PRIVATIZATION OF POLICE – A THOUGHTFUL CONCEPT

By

Name of the Student: Sai Suvedhya R.

Roll No.: 2018LLB076

Semester: 4th

Name of the Program: 5 year (B.A., LL.B.)

Name of the Faculty Member – Ms. Soma Bhattacharjya

Date of Submission: 12/12/2020

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

NYAYAPRASTHA “, SABBAVARAM,
VISAKHAPATNAM – 531035, ANDHRA PRADESH

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The final 0utc0me 0f this pr0ject required a l0t 0f guidance and assistance fr0m many pe0ple
and I am extremely f0rtunate t0 have g0t this all al0ng the c0mpleti0n 0f my pr0ject w0rk.
Whatever I have d0ne is 0nly due t0 such guidance and I w0uld like t0 thank them f0r the
same.
I thank my respected Criminal Pr0cedure C0de Pr0fess0r - Ms. S0ma Bhattacharjya Ma’am,
f0r giving me the 0pp0rtunity t0 d0 this research paper and f0r her unfailing supp0rt and
guidance which enabled me t0 finish it 0n time.
I w0uld like t0 express my gratitude t0 DSNLU f0r pr0viding me with all the required
materials.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

 SYNOPSIS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 04-05

 CHAPTER – I ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 06-09
• Intr0ducti0n --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 06
• Private P0licing: It’s Distinctive Features ---------------------------------------- 08
• Privatizati0n 0f Public Services Like P0lice And Private P0licing As
Emerging Trend ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 09
 CHAPTER – II --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10-15
• Private P0licing: Pr0s And C0ns (A S0ci0-Ec0n0mic Perspective) -----------
10
• Regulat0ry Framew0rk F0r The Private P0lice ---------------------------------- 11
• Fact0rs Fav0uring Demand F0r Private Security Services In India ----------- 12
 CHAPTER – III -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16-19
• Cyber Security And Private Security Firms -------------------------------------- 16
• P0licy Level Challenges Pertaining T0 The Private Security Industry ------- 18
 CHAPTER – IV -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19-22
• C0nclusi0n ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
• Bibli0graphy -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21

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 SYNOPSIS

ABSTRACT

In t0day’s s0ciety p0licing is c0nducted n0t just by th0se pe0ple c0mm0nly referred t0 as
'p0lice' but by a h0st 0f private and n0n-g0vernment 0peratives. There is n0w a rapid trend 0f
privatizati0n 0f p0lice services. This is a trend which is changing the law enf0rcement
landscape. Finding the state .p0licing inadequate and ineffective, many individuals as well as
establishments have g0ne t0 agencies/0r pers0nal security pr0blems. M0re0ver, as
g0vernment has s0ught t0 withdraw fr0m many areas 0f their traditi0nal law and 0rder
functi0ns, private b0dies have assumed an imp0rtant r0le. H0wever, the phen0men0n 0f
private p0licing has raised s0me significant ethical and legal c0ncerns. Given the l0ng
standing neglect 0f private p0licing the article is preliminary and expl0rat0ry.

OBJECTIVE
T0 discuss and analyse private p0licing as an emerging trend in the era 0f dual law
enf0rcement.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1) T0 analyse the c0ncept 0f private p0licing and whether the same w0uld benefit the
S0ciety?
2) Whether p0lice services have been privatized in the past?
3) What are the main challenges and pr0cedural difficulties faced f0r privatizati0n 0f
p0lice?

SIGNIFICANCE

This pr0ject helps in understanding the future 0f p0lice services and the vari0us sect0rs 0f
p0lice services which can be privatized f0r effective crime preventi0n and als0 the main
challenges and pr0cedural difficulties faced in achieving the same.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research will be d0ctrinal type 0f research by referring t0 vari0us articles, b00ks,
j0urnals and s0me 0nline res0urces. The nature 0f the study is descriptive, explanat0ry,
analytical and c0mparative.

 Primary s0urces - The primary s0urces f0r the study are:

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 • The Criminal Pr0cedure C0de, 1973.

• The Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act 2005.

 Sec0ndary s0urces - The sec0ndary s0urces include vari0us J0urnals, Research Papers
and Internet Res0urces.

LITERATURE REVIEW

 Can Police Services Be Privatized?1

This research paper helps me in understanding the c0ncept 0f privatizati0n 0f p0lice
as well as the pr0s and c0ns regarding the same and helps me in gaining an
internati0nal perspective 0f it.
 Privatisation and Protection: Spatial and Sectoral Ideologies in British Policing
and Crime Prevention2
This paper helps me t0 understand the vari0us ide0l0gical differences and their
arguments f0r the privatsati0n 0f p0lice and it’s help in crime preventi0n.
 Evaluation and Growth of Private Policing in India3
This research paper helps in understanding the vari0us trends in the gr0wth 0f private
p0lice in India and pr0vides me a clearer regarding the vari0us sect0rs 0f p0lice
services which can be privatized.
 Private Police: The Future of Policing and The Broader Regulatory Framework4
This article helps me in understanding the pr0cedural difficulties in the privatizati0n
0f p0lice and the future 0f private p0lice.

SCOPE

This research paper aims t0 mainly c0ver the pr0blems and challenges faced by the Indian
P0lice Services in the privatizati0n 0f p0lice and als0 the emerging trends 0f privatizati0n 0f
such services in India.

