAI is
contained in both the IM and PD regions (see Chapter 5) it would be expected that the
mechanical properties would be improved in welds produced using high friction
pressures. Figures 7.3 (A-B) and 7.6 (8)confinn that failure occurs in friction welds
containing thick IM and PD regions. Also, since the widths of the IM and PD regions
decrease when frktion time increases, it would be expected that joints produced using
low friction times would have low tensile strengths. In dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304
stainless steel friction joints produced using a friction time of 2 s and friction pressures
of 120 and 240 MPa had notch tensile strengths of 232 and 292 MPa, respectively.
When the friction time increased to 4 s, the notch tensile strengths were 309.6 and
403.8 MPa when using similar friction pressures. Therefore, the general
recornmendation indicating that improved dissirnilar joint mechanical properties are
produced when the friction time is substantially decreased is not applicable to
MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds.
FeAl (see figure 5.24) and Fe&13 (see figure 5.26) formation were confirmed at
the bondline of dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds. The width of the
intemetallic layer markedly decreased when high friction pressures values were
applied during dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel (see figure 5.28). At first glance,
one rnight conclude that the improved dissimilar joint strength was associated with the
formation of thin intemetallic iayers at the bondline. Similar arguments have been put
foward (Calderon et al. 1985 and Suzuki et al. 1994) to explain the poor tensile
strengths of aluminium alloy 6061/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel and A l m diffusion welds,
respectively. This proposal also conforms with the critical intemetallic layer width
190
proposal put forward by a number of investigators (Jessop et al. 1978 and EIliot and
Wallach l98la, b). However, friction welding not only produces intermetallic layers but
also creates softened zone regions in MMClAISI 304 stainless steel and MMCfAgIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds. As pointed out earlier, the softened zone width
decreases when the friction pressure increases. Therefore, the influence of softened
zone formation on joint tensile strength properties cannot be ignored.
7.4.2. Softened zone and joint tensile strength

The width of the soffened zone region formed irnrnediately adjacent to the
bondline decreases when the friction pressure increases, see figure 7.7. This decrease
occurs in both MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel
friction welds. A sirnilar relation is found when examining aluminium alloy 606116061
and MMCIMMC friction joints and suggests that the strength improvernent in 606116061
welds produced using high friction pressure resulted frorn the formation of narrow
softened zones adjacent to the bondline. For example, joints produced using a friction
pressure of 300 MPa had a notch tensile strength similar to that of the as-received
base material (Uenishi et al. 1998).
It is therefore proposed that if an interlayer X was introduced during
MMClstainless steel joining that could absolutely guarantee freedorn from intermetallic
layer formation at the bondline, the mechanical properties of MMCNAISI 304 stainless
steel friction joints would still be improved when welds were made using high friction
pressure since narrower softened zones would be formed. The influence of narrower
sofiened zones in promoting higher tensile strength properties in MMClAglAlSi 304
stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel welds (see figure 7.8) is important.
Therefore, the mechanical properties of dissimilar welds will depend on the interplay of
softened zone hardness (yield strength) (see figure 7.9) and intermetallic layer
191
formation at the bondline.
When the friction pressure is increased from 180 to 240 MPa the difference in
hardness values in the softened zone region close to the bondline is 4 HVN. This value
corresponds to a calculated yield strength difference of 12 MPa (using equation 7.6)
while the measured joint strength increment is 11-1 MPa. Consequently, the difference
in joint strengths of these welds can be ascribed to an increment in Aardness in the
softened zone not to the reduction in softened zone width. The hardness difference
between dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using friction
pressures of 120 and 180 MPa is 3 HVN, which results in a calculated yield strength
increment of 12 MPa (using equation 7.6).However, the measured strength difference
in actual joints was approximately 60 MPa. The wide difference between actual and
calculated joint strength values may be associated with a decrease in softened zone
width from 5.43 to 3.81 mm in these welds.
Dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel produced with high friction pressures
had wide softened zones. For example, a dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel weld
produced using a friction pressure of 30 MPa has a softened zone width of 17.4 mm,
this value is greater than the gauge length of the notched tensile specimen (15.9 mm),
see figure 3.4. As result, the effect of the softened zone width on the mechanical
behaviour of MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced with low friction
pressure was not observed. In these welds, the actual joint strength depends on the
mechanical properties of the M M C region close to the bondline.
In dissimilar MMCfAISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using high friction
pressures (120-240 MPa), higher joint strength results from the combined effects of
decreasing width and increasing hardness in the softened zone. In dissimilar MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds produced using high friction pressures, the difference
192
between the calculated and measured joint strength was approximately 10 MPa, see
figure 7.27, which shows relatively good agreement.
7.4.3. Failure mode in dissimilar frictionjoints

