Measure Phase60

Online Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Program Hand Book By OTIFAS; www.otifas.
com
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Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Workshop ______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Process Inputs and Outputs
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.F.5 ______________________
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Copy Right © RS OTIFAS (P) Ltd
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Learning Objectives ______________________
______________________
► On completion of this lecture, one would learn the following concepts:
● Identify key process input/output variables (KPIVs and KPOVs)
______________________
● Supplier Input Process Output Customer chart (SIPOC) ______________________
● Cause and effect diagram ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Identify Process Inputs/Outputs ______________________
______________________
Quality of inputs Process parameters
Quality of output
(Y)
______________________
(X1, X2, X3….) (X4, X5, X6…)
______________________
Depends upon ______________________
______________________
► Flow chart helps us to identify the process inputs (X) and outputs (Y). ______________________
► Six Sigma Practitioners use different names for outputs (Y) such as: ______________________
● Key Process Output Variables (KPOV)
● Critical to Quality (CTQ) etc. ______________________
► Similarly inputs are also known as:
● Key Process Input Variables (KPIV)
● Critical to Processes (CTPs)

Copy right @2012 RS OTIFAS (P) LTD

Online Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Program Hand Book By OTIFAS; www.otifas.com
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CTQs and CTPs ______________________
______________________
CTPs
CTPs ______________________
X1 X8 X6 X7
______________________
Inputs (Xs)
CTQs ______________________
Process Steps Outputs (Ys)
______________________
______________________
Raw materials,
Components, ______________________
machines, men etc
X2 X1 X4 Xn
______________________
CTPs
CTPs

______________________
Sources of Variation ______________________
______________________
► As discussed above the variation in out put (Y) of any process depends
upon the variation of inputs and process parameters. The various ______________________
sources of variation are:
______________________
Inputs Sources of Variation
______________________
Machine: machines can vary in make, capability, age, servicing condition etc. ______________________
Material: variation in measurement and characteristics of all kinds of raw material used for
production process. ______________________
Operator: Operator can vary in skill, knowledge, experience, health, mood etc.
Environment: Variation in temperature, light, humidity etc. ______________________
Methods: Variation in methods or process parameters like process setting, work instructions,
specifications etc. ______________________

______________________
SIPOC Chart ______________________
______________________
► SIPOC stands for Supplier Input Process Output Customer chart
______________________
► This is a high level process chart
► Help answer questions such as: ______________________
● Where does the process start and end
● What are the major steps in the process
______________________
● What are the primary process inputs and outputs ______________________
● Who are the key customers/suppliers (both internal and external)
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
SIPOC Example ______________________
______________________
► Take and example of pizza shop. Let us identify the Supplier, Inputs,
Process, Outputs and Customers
______________________
______________________
Supplier Input Process Output Customer
Material store Pizza Base Write order Tasty pizza as per students
______________________
the order
Planning Dept Toppings Order to cook Executives ______________________
Base suppler Vegetables Assemble pizza ______________________
Veg Supplier Delivery Boys Bake
______________________
Delivery Bike Package
Information Delivery
______________________
Collect payment

______________________
Cause & Effect Diagram ______________________
______________________
► Once We have identified the inputs and outputs, it is important to
document their relationship. ______________________
► Two methods for documenting relationships are:
● Relationship matrix (already discussed in Section 2)
______________________
● interrelationship diagram. ______________________
● Cause and effect (CE) / fishbone diagram.
► CE diagram was invented by Kaoru Ishikawa.
______________________
► Good visual representation of all factors that might contribute to problem ______________________
► The causes can be logically classified as either;
● 5Ms (manpower, material, method, machines, measurement).
______________________
● Or our own way according to the process knowledge. ______________________

______________________
How to construct? ______________________
______________________
► Step 1: Clarify the effect or symptom for which causes to be identified
► Step 2: Draw the main line & place the effect at the right in a box Eg; ______________________
Low engine
______________________
power
______________________
► Step 3: Put each of the major cause category in one box and put down ______________________
sub causes below that in a line
______________________
Engine
Fuel Starving
______________________
Temp raise
Bad tuning
______________________
Speed loss
Low engine
power


______________________
How to construct? ______________________
______________________
► Step 4: Ask why to each sub causes, add it to sub line till we reach a
logical conclusion; ______________________
______________________
Less fuel
Less water Engine
______________________
Fuel Starving
Temp raise ______________________
Bad tuning
Speed loss ______________________
Low engine
power ______________________
► Step 5: Complete CE diagram and check for logical sequence. ______________________

______________________
CE examples ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
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______________________

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Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
► In this lecture, we learned:
● Identify key process input/output variables (KPIVs and KPOVs)
______________________
● Supplier Input Process Output Customer chart (SIPOC) ______________________
● Cause and effect diagram ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


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______________________
LECTURE: Drawing Valid Statistical Conclusions
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.D.1
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● Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics
______________________
● Distinguish between population parameter and sample statistic. ______________________
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What is Statistics? ______________________
______________________
► Statistics is a way of getting information from data
______________________
► What is data?
● Data is record of actual observations ______________________
● Eg. Marks of 35 students in science of a class
______________________
● Data are useful only when we generate information from it
► What is information? ______________________
● Answers to a question, Eg:
______________________
● How many students score below 50%,
● How many students score above 90% ______________________
● What is the trend of pass percentage for the last 3 years
______________________
● What percentage of students are expected to pass in upcoming
exams based on 3 years trend?