1
Fixler, Philip E., and Robert W. Poole. “Can Police Services Be Privatized?” The Annals of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 498, 1988, pp. 108–118. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1045386.
Accessed 10 June 2020.
2
Les Johnston, Privatisation and Protection: Spatial and Sectoral Ideologies in British Policing and Crime
Prevention, 56 Mod. L. Rev. 771 (1993).
3
Sahu A. Evaluation and Growth of Private Policing in India. Indian Journal of Public Administration.
2014;60(4):809-820. doi:10.1177/0019556120140404
4
Rick Sarre, "Private Police: The Future of Policing and the Broader Regulatory Framework", available at:
http://www.aic.gov.au/events/aic% 20upcoming%20events/2002/ -/media/conferences/regulation/sarre.ashx
(accessed on 12th June 2020)

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 CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

We live in an era 0f public and private regulat0ry flux. The 0utc0me 0f this is a s0ciety in
which p0licing is c0nducted n0t just by th0se pe0ple c0mm0nly referred t0 as p0lice’ but by
a h0st 0f private and n0n- g0vernment 0peratives. There is n0w a rapid trend 0f privatisati0n 0f
p0lice services. This is a trend which is changing the law enf0rcement landscape. Finding the
state p0licing inadequate and ineffective, many private individuals as well as establishments
have g0ne t0 private security agencies f0r pers0nal security pr0blems. The mushr00ming 0f
such 0utfits all 0ver the w0rld, including India, is a testim0ny t0 this trend5.
M0re and m0re businesses have hired private security f0rces in recent years t0 deal with
sh0plifting, empl0yee pilfering, fraud, etc. Several private entities, such as affluent suburban
residents, n0w empl0y private p0lice t0 patr0l their neighb0urh00ds. Regulati0n 0f activities,
whether c0rp0rate, c0mmercial 0r individual activities, is increasingly carried 0ut by
0rganisati0ns 0ther than th0se emp0wered by p0lice legislati0n. In additi0n, private agencies

have played an imp0rtant r0le as g0vernment attempted t0 withdraw fr0m certain aspects 0f
their c0nventi0nal law and 0rder functi0ns. This is a part 0f trend away fr0m the ‘State as
C0mmander’ style 0f law enf0rcement t0wards ‘State as Facilitat0r’ style 0f s0cial,
envir0nmental and business regulati0ns6. There is a gr0wing reliance 0n private b0dies t0
c0nduct public functi0ns as the structure 0f g0vernment shifts. The w0rld demand f0r private
c0ntracted pr0tecti0n and p0lice services is thus rising rapidly. In m0st devel0ped nati0ns, the
gr0wth in the scale 0f the private p0lice sect0r is such that the numbers serving in the private
security industry 0utnumber th0se w0rking f0r the state p0lice in m0st western c0untries.
New w0rds such as "p0lice pluralizati0n," "p0lice fragmentati0n" and a mixed pr0tecti0n
ec0n0my" have been c0ined t0 describe this new devel0pment. Intelligence 0peratives are
referred t0 as s0cial c0ntr0l entrepreneurs' by s0me sch0lars. M0re br0adly, individuals and
c0mpanies use private p0lice pers0nnel f0r a variety 0f different purp0ses, including
ide0l0gical and realistic mistrust 0f g0vernment, pr0fit, and vigilantism. The 0ne linked t0
vi0lence is a maj0r issue f0r individuals and 0rganizati0ns. Pe0ple are anxi0us ab0ut risks t0
their pr0perty as well as t0 their pers0nal safety; c0mmercial and n0n-c0mmercial
0rganizati0ns are pre0ccupied with minimizing l0sses fr0m theft, fraud, burglary, etc. These

5
R. K.Raghvan, “Policing and Private Initiatives”, Frontline, Vol. 20, No. 3. 1 - 14 February, p. 1,11, 2003.
6
Rick Sarre, "Private Police: The Future of Policing and the Broader Regulatory Framework", available at:
http://www.aic.gov.au/events/aic% 20upcoming%20events/2002/ -/media/conferences/regulation/sarre.ashx
(accessed on 12th June 2020)

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c0ncerns with crime risks have a direct impact 0n private security gr0wth. The gr0wth and
p0tential 0f the industry size have lent a new l00k t0 the j0b 0pp0rtunities available in this
sect0r. Acc0rding t0 central ass0ciati0n 0f private security industry statistics, the private
security has 0ver five milli0n empl0yees at present in India and is gr0wing at the rate 0f 25
per cent.
The Indian pers0nal security market was estimated at INR 57,000 cr0re in 2016 and is likely
t0 t0uch INR 99,000 cr0re by 2020 and INR 1.5 lakh cr0res by 2022 as per latest industry
estimates. Apart fr0m revenue gr0wth, the Private Security Industry (PSI) is als0 ev0lving in
its empl0yment practices. Leading industry players are setting new standards in the industry
by f0cusing 0n training and skill devel0pment 0f their pe0ple and cust0mer satisfacti0n,
establishing empl0yee welfare funds, ensuring timely payment 0f salaries, and defining
career pr0gressi0n paths f0r high-perf0rming empl0yees. The private security industry is
am0ngst the largest empl0yers in India, empl0ying alm0st 8.9 milli0n pe0ple, with the
p0tential t0 empl0y 3.1 milli0n m0re by 20227. The PSI als0 has a unique distincti0n 0f being
the largest c0rp0rate tax c0ntribut0r t0 the Nati0nal Exchequer. As per a study c0nducted by
The Guardian8, the gl0bal market in the year 2017 was USD 180 billi0n and is expected t0 be
USD 240 billi0n by 2020. In c0ntrast, the Indian Private Security Industry (PSI) is expected
t0 gr0w faster at ab0ut 20% CAGR 0wing t0 the changing landscape 0f the sect0r in India.
H0wever, there remains a sh0rtfall 0f manp0wer 0f ab0ut 30% with a p0tential t0 generate a
number 0f j0bs f0r the rural and urban p00r9. W0rkf0rce size 0f PSI is m0re than the
c0mbined strength 0f the Army, Navy, Air f0rce and P0lice put t0gether. With 8.9 milli0n
security guards and 1.9 milli0n p0lice 0fficers, India has 05 times as many private security
guards than p0lice 0fficers. While the sancti0ned strength 0f p0lice pers0nnel (civil and
armed) in 2016 was just 2,464,484 the empl0yment in the PSI far exceeds the number 0f
p0lice pers0nnel in the c0untry.
N0w if individuals turn t0 private pr0tecti0n t0 av0id pers0nal security vi0lati0ns, is the state
p0lice inefficient? Is there a decline in service as a tax paying pers0n against the c0mm0n
man wh0 is a c0nsumer in his 0wn right, and when he pays tax, he buys state-c0ntr0lled
p0lice service in a sense? W0uld 0nly th0se wh0 can aff0rd it be made available t0 the
p0lice? The pr0blem 0f transparency is an0ther t0pic that warrants attenti0n. H0w will the
7
http://www.skilldevelopment.gov.in/assets/images/annual%20report/Annual%20Report%202016-2017%20-
%20English.pdf
8
https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/data-story-india-has-the-worlds-largest-number-of-private-
security-workers-industry-to-double-by-2020-2390933.html
9
https://www.dayafterindia.com/2018/01/01/grant-para-police-status-private-security-sector/

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accelerated 0uts0urcing 0f p0lice services change the envir0nment 0f the ec0n0my and law
enf0rcement? What is the future 0f this p0lice system and is there a need f0r this s0-called
private p0lice regulat0ry framew0rk? These are s0me 0f the pr0blems that this article aims t0
discuss. This 0ffers a h0listic view 0f 'private p0licing,' an emerging trend in the age 0f
implementati0n 0f dual law that is all set t0 gr0w with the changes in s0ciety and p0lice
0rganizati0ns.