There were striking differences in the failure modes observed in MMCIAglAISI
304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction weids produced using
high friction pressures. Ductile failure was the dominant mode of fracture in
MMCfAgfAISI 304 stainless steel joints produced using friction pressures ranging from
120 to 240 MPa, see figure 7.5.In contrast, the area fraction of ductile failure markedly
decreased in MMCIAlSl 304 stainless steel joints produced using high friction
pressures and the dominant failure mode became brittle, see figure 7.4 (C-D).
Ductile failure is associated with extensive plastic deformation, while brittle failure
involves little or no plastic deformation. As pointed out earlier, narrow softened zones
inhibit plastic deformation during tensile testing, see figure 7.15. Therefore, the different
failure modes can be associated with changes in softened zone. Based on this
argument, it would be expected that friction welded joints containing wide softened
zones would exhibit failure modes involving extensive ductile failure. Also, dissimilar
welds containing narrow softened zones would be prone to failure involving little plastic
deformation. However, these effects were not observed in dissimilar MMC/AglAISI 304
stainless steel friction welds. For example, joints containing wide softened zones
exhibited brittle failure through the silver interlayer and the Ag3AI interrnetallic phase
contained in the IM region, see figure 7.3 (A-B). Moreover, friction joints having narrow
softened zones exhibited extensive ductiie failure. Also, higher effective plastic strains
were measured in welds that contained narrow softened zones and these welds also
had high notch tensile strengths, see figure 7.2.
The failure modes observed in dissimilar wefds can be explained by taking into
193
consideration the influence of the intermetallic layer formation at the bondline regions.
The mechanical properties of the intermetallic phases are determined especially by
their aluminium content. Iron-aluminium intemetallics have elongation values in the
range of 2-3% and yield strengths from 300 to 400 MPa. When the aluminium content
is higher than 50 wt% Al, iron aluminides are considered as unsatisfactory for structural
applications. For exarnple, the Fe4AIl3 intermetallic phase has an aluminium content of
61 wt% and as resuit the elongation should be less than 2% (Vedula 1994).
Assuming that a brittle Fe,AI, compound formed at the bondline during dissimilar
friction welding has a yield strength of 300 MPa and elongation of 2-3%, joint failure
may occur when the strain during tensile testing is in the range from 0.02 to 0.03. The
plastic strain produced at the bondline will depend on the width of the softened zone
and on the local hardness (yield strength) of MMC base material in the softened zone.
Figure 7.15 indicates that for the same applied tensile stress, dissimilar welds
containing wide softened zones will have larger total equivalent strains. Since this
behaviour occurs, dissimilar welds containing intermetallic layers will be prone to failure
at this location. In effect, a combination of wide softened zones and intermetallic layer
formation will facilitate preferential bondline failure. This result is the situation that
occurs in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds made using a low friction pressure
(30 MPa). Also, these dissirnilar welds will fail at low applied toads and the joints will
have low notch tensile strength values, see figure 7.1. Narrow softened zones are
formed in dissirnilar welds produced using high friction pressures (240 MPa) and
therefore higher apptied loads are required during tensile testing to cause joint failure.
The intemetallic layer located at the bondline region still plays an important role since
failure is also promoted at this location. In effect, the mode of the joint failure during
tensile testing wili be markedly affected by intermetallic layer formation at the dissimilar
194
joint interface.
Extensive ductile failure was observed in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless
steel and MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using high friction
pressures, see figures 7.3 (C)-(D) and 7.4 (C)-(D). This behaviour is a quite different
situation frorn that observed in tests samples taken from joints produced using low
friction pressures, see figures 7.3 (A)-(B) and 7.4 (A)-@). In welds produced using high
friction pressure, ductile failure occurred through the MMC of the softened zone close
to the tensile specimen centreline in a cup-cone morphology. In dissimilar welds
produced with low friction pressure ductile failure was observed close to the bondline
and to the specimen periphery. Although no prior research has been published
concerning the failure behaviour of dissimilar friction welds, it has been confimed that
ductile failure may initiate close to the sample periphery or at the centreline during
notched tensile testing of ductile materials. This behaviour depends on the geometry
and dimensions of the notch and material properties (Hancock and McKenzie 1976,
Sun et al. 1989).
7.4.4. FEM analysis of notched tensile test specimens