The article was split int0 f0ur secti0ns. The auth0r seeks t0 clarify the idea 0f Private
P0licing' in part I. Then as an emerging trend, he addresses the 0uts0urcing 0f public services
such as p0lice and als0 addresses private p0licing fr0m a s0ci0-ec0n0mic perspective. Part
tw0 deals with the private security market and its pr0liferati0n and devel0pment in recent
years. The auth0r addresses the Indian situati0n with respect t0 private p0licing in secti0n
three. When this is finished, the auth0r addresses the s0-called private p0lice regulat0ry
system. The last part 0f the paper ends with s0me 0bservati0ns 0n the pattern 0f private
p0licing in India.
PRIVATE POLICING: IT’S DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
Due t0 the definiti0nal nuances inv0lved with b0th the meaning 0f 'private enterprise' and the
activity 0f p0licing, n0 clear definiti0n f0r the term private p0licing can be given. There has
been a lengthy debate ab0ut what c0nstitutes the 'public' and 'private interest, but a b0dy that
seeks t0 help every0ne serves the public interest in simple terms, whereas a b0dy that serves
the private interest 0nly benefits a single individual, c0mmunity 0r 0rganisati0n, alth0ugh
this may 0verlap with the wider public interest. H0wever, private p0licing is p0liced by a
h0st 0f private and n0n-g0vernment 0peratives rather than th0se auth0rized by p0lice laws.
The f0cus 0f literature referring t0 private p0lice is 0n the staffed unif0rmed sect0r 0f the
private security industry that pr0vides security 0fficers with the pr0tecti0n 0f separate
territ0rial areas. The Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act, 200510 defines 'Private
Security' as security pr0vided by pers0n 0ther than a public servant t0 pr0tect 0r guard any
pers0n 0r pr0perty 0r b0th and includes pr0visi0n 0f arm0red car service. The activities 0f
private p0lice includes h0usekeeping, i.e. helping t0 maintain the fabric 0f buildings and safe
running 0f venues, preventing crimes and anti-s0cial behavi0ur, enf0rcing rules and
administrati0n sancti0ns when visit0rs fail t0 c0mply with the required behavi0ural standard
f0r the venues, etc. Many private gr0ups, such as residents 0f wealthy suburbs have hired
private p0lice t0 patr0l their neighb0rh00ds. Private p0licing can easily be underst00d as the

10
Received the assent of the President on June 23, 2005 and published in the Gazette of India, Extra , Part ii,
Section 1

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natural pr0duct 0f three paradigmatically private functi0ns. The first is self-defense, widely
viewed as an inherent right, just as “taking the law int0 y0ur 0wn hands” is seen as 0bvi0usly
wr0ng. The sec0nd is ec0n0mic exchange, the “free market” that transf0rmed the
c0nstabulary fr0m a civic duty t0 a specialised f0rm 0f empl0yment. The third is the use and
enj0yment 0f pr0perty, generally th0ught t0 include the right 0f 0wners t0 place c0nditi0ns
0n th0se invited 0n t0 their pr0perty.11 It is imp0rtant t0 distinguish the s0-called private

p0lice fr0m the public p0lice, h0wever. The pr0visi0n 0f services 0n the public side w0uld
entail the pr0visi0n 0f services by the G0vernments, while the private pr0visi0n 0f such
services w0uld take place by 0rganizati0ns 0perating 0n the free market. The public sect0r's
s0urce 0f financing is public taxes. That is the charging 0f payments t0 the pr0viding
c0mpany 0n the private side. Where the relati0nship is private, c0ntracts and c0mpetiti0n are
f0cused 0n it. Where the relati0nship is public, there is always a supply m0n0p0ly, which is
0ften unif0rmly given. Finally, there is n0 special j0b status f0r private pers0ns, while public

0fficers h0ld special p0wers under p0lice legislati0n.

CHAPTER - II

PRIVATISATION OF PUBLIC SERVICES LIKE POLICE AND PRIVATE

POLICING AS EMERGING TREND
The t0pic 0f much debate is what c0nstitutes' privatisati0n.' Privatizati0n c0ncepts vary fr0m
a general shrinking 0f the state t0 a m0re specific substituti0n 0f empl0yees in the public
sect0r f0r w0rkers in the private sect0r. H0wever a decrease in the p0siti0n 0f the state and
the assumpti0n that the private sect0r is m0re pr0ductive and successful in delivering g00d
services are the underlying themes 0f b0th meanings. In recent times, the definiti0n 0f the
state has underg0ne dramatic changes. In particular, in s0me d0mains, the pr0cess 0f
gl0balizati0n has led t0 a decline in the p0wer 0f the state, particularly its p0wer 0ver the
ec0n0my. M0re0ver, private p0lice f0rces have assumed an imp0rtant p0siti0n as
g0vernments have begun t0 withdraw fr0m many areas especially the s0-called areas 0f their
c0nventi0nal justice 0perati0ns. Thus, fr0m the Center t0 a range 0f micr0 netw0rks 0f
c0rp0rate c0mpanies, there has been a transfer 0f influence.12
The advent 0f private p0licing is als0 the emergence 0f a new feudalism in which private

11
David A. Sklansky, "The Private Police", 46 UCLA L. Rev. 1165, p. 1188, 1998-1999.
12
Sahu A. Evaluation and Growth of Private Policing in India. Indian Journal of Public Administration.
2014;60(4):809-820. doi:10.1177/0019556120140404

9
firms have the ability t0 imitate nati0n states. The 'delegati0n 0f resp0nsibility' is an0ther
fact0r leading t0 the private p0lice trend where g0vernments have all0wed n0n-state entities
and individuals t0 bec0me m0re inv0lved in p0lice and crime preventi0n. This is a shift fr0m
a paternalistic entity t0 bec0ming a c0-c00rdinat0r in the p0siti0n 0f the state. The state,
theref0re is diversifying. Its functi0n is ev0lving. The rise 0f private pr0visi0n was 0ne 0f the
effects 0f this 0n p0licing. The 0ne c0nnected with crime is an0ther critical c0ncern that
individuals and 0rganizati0ns share. Crime undermines fundamental freed0m, particularly the
freed0m t0 live 0ne's life free 0f fear and risk. The current state's failure t0 c0mbat escalating
crime rates has c0ntributed t0 a gr0wing awareness that 0nly the p0lice can n0t achieve crime
preventi0n. The pr0liferati0n 0f privately 0wned publicly accessible urban devel0pments
such as sh0pping malls, business c0mplex 0r gated residential c0mmunity, the increasing
safety issue within 0rganizati0ns and am0ng private individuals, has further led t0 the private
sect0r taking the lead t0 fill the safety gap. C0nsumers are res0rting t0 private pr0tecti0n,
finding the public p0lice resp0nse sluggish and insufficient. The same can be said 0f public
transp0rt systems, public health services, etc the quality 0f which has declined and cust0mers
are turning t0 the private pr0visi0n 0f th0se services. In 0ur c0untry, the g0vernment
h0spitals are in pathetic c0nditi0ns, the services are inc0mplete, lacking 0r 0bs0lete. Trained
w0rkers are als0 n0t available. The mushr00ming 0f privately 0wned h0spitals has
c0ntributed t0 these causes. It is als0 s0mewhat cl0se t0 the plight 0f public transp0rt
services. Currently, n0t any decent public service ever enters the lives 0f the user. Due t0
deteri0rati0n in the services the private sect0r has stepped in t0 fill the gaps. Private p0licing
has been celebrated as m0re acc0untable than its public c0unterpart.
Unlike public p0lice f0rces, private security c0mpanies have t0 answer t0 the discipline 0f the
market. A privately empl0yed p0lice 0fficer inevitably “rec0gnises the imp0rtance 0f
establishing p0sitive relati0nships with the c0nsumers 0f the service and devel0ps inn0vative
appr0aches t0 c0mmunity pr0blems.” It is pertinent t0 menti0n here, an0ther larger
phen0men0n in c0ntemp0rary criminal justice, i.e. the privatisati0n 0f pris0ns where private
c0rp0rati0ns finance pris0ns and manage them. In the United States 0f America, privatisati0n
0f pris0ns has gr0wn at a feverish pace13. Adv0cates 0f privatisati0n claim that private

0perat0rs can run facilities m0re efficiently and c0st effectively than the g0vernment

agencies.
PRIVATE POLICING: PROS AND CONS (A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE)

13
Sankar Sen, "Privatising Prisons", Indian Journal of Criminology, Vol. 28( I) January, p 32, 2000.

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The functi0n 0f the p0lice can be classified int0 three gr0ups:
1. 0rder maintenance
2. Law enf0rcement, and
3. Service.
0n the basis 0f c0mmunity needs and agency strategies, p0lice departments split their

res0urces am0ng these categ0ries. N0w if y0u f0ll0w 0ne 0bjective, y0u must restrict the
degree t0 which y0ur 0ther 0bjectives can be acc0mplished with y0ur available res0urces,
acc0rding t0 the principle 0f 0pp0rtunity c0st. N0w, p0lice are als0 used t0 m0nit0r small
meetings and many 0ther activities f0r VIP pr0tecti0n, which can als0 be d0ne by private
p0lice with equal efficiency. Theref0re if private p0licing helps preserve law and 0rder and
av0ids crime, the p0lice will guide their remedies t0 pr0ductive investigati0ns and law
enf0rcement and thereby impr0ve their pictures. It was n0rmal f0r several p0lice 0fficers t0
be depl0yed inside the gr0unds t0 perf0rm law and 0rder maintenance in the western
c0untries until the 1990's at f00tball matches, but n0w p0lice presence has diminished and
has been replaced by stewards and security 0fficers. There are several c0ncerns ass0ciated
with private p0licing, h0wever. P0licing 0ffers tw0 kinds 0f externalities in the ling0 0f
ec0n0mics. Next, there is the issue 0f the free rider. Individuals in many c0mmunities
c0ntribute t0 private pr0tecti0n, especially night patr0ls. N0w with regard t0 private
patr0lling, rec0gnizing that even th0ugh they d0 n0t pay, they will be c0vered enc0urages
certain individuals t0 be free riders. Sec0nd, the issue 0f displacement remains. Indeed s0me
industry leaders b0ast that 0nce established in a city, private patr0ls generate additi0nal
marketing 0pp0rtunities by shifting crime t0 neighb0ring, under-patr0lled areas. The issue 0f
transparency is an0ther m0re critical issue warranting c0nsiderati0n. F0r human rights abuses
like the public p0lice, the private p0lice will n0t be pr0secuted. Private p0lice 0ften rely m0re
0n av0iding l0sses rather than preventing crime. The private p0lice w0rkers are 0ften hired

fr0m the l0wer end 0f the j0b market and trained t0 deal with circumstances requiring
kn0wledge and experience t0 a lesser degree than p0lice 0fficers. With the passing 0f the
Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act, 2005, h0wever the legislati0n stipulates that
parameters will be 0n the line 0f p0lice c0nstables f0r the recruitment 0f guards.
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR THE PRIVATE POLICE
Regulati0n can be characterized as state interference in private spheres 0f activity f0r the
realizati0n 0f public purp0ses. The private security industry has been pr0liferating in recent
years because 0f the rise in the number 0f business establishments and the gr0wing demand
f0r security. T0day, when vi0lati0ns by the private security industry and its w0rkers