In dissimilar MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds, the calculated equivalent
stress values using FEM analysis indicated the presence of peaks along lines parallel
to the joint interface, see figure 7.17. Similar behaviour was previously observed during
FEM analysis of dissimilar maraging steeVAglmaraging steel brazed joints (Henshall et
al. 1990). In these joints the peak location and its magnitude depended on the ratio of
the silver interlayer thickness (t) and the diameter of the tensile specimen (D). (t/D)
ratios equal to or lower than 1110 resulted in a uniform distribution of equivalent stress
values. A peak equivalent stress was found at 0.7 r/a from the samplo centreline
(where a is the radius of the tensile test specimen). Henshall et al. suggested that these
195
stress peaks were the result of inhomogeneous strain. In dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304
stainless steel friction welds, the peak formation may result from stress and strain
concentrations promoted by the notch and the difference in mechanical properties
between the substrate materials.
7.4.5. The notch tensile strength of the dissirnilar friction joints

In the present thesis, calculated and experimentally measured notch tensile
strengths are shown in figures 7.26 and 7.27. Using a ductile failure criterion, the
calculated joint strength along the line located at 0.125 mm from the bondline is close
to the actual value.
The presence of ductile failure on the fractured surfaces of tensile test specimens
from MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds confirms that the mechanical
properties of the MMC material irnmediately adjacent to the bondline play an important
role on the joint strength.
In dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds the actual notch
tensile strength values were slightly lower than the calculated results, see figure 7.26.
In dissimilar MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel friction joints produced with high friction
pressures (120-240 MPa) the fracture surface morphology was ductile in nature, see
figure 7.5. The absence of a thick intermetallic layer at the bondline in MMC/Ag/AISI
304 stainless steel welds promote failure in locations between the dissimilar joint
interface and the region having the lowest hardness in the softened zone (see figure
7.3 C-D). The present result suggests once again that the joint strength depends on the
softened zone adjacent to the dissimilar bondfine.
The calculated notch tensile strengths at the location 0.125 mm from the
bondline in MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds correspond well with the actual
values during mechanical testing of dissimilar welds produced using low friction
196
pressures (30-60 MPa), see figure 7.27. The presence of ductile failure confirms the
validity of the procedure applied to calculate the joint strength, which is consistent with
the ductile fracture observed close to the bondline and through the MMC material, see
figure 7.4.
The results in both dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 and MMCIAISI 304 siainless
steel friction welds suggest that the joint strength of dissimilar joints produced using low
friction pressures (30-120 MPa) depends on the mechanical properties of the material
close to the bondline. In dissimilar joints produced with high friction pressure, the joint
strength depends on the width of the softened zone and the properties of the region
close to the bondline.
7.4.6. Summation
When silver interlayers are introduced this arrangement decreases the amount of
heat generation during welding, results in narrower softened zone regions and
improves notch tensile strength properties. In al1 research to-date, it has been assumed
perse that joint mechanical properties wholly depend on the mechanical properties and
width of the intemetallic layer formed at the dissimilar joint interface. However, it is
shown in the present thesis that the mechanical properties of MMCfAISI 304 stainless
steel joints are determined by the combined effects of intermetallic formation at the
bondline and softened zone formation in MMC base material immediately adjacent to
the joint interface.
Finally, for the first time, this thesis provides a methodology for calculating the
notch tensile strength properties of dissimilar friction welds. The approach is based on
a combination of FEM with a ductile failure criterion and shows an excellent
correspondence between actual and calculated joint strength results.