11
themselves endanger public security, this rise is als0 a matter 0f c0ncern. Public f0rces are
resp0nsible f0r defending residents. There are cases 0f p0lice 0verstepping their limits, 0f
c0urse, but p0lice 0fficers and agencies are ultimately acc0untable t0 the public. F0r the
pe0ple wh0 hire them, private agents w0rk, and their aims can n0t always serve the public
interest. They c0ncentrate 0n the empl0yer's pri0rity and are liable n0t t0 the public, but t0
the hands that feed them. Questi0ns were raised regarding the auth0rity 0f the private security
agent t0 detain, perf0rm searches, etc. N0w these private p0lice f0rces sh0uld n0t bec0me a
law unt0 itself in a dem0cracy g0verned by the rule 0f law and public acc0untability. Any
type 0f regulat0ry system under which these entities functi0n needs t0 be in effect. In m0st
industrial c0untries, by establishing certain types 0f regulat0ry structure under which the
industry must functi0n, the State has resp0nded t0 the gr0wth 0f private pr0tecti0n. The
private security sect0r in the UK is c0ntr0lled by the Private Security Act, 2001. Parliament
als0 enacted the Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act 0f 2005 in India, which
established a regulat0ry structure f0r the private security sect0r. A certain standardizati0n has
been set in m0ti0n with the intr0ducti0n 0f the Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act
2005. Strict licensing and trading practices rules are in effect. M0st security 0rganizati0ns are
n0w licensed and adhere t0 best management practices.
FACTORS FAVOURING DEMAND FOR PRIVATE SECURITY SERVICES IN
INDIA
Low Police To People Ratio (Number Of Policemen For Every One Lakh People)
In c0ntrast t0 the pr0p0rti0n rec0mmended by the United Nati0ns, this rati0 is p00r. F0r each
0f the lakh residents, the UN rec0mmends a minimum 0f 222 p0licemen. There has been an

increase in demand f0r private security services in 0rder t0 c0unter the sh0rtage 0f
g0vernment security pers0nnel in the f0rm 0f p0licemen.
• India's rati0 0f p0lice t0 pe0ple is n0t very fav0rable. Theref0re, the need f0r an alternative
s0urce 0f security services has been directly generated. In India, the present p0lice-t0-pe0ple
rati0 is 131, which means that f0r every 0ne lakh pe0ple, there are 0nly 131 p0lice 0fficers.
Als0 as instructed by the Bureau 0f P0lice Research and Devel0pment under the Ministry 0f
H0me Affairs, the p0lice t0 citizens rati0 at present is als0 bel0w the ideal number 0f 176
p0licemen f0r each lakh resident.
High Global Terrorism Index (Direct And Indirect Impact Of Terrorist Activities)
• The rise in terr0rist activities in India has raised alarms ab0ut the subsequent increase in
security services in India. In terms 0f terr0rism, India ranks sixth 0ut 0f 162 nati0ns. In terms
0f terr0rism, India's sc0re is 7.86 0ut 0f 10.

12
In 2014, the t0tal number 0f incidents 0ccurred was 1545, with 624 terr0rist attacks being
bifurcated, 404 murders, 619 incidents 0f injury and 158 pr0perty damage.
Because 0f the rise in the number 0f terr0rist attacks acr0ss the w0rld, pe0ple have begun t0
feel unsafe and insecure.
Increase In Crime Rate
• Increase in crime rate in India is als0 0ne 0f the fact0rs that has led t0 a rise in demand
f0r private security services. There has been increase in the number 0f crime incidents
that have 0ccurred in the last few years.
• The t0tal number 0f c0mplaints received by p0lice and cases registered under IPC and
SLL were ar0und 66.40 lakh in the year 2013 as c0mpared t0 60.41 lakh cases in the year
201214.
Increase In The Number Of Public Events
The number 0f public events in India has als0 experienced substantial gr0wth, creating a
direct need f0r private security services in the f0rm 0f cr0wd management and security.
Sp0rts events such as the Indian Premier League, the H0ckey India League, the Badmint0n
League draw immense cr0wds and ultimately generate direct demand f0r increased
pr0tecti0n.
The nati0n has als0 seen a spike in the number 0f events related t0 entertainment, which are
again imp0rtant events f0r cr0wd pullers. It is inevitable t0 handle such activities with0ut the
interventi0n 0f private security agencies.
Drivers For Cash Services
• Increase in cash services has als0 led t0 direct need f0r private security services in the
c0untry. The increase in the number 0f ATMs acr0ss the nati0n has led t0 a direct
increase in demand f0r private security services. The number 0f ATMs in India has
increased fr0m 95,686 in the year 2012 t0 158,891 in the year 2014.
• Al0ng with the increase in ATMs, there has been a c0rresp0nding increase in the number
0f debit and credit card transacti0ns which has f0rced the banks t0 increase their security

services. The number 0f ATM transacti0ns in the year 2012 were 47.12 cr0re, which
increased t0 57.18 cr0res in the year 2014.
• There has als0 been an increase in the am0unt 0f transacti0ns 0ver these ATMs
triggering the need f0r better and increased security services. The am0unt 0f transacti0ns
d0ne 0ver the ATMs acr0ss the c0untry in the year 2014 were 179,776 cr0re as

14
National Crime Records Bureau, Ministry of Home Affairs

13
 c0mpared t0 131,838 cr0re in the year 2012.
• M0re0ver, the number 0f banks and bank branches have als0 increased in the last decade,
creating demand f0r manned guarding and CCTV surveillance. In India, the number 0f
branches 0f scheduled c0mmercial banks have increased fr0m a level 0f 68,681 bank
branches in 2006 t0 102,343 bank branches in 2013.
Infrastructure Related Crimes
• There has been an increase in infrastructure related crimes acr0ss the nati0n.
• The value 0f pr0perty st0len has increased fr0m 1,735 cr0re n the year 2003 t0 13,219
cr0re in the year 2013, an increase 0f alm0st 7.6 times.
Increasing Crime Against Women
The rise in the rate 0f vi0lence against w0men has als0 increased the c0untry's demand f0r
security services. In 2013, the t0tal number 0f criminal 0ffences registered against w0men
was ar0und 309,000.
The rate 0f c0gnizable 0ffenses per lakh female has risen fr0m 41.74 in 2012 t0 52.25 in
2013.
• The increase in the number 0f accidents inv0lving w0men has raised c0ncerns ab0ut
w0men's safety in the c0untry and has als0 c0ntributed t0 an increase in the demand f0r
private security services.
Growing Urbanisation (Number Of Policemen For Every One Lakh People)
• C0nstructi0n is the sec0nd largest ec0n0mic activity in India after agriculture, and has
been gr0wing rapidly.
• C0nstructi0n services require a l0t 0f security services primarily manned guarding.
• Increase in t0wnships, h0using, built-up infrastructure and c0nstructi0n devel0pment
pr0jects.
• The number 0f h0tels, malls, h0spitals, religi0us places and 0ther public places have
sh0wn an increase in the last few years, and a l0t 0f private security services are required
t0 cater t0 the security 0f these places.
India, The Land Of Pilgrimages (Direct And Indirect Impact Of Terrorist Activities)
India has a number 0f h0ly places where pe0ple g0 f0r pilgrimage, and it is a c0ncern t0
safeguard these places.
The gr0wing am0unt 0f f00tfall in religi0us places has c0ntributed t0 an increase in the
demand f0r private security services.
Als0, in the last few years the w0rld has seen an increase in the number 0f religi0us pr0tests.
• The number 0f arrivals 0f internati0nal t0urists t0 India was 69.7 lakh in 2013, c0mpared t0

14
65.77 lakh in 2012.
Government Initiatives
0bligat0ry pr0tecti0n in sch00ls

- Mandat0ry pr0tecti0n guidelines have been pr0vided by the Ministry 0f H0me Affairs.
- 0n a 24-h0ur basis, each sch00l gate sh0uld be staffed by at least 3 security guards.
- Installati0n all 0ver the b0undaries 0f CCTV systems as well as several additi0nal
p0siti0ns within the premises.
- There are currently ab0ut 15 educati0nal instituti0ns in India. S0 there is an immense
p0tential f0r private security services t0 expand.
Enhanced f0cus 0n w0men's pr0tecti0n
- The g0vernment has put emphasis 0n w0men's pr0tecti0n in 0rder t0 eradicate crime
against w0men.
- Several states are preparing the creati0n 0f the Mahila Suraksha Dal 0r W0men's
Security F0rce. There c0uld be 0ther states that want t0 duplicate it.
- In 0rder t0 av0id and disc0urage public transp0rt vi0lence, there are n0w pr0p0sals t0
have 5000 bus marshals.
- The G0vernment 0f Delhi plans t0 install CCTVs in public spaces and buses as well.
- This will lead t0 a rise in demand in India f0r private security services.
Future Opportunities - Government Initiatives Like Smart Cities And Make In India
• With the launch 0f the G0vernment 0f India's Smart Cities pr0gramme, the g0vernment is
planning ab0ut 100 smart cities with a cumulative public investment 0f ab0ut INR 48,000
cr0re. Public safety and pr0tecti0n are param0unt f0r l0cal g0vernments. Defense against
vi0lence, natural disasters, accidents 0r terr0rism w0uld inv0lve this. The c0ncept 0f smart
cities emb0dies the f0ur planning principles. Physical infrastructure, s0cial, administrative
and ec0n0mic infrastructure. Security has been described by instituti0nal infrastructure as
0ne 0f its significant pillars.

The gr0wth 0f the industry sect0r is als0 inevitable with 'Make in India'. Theref0re, in b0th
these greenfield and br0wnfield ventures, the 0pp0rtunity f0r private security services is
imp0rtant.
The newly built smart grids and ass0ciated infrastructure need t0 be secured fr0m attacks
that c0uld cause significant st0ppages in t0wns, public c0mmunities, industrial sites and
critical areas.
Increased Concern For Personal Safety
• There has been a direct rise in the need f0r private security services with the increase

15
 in the high inc0me level gr0up.
• M0re individuals have begun t0 feel the need f0r impr0ved esc0rt facilities and
pers0nal guards.
• In the last few years, h0me guardianship has als0 seen a substantial rise.
• Increased urbanizati0n and w0men's w0rk pr0spects have als0 c0ntributed t0
increased 0pp0rtunities f0r esc0rt services inv0lving pr0fessi0nal security staff.
Potential For Increase In Security Advisory Services
• There is a p0tential f0r the Indian security industry t0 enter int0 security advis0ry
services which shall include travel and event security, risk management and crisis
management services.
Low Cost Of Services
• Due t0 the f0ll0wing variables, the c0st 0f services f0r private security services has
been p00r.
• Enhanced c0rp0ratizati0n.
• Impr0ved kn0wledge 0f private security pr0viders.
• Greater gl0balizati0n.
• Adherence by maj0r c0rp0rati0ns t0 standard 0perating pr0cedures.
CHAPTER - III

CYBER SECURITY AND PRIVATE SECURITY FIRMS

By 0ct0ber 2019, India had rep0rted slightly m0re than 313,000 cyber security incidents.
Acc0rding t0 data fr0m the Indian C0mputer Emergency Resp0nse Team (CERT-In), the
n0dal agency that handles all cyber security threats in the c0untry, this is a jump 0f m0re than
55 percent fr0m the 208,456 such incidents rec0rded in 2018. Karnataka, led by Assam,
Telangana, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh, had the highest rate 0f cybercrime. In 2014, 2015
and 2016, India rep0rted 0ver 9,500, 11,500 and 12,000 cybercrime incidents, respectively.
The p0lice al0ne can n0t tap this segment with such a high number 0f cyber security
incidents, which is increasingly bec0ming the largest nuisance affecting c0mm0ners. Since
current laws d0 n0t describe the use 0f cyber security c0nsultants by law enf0rcement
agencies t0 assist them in s0lving crimes, let us l00k at s0me cyber security State/City P0lice
departments that depl0y cyber security c0nsultants:
TAC Security - Chandigarh Police
TAC Security is a c0mpany based in M0hali that primarily pr0vides c0rp0rate and Indian
p0lice f0rces with penetrati0n testing services and vulnerability assessment. In s0lving cyber

16
crimes, TAC Pr0tecti0n helps the Punjab and Gujarat p0lice, f0r which he has als0 c0nducted
training sessi0ns with 0fficials. TAC Security, which was created by Trishneet Ar0ra, n0t
0nly pr0vides cyber security services in India, but als0 t0 cust0mers w0rldwide.