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS
The research work in this thesis examined the influence of a silver interlayer on
the microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar friction welds between
aluminium-based MMC and AlSl 304 stainless steel base materials. The principal
conclusions are as follows:
1. The effects produced when a silver interlayer was introduced were examined by
considering its influence on the particle fracture tendency during dissimilar friction
welding of aluminium-based MMC composite and AlSI 304 stainless steel base
materials. Introduction of a silver interlayer decreased the particle fracture tendency
(the percentage of fractured particle and the average particle radius) in material
close to the bondline. The influence of silver was associated with a decrease in the
coefficient of friction between the contacting substrates.
2. The calculated normal pressure required to fracture of AI2O3particles at the contact
region was less than 1 MPa. This calculated result is sirnilar to an experirnentally
measured value of 1.06 MPa found during sliding Wear testing aluminium-based
composite rnaterial. Because the lowest normal pressure applied during friction
welding was 30 MPa, this condition means that particle fracture occurs very early in
the friction welding operation (imrnediately following contact between the adjoining
substrates).
198
3. The introduction of a silver interlayer during MMCIAISI 304 stainless steel friction
welding promoted the formation of interrnixed (IM) and particle dispersed (PD)
regions containing AgdI. The IM region contained a mixture of silver, AgaIl and
entrained Alz03 particles, whereas the PO region contained a granular mixture of
silver, AgAI. and aluminium. The widths of the IM and PD regions decrease
markedly when the friction pressure increased during dissirnilar welding.
4. The intermetaliic Ag3AI fomed as result of mechanical mixing very early in the
dissirnilar friction welding operation. The amount of Ag3AI retained in cumpleted
MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds decreased when longer friction tirnes
were applied. This situation is quite different from that occurring when the
intermetallic layer is fonned at the bondline of dissirnilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless
steel welds. It is suggested that the beneficial influence of friction pressure and
friction time in minimising Ag3AI retention in MMCIAglAISI 304 stainless steel
friction joints depends on wearing away of rnaterial at the joint interface. In contrast,
in dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds, growth of the intemetallic layer
depends on interdiffusion between adjoining substrates.
5. In dissimilar MMCfAgIAISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using a low
friction pressure (30 MPa), the presence of silver nanoparlicles was detected. It is
suggested that nanocrystal formation and the formation of Ag3AI intemetallics of
the PD and IM regions are the result of mechanical mixing during the welding
operation. However, in joints produced with high friction pressure (240 MPa) and
long friction time (4 s), the presence of nanoparticles was not observed. The
absence of nanoparticles seems related to Wear of the silver interlayer.
6. In dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel the formation of FeAl and Fe4AIl3
interrnetalfics was observed. In these welds, the application of high friction

199
pressures (240 MPa) promoted the formation of thin intermetallic layers at the
dissimilar joint interface. In dissimilar MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds,
this effect cannot be wholly attributed to a decrease in the temperature at the
bondline since this temperature was only affected marginally by an increase in
friction pressure from 30 to 240 MPa.
7. Introduction of a silver interlayer decreased the coefficient of friction at the contact
region during dissimilar welding and decreased the heat generated during the
welding process. This effect explained the decreased particle fracture tendency and
the narrower softened zone regions in the MMC base rnaterial and the decreased
axial shortening (burn-off) compared to dissimilar welds produced without
interlayers.
8. The notch tensile strengths of both MMC/AglAISI 304 stainless steel and MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds increased when high friction pressures were
applied during the joining operation. However, the highest notch tensile strength
properties were obtained in MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. The
higher notch tensile strength properties of dissimilar MMCIAgIAISI and MMCIAISI
304 stainless steel friction welds depended on the formation of narrow softened
zone dimensions in MMC material immediately adjacent to the bondline. The
equivalent stress and total equivalent strain were decreased in dissimilar friction
welds containing narrow softened zones. As a result, higher applied loads were
required to produce joint failure during mechanical testing.
9. The influence of softened zone width and mechanical properties on the notch
tensile strength was analysed using finite element modelling. This numerical
method was applied in combination of a ductile faifure criterion to calculate the
notch tensile strength of dissimilar joints. This procedure was applied in the region
200
close to the bondline in the softened zone; the intermetallic layer was not
wnsidered. The rnodelling results suggest that the substrate properties and the
softened zone width play an important role with regard to the weld strength
properties. In MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using low friction
pressure (30-60 MPa), the calculated notch strength is similar to the actual strength
test results. In dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produœd
with friction pressures from 30-180MPa the calculated notch strength is also in the
range of the actual strength values. The calculated results suggest that properties of
the substrate close to the bondline determine the joint strength in dissimilar welds
with a wide softened zone. The width of the softened zone becomes increasingly
important in dissimilar welds produced with high friction pressure, the joint strength
depends on the interplay between the width and the properties of the softened
zone.
10.h notch tensile test specimens the fracture mode was detemined by the
intennetallic layer formed during dissimilar welding. In dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304
and MMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction welds produced using low friction
pressure, the fracture process involved failure at the bondline and ductile fracture
through the MMC base material immediately adjacent to the dissimilar joint
bondline. In MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel welds produced using a high friction
pressure (240 MPa) crack propagation occurred through MMC base material in the
softened zone material immediately adjacent to the bondline.

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THE EFFECT OF INTERLAYERS ON DlSSlMlLAR

FRICTION WELD PROPERTIES

A thesis subrnitted in conformity with the requirements

O Copyright by Cuauhtemoc Maldonado-Zepeda (2001)

Our bire None référence

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du

Doctor in Applied Science (2001)

Graduate Department of Metallurgy & Materials Science

The influence of silver interlayers on the metallurgical and mechanical properties

of dissimilar aluminium alloy/stainless steel friction welds are investigated.

stainless steel friction welds.

PD regions are progressively removed as the friction welding operation proceeds

MMWAISI 304 stainless steel welds.

Nanoparticles of silver are formed in dissimilar MMC/Ag/AISI 304 stainless steel

welds has never been previously observed or investigated.

The introduction of silver interlayers decreases heat generation during welding,

based on a combination of FEM with a ductile failure criterion. There is excellent

correspondence behveen actual and calculated joint strength results.

México a través dei Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT) y la

Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolas de Hidalgo (UMSNH).

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... v

CHAPTER 1.THESIS PROPOSAL ...........................................................................1

1.2. THE INTERLAYER APPROACH ......................................................................... 2

1.3. DETAILED THESIS OBJECTIVES..................................................................... 6

1.4. THE PROCEDURES............................................................................................ 7

1.5. THESIS ORGANIZATION ................................................................................... 7

CHAPTER 2. THE FRICTION WELDING PROCESS .......................................... . 9

2.1.2. Direct-drive fmion welding .......................................................................... 12

2.1 .2. i. Heating period ........................................................................................ 12

2.1.2.3. Direct-drive friction welding parameten ............................~....................17

2.2. INTERMETALLIC COMPOUNDS IN DISSlMlLAR JOtNlNG ............................. 18

2.2.1 . Fe-AI intermetallic compounds ..................................................................... 18

2.2.2. Ni-AI intemetallic compounds...................................................................... 20

2.2.3 .Ag-AI intermetallic compounds................................................................... 21

2.2.5. Influence of composition on the intermetallic layer-......................................23

2.2.6. lntermetallic compounds and mechanical properties ................................... 25

2.3. FRICTION AND WEAR ...................................................................................... 27

2.3.7.SoR coatings and the coetficient of fn'cfion ................................................... 27

2.4. THERMAL ASPECTS OF FRICTION WELDING ............................................... 31

2.4.7. Calculafion of heat input in friction welding .................................................. 31

2.4.2. Temperature distribution during friction welding.................................... 33

2.5. WELDING METALLURGY OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS ........................................ 34

2.5.7. AI-Mg-Si Alloys ............................................................................................. 34

2.5.2 . Effect of the thermal welding cycle on dissolution and reprecipitation.......... 34

2.5.3. The softened zone ................................... ..,,.. ............................................... 36

2.6. MECHANICS OF SLlDlNG CONTACT .............................................................. 38

2.6.1. Line loading of a semi-infinite half-space ..................................................... 39

2.6.2. Torsional loading .............., ......................................................................... 40

2.6.4. Contact of rigid-ideally-plastic materials.................... .

2.6.4.3. Wave removal model............................................................................. 48

3.2. FRICTION JOINING ........................................................................................... 54

3.3. METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION ................................................................ 55

3.4. MECHANICAL TESTING ................................................................................... 58

FRICTION JOINTS .......................... ....................................................... 61

4.2. RESULTS .......................... .

4.2.1. influence of friction welding on particle fracture ........................................ 62

4.2.2. Influence of friction pressure ........................................................................ 64

4.2.3. Influence of friction time .......................,.................................................... 64

4.2 .4. lnterlayers and parficle fracture.................................................................... 68

4.2.5. Influence of silver intelayer on particle accumulation ..................................69

4.3.1. Friction welding and reinforcement particle morphology .............................. 71

4.3.2. Effect of friction pressure.............................................................................. 72

4.3.3. Influence of fn'cion time ............................................................................... 72