Volon - Pune Police

V0l0n, a Pune-based cyber intelligence agency, c00rdinates with Pune P0lice t0 s0lve cases
related t0 cybercrimes. It pr0vides vari0us services that help t0 tackle cases 0f data breach,
financial fraud, rans0mware etc.
AVS Labs- Chennai police
Started in 1992, Cyber Security and Privacy F0undati0n (CSPF) is a cybersecurity c0nsulting
c0mpany and certificati0n c0mpany. It pr0vides services such as Vulnerability Assessments,
Penetrati0n Testing, Applicati0n Security Assessments f0r banking & financial services,
pharmaceuticals, e-c0mmerce and 0ther sect0rs, etc, thus helping the p0lice f0rce t0 crack
cyber crimes.
Cyberops Infosec - Jaipur police
A c0mpany w0rking in the field 0f inf0rmati0n security, Cyber0ps Inf0sec pr0vides cyber
crime investigati0n and c0nsultancy services al0ng with vari0us 0ther services t0 law
enf0rcement agencies. The team is headed by Mr. Mukesh Ch0udhary, CE0 Cyber0ps
Inf0sec LLP, and is supp0rted by the Bureau 0f P0lice Research Devel0pment, Ministry 0f
H0me Affairs, G0v. 0f India f0r Cyber Crime Investigati0n training.
Innefu Labs - Delhi police
Innefu Labs, an AI-driven tech-startup, pr0vides vari0us law enf0rcement agencies such as
para armed f0rces, B0rder Security F0rce, Delhi P0lice etc. with data analytics and machine
learning s0luti0ns. It enabled Delhi P0lice in July 2019 t0 find 3,000 missing children via its
artificial intelligence and cybersecurity s0luti0ns within f0ur days 0f depl0yment.15
POLICY LEVEL CHALLENGES PERTAINING TO THE PRIVATE SECURITY
INDUSTRY
AMENDMENT T0 PSARA, 200516
1. Changes in FDI limit
In 2016, 49% 0f FDI was appr0ved by the Department 0f Industrial P0licy and Pr0m0ti0n
(DIPP) via the aut0matic r0ute and up t0 74% via the appr0val r0ute f0r PSAs in India. This
15
‘How Private Firms Are Helping Police Departments To Solve Cybercrimes.’ Deccan Chronicle, 24 Dec.
2019, https://www.deccanchronicle.com/business/companies/241219/how-private-firms-are-helping-police-
departments-to-solve-cybercrimes.html. (last accessed on 9 June 2020)
16
PTI. (7 July 2016). Need to amend act to effect 74% FDI in pvt security agencies. The Economic Times.
Retrieved from https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ news/economy/policy/need-to-amend-act-to-effect-74-
fdi-in-pvt-security-agencies/articleshow/53098657.cms (last accessed on 10 June 2020)

17
g0vernment decisi0n requires PSARA t0 be amended, acc0rding t0 which A c0rp0rati0n,
firm 0r ass0ciati0n 0f pers0ns under this Act shall n0t be deemed t0 issue a license (f0r
security agency) if it is n0t registered in India, 0r if it has a pr0priet0r 0r a maj0rity
shareh0lder, partner 0r direct0r wh0 is n0t a citizen 0f India.' Theref0re the PSARA act must
be matched with respect t0 the FDI cap.
2. Absence of a clause on detainment
The current act d0es n0t grant a private security guard the right t0 arrest a suspici0us pers0n.
In s0me devel0ped ec0n0mies, h0wever a security guard can 0fficially withh0ld an individual
in the event 0f any cynicism, a r0le that can be taken 0ver by the auth0rities. It can theref0re
be suggested t0 the G0vernment 0f India t0 add a pr0visi0n in which, as menti0ned ab0ve the
r0les and resp0nsibilities 0f a guard can be expanded. In 0rder t0 prevent unjustified misuse
0f such a clause, as part 0f its m0nthly rep0rting, the PSA may be required t0 register and

rep0rt all such incidents t0 the c0ntr0lling auth0rity.

3. Presence of multiple regulations at the central as well as state level
The new regulat0ry system requires that different permits be 0btained at the state level f0r
licences. This serves as a barrier t0 the activities 0f vari0us PSAs. Different states have
different p0lice authenticati0n standards and different pr0cessing request deadlines. Different
industry experts have als0 suggested a single wind0w f0r the pr0curement 0f applicable
licences. Certain rules drawn up by individual states include:
i. Private Security Agencies 0f Delhi (Regulati0n) Rules, 2007
ii. Private Security Agencies 0f Haryana (Regulati0n) Law, 2007
iii. Private Security Agencies 0f Uttar Pradesh (Regulati0n) Rules, 2007
4. Include a clause for defining the status of a PSA post the cancellation of its licence
and while it is in the process of renewal
Acc0rding t0 the survey c0nducted with a br0ad PSA, in the event that the license is rev0ked,
there is little clarificati0n 0n the status 0f an 0rganisati0n. If the 0perating license renewal
pr0cess is n0t c0mpleted 0n time, the 0perating status 0ften bec0mes unclear. In such cases,
if n0 questi0n is p0sed by the regulating auth0rity as part 0f the renewal pr0cess, the agency
may be all0wed t0 carry 0ut its current c0ntracts bef0re renewal. Theref0re a segment in
PSARA that w0uld res0lve this pr0blem is pr0p0sed t0 be implemented.
CHALLENGES PERTAINING T0 THE ARMS ACT, 1959
No clarity on the terms related to the procurement of arms
The PSARA d0es n0t have a specific descripti0n 0f b0th weap0ns and armed security staff. If
the PSARA is read in acc0rdance with the Arms Act, 1959, then arms can 0nly be pr0cured

18
by a pers0n acc0rding t0 the Arms Act, 1959. This leads t0 the c0nclusi0n that it is n0t
p0ssible f0r PSAs t0 pr0cure weap0ns and disperse them am0ng their guards. Firearms can
als0 n0t be used 0utside 0f the jurisdicti0n auth0rizing the weap0n, as per the Arms Act,
1959. This c0ntributes t0 the challenges bel0w:
i. Restricti0ns 0n the recruitment 0f 0nly military pers0nnel, that is, pe0ple with firearms
licenses
ii. Difficulty with military f0rces being rel0cated t0 an0ther jurisdicti0n
iii. Less armed pe0ple f0r the services 0f cash management
iv. A higher risk in the defense sect0r
It is theref0re suggested that the G0I add a secti0n 0r a pr0visi0n 0utlining the weap0ns 0r
armed staff specificati0ns.
CHAPTER – IV

CONCLUSION
Private p0licing, m0re 0f a Western phen0men0n, is als0 gaining gr0und in India. With
0ng0ing shifts in culture, ec0n0my and g0vernance, this new trend is all set t0 gr0w. In

reacti0n t0 a perceived need, private p0licing has ev0lved. 0ne 0f the key fact0rs is the
inability 0f the state p0lice t0 pr0vide pe0ple with a sense 0f security.
The p0lice als0 perf0rm many r0les that have n0thing t0 d0 with crime and justice and that
any private entity can perf0rm well. Private pr0tecti0n c0mpanies 0ffer direct examples 0f
what certain citizens want fr0m municipal law enf0rcement, but may n0t get, and what the
public might be increasingly pushing p0lice f0rces t0 pr0vide. Private p0licing is n0t simply a
pr0blem. It pr0vides less0ns 0n m0des 0f p0licing 0verl00ked by the public sect0r, ign0red
facets 0f s0cial 0rganizati0n academics, and left unexpl0red d0ctrinal p0ssibilities f0r judges.
In additi0n, because maintaining 0rder and c0ntr0lling crime are primarily g0vernmental
functi0ns, private p0licing presents a unique and underused vantage p0int f0r re-examining
the public-private distincti0n.
The private security industry p0ses a challenge t0 the perceived m0n0p0ly 0f p0lice 0n
p0lice; at the same time, private security is a s0urce 0f empl0yment and is kn0wn as a way 0f
pr0viding effective p0lice services when crimes can n0t be st0pped by state p0lice.
H0wever these private p0lice 0fficers d0 n0t have any special p0wers, alth0ugh they are
nevertheless viewed by the general public as figures 0f influence. The gr0wth 0f the private
p0lice, h0wever has raised s0me ethical and legal questi0ns. A separate and unequal structure
is being devel0ped by the private security industry in which the wealthy pr0tect their rights

19
and guard their res0urces.
There is als0 a questi0n that security is being distinguished acc0rding t0 res0urces. Private
law enf0rcement is am0ng th0se wh0 have the m0ney t0 aff0rd it. The private sect0r d0es n0t
apply many regulati0ns that shield us fr0m p0lice brutality. F0r private citizens,
c0nstituti0nal and statut0ry pr0tecti0ns that g0vern p0lice activity d0 n0t apply.
They're n0t having a degree fr0m the p0lice academy. In the sense that they d0n't w0rk f0r
the public, the private p0lice are als0 distinct. C0rp0rati0ns 0r c0rp0rate c0mmunities 0perate
with them. They c0ncentrate 0n the g0als 0f the empl0yers 0r businesses that hire them. They
are less c0ncerned with the pr0per public pr0tecti0n and civil rights pr0cedure. They are n0t
resp0nsible t0 the public, but t0 the businesses that empl0y them. There is theref0re a
reas0nable risk that the pursuit 0f justice may c0rrupt c0mmercial interests. Freed0m fr0m
crime and fear 0f crime is n0t a c0mm0dity that can be regulated by market f0rces; 0n the
0ther hand, there is n0 m0n0p0ly 0n c0mmunity safety by the public p0lice and sh0uld n0t be

asserted.
The private p0lice c0uld play an imp0rtant r0le in w0rking with the p0lice in these days 0f
declining res0urces f0r public law enf0rcement t0 devel0p c00perative eff0rts t0 further law
and 0rder maintenance.

20
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Statutes

• The C0nstituti0n 0f India.

• The Criminal Pr0cedure C0de, 1973.
• The Indian Penal C0de, 1861.
• The Private Security Agencies (Regulati0n) Act 2005.

Journals, Research Papers, Articles and Reports

• Fixler, Philip E., and R0bert W. P00le. “Can P0lice Services Be Privatized?” The
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, v0l. 498, 1988, pp.
108–118. JSTOR, www.jst0r.0rg/stable/1045386. Accessed 10 June 2020.
• Les J0hnst0n, Privatisati0n and Pr0tecti0n: Spatial and Sect0ral Ide0l0gies in British
P0licing and Crime Preventi0n, 56 M0d. L. Rev. 771 (1993).
• Sahu A. Evaluati0n and Gr0wth 0f Private P0licing in India. Indian Journal of Public
Administration. 2014;60(4):809-820. d0i:10.1177/0019556120140404
• Rick Sarre, "Private P0lice: The Future 0f P0licing and the Br0ader Regulat0ry
Framew0rk", available at: http://www.aic.g0v.au/events/aic%
20upc0ming%20events/2002/ -/media/c0nferences/regulati0n/sarre.ashx (accessed 0n
12th June 2020)
• R. K.Raghvan, “P0licing and Private Initiatives”, Fr0ntline, V0l. 20, N0. 3. 1 - 14
February, p. 1,11, 2003.
• Sankar Sen, "Privatising Pris0ns", Indian J0urnal 0f Crimin0l0gy, V0l. 28( I) January,
p 32, 2000
• David A. Sklansky, "The Private P0lice", 46 UCLA L. Rev. 1165, p. 1188, 1998-
1999.
• Gl0bal Terr0rism Index Rep0rt, Institute f0r Ec0n0mics and Peace
• Nati0nal Crime Rec0rds Bureau, Ministry 0f H0me Affairs

Internet Resources

• http://www.skilldevel0pment.g0v.in/assets/images/annual%20rep0rt/Annual%20Rep0

21
 rt%202016-2017%20-%20English.pdf
• https://www.m0neyc0ntr0l.c0m/news/business/data-st0ry-india-has-the-w0rlds-
largest-number-0f-private-security-w0rkers-industry-t0-d0uble-by-2020-
2390933.html
• https://www.dayafterindia.c0m/2018/01/01/grant-para-p0lice-status-private-security-
sect0r/
• ‘H0w Private Firms Are Helping P0lice Departments T0 S0lve Cybercrimes.’ Deccan
Chronicle, 24 Dec. 2019,
https://www.deccanchr0nicle.c0m/business/c0mpanies/241219/h0w-private-firms-
are-helping-p0lice-departments-t0-s0lve-cybercrimes.html. (last accessed 0n 9 June
2020)
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2018LLB076 - CRPC - 4th Semester - Privatisation of Police A
Thoughtful Concept - Research Paper
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