______________________
What is Statistics? ______________________
______________________
► Meaningful information from a data set can be obtained in different ways:
● Describing a set of data:
______________________
o Ascending the data in order. ______________________
o Understanding the central tendency (mean, median, mode)
o Understanding the spread of data (range, standard deviation)

______________________
● Drawing conclusions based on above set of descriptions: ______________________
o Predicting the outcome of process based on various pattern.
o Probability of falling percentage of data between a range of values.

______________________
o Testing assumptions or hypothesis. ______________________
► These methods are two separate branches of statistics called:
● Descriptive statistics
______________________
● Inferential statistics

______________________
Statistics ______________________
______________________
Branches of Statistics ______________________
______________________
Descriptive Inferential ______________________
Statistics statistics
______________________
Measure central tendency, Predict behavior of whole
standard deviation, of data data set, based on the ______________________
set, plot graphically central tendency and
(mean, median, mode,

standard deviation with
the help of probability
______________________
range, variance, standard
deviation, histogram)
distribution
(binominal, Poisson,
______________________
normal distributions,
hypothesis testing, chi
square test etc

______________________
Population and Sample ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Is it possible to study 100% of a group always?


______________________
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Sample: set of data drawn from population ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Population: Group of all items under study
It is not only group of people, but any large group of interest
Eg. population of diameter of ball bearings produced in a plant

______________________
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Sample 1
______________________
______________________
Sample 2
______________________
Sample 3 ______________________
______________________
Sample 4
______________________
Sample 5….. ______________________
Always better to study large number of small

representative samples
______________________
Parameter and Statistic ______________________
______________________
► The descriptive statistics measures of population and sample are termed
and denoted differently; ______________________
● Parameter: The descriptive statistics measures (mean, variance and
standard deviation) of population is known as parameter.
______________________
● Statistic: The descriptive statistics measures (mean, variance and ______________________
standard deviation) of sample is known as statistic.
______________________
Descriptive Measures Parameter Statistic
______________________
Mean µ X
Variance σ2 s2
______________________
Standard Deviation σ s ______________________


______________________
Inferential Statistics ______________________
______________________
______________________
Sample 1, 1, s1
______________________
______________________
Sample 2, 2 , s2 ______________________
______________________
Sample 3,
______________________
3, s3
______________________
Find sample means, and try to predict the mean (µ)
and sigma (σ) of population from samples measures.

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Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics. ______________________
● Distinguish between population parameter and sample statistic. ______________________
______________________
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Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Workshop
______________________
LECTURE: Basic Probability Concepts ______________________
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.E.1 ______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
● Describe and apply concepts such as: ______________________
o Independence. ______________________
o Mutually exclusive.
______________________
o Multiplication rules etc.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Probability ______________________
______________________
► Sample statistic (mean and standard deviation) can be used to draw
conclusions about a population parameter. ______________________
► But conclusions cannot be 100% right, there is always as risk associated
with this conclusions. ______________________
► This risk is referred to as probability of concluding things rightly. ______________________
► In day to day conversation we often say or hear:
● Probably it may rain today. ______________________
● Chances of Dodgers and Braves winning the Baseball match are
equal.
______________________
► When we say probable/chance it indicate a degree of uncertainty. ______________________
► Statistical methods are largely based on probability theories.
► We draw conclusions about a population using probability distributions. ______________________

______________________
Basic Probability Concepts ______________________
______________________
► Random Experiment:
● A random experiment is an action or process that leads to one of ______________________
several possible outcomes.
● Note the two things; “experiment” and “outcome”.
______________________
► Examples: ______________________
Experiment Possible outcome (sample set) ______________________
Flip a coin Head, tail ______________________
Tossing a dice 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ______________________
Record the MBA grades of students A, B, C, D, E ______________________
Quality sorting of products Pass, fail
Flipping 2 coins simultaneously (H, H), (H, T), (T, H), (T, T)


______________________
______________________
► Event:
● An event is a collection or a set of one or more simple event from the
______________________
list of all possible outcome or sample set. ______________________
► Mutually exclusive events:
● An event is mutually exclusive when no two outcomes can occur at
______________________
the same time: ______________________
● Examples:
o While flipping a coin, head and tail cannot occur same time,
______________________
hence it is a mutually exclusive event. ______________________
o While sorting products during inspections, a product cannot be
„passed‟ and at the same time „failed‟ also, hence this event is ______________________
also mutually exclusively events.

______________________
______________________
► Classic definition of probability says:
● If an event say A can occur in „m‟ ways out of a possible „n‟ equally
______________________
likely ways, then: ______________________
o Probability of occurring event A; i.e. P(A) = m / n
► Example: suppose a card is randomly selected from a standard 52 card ______________________

deck. What is the probability that selected card is a club card?
● There are 13 clubs in a pack of card, that means there are 13
______________________
possible ways (m) out of 52 equally likely ways (n). ______________________
● Means probability of selected card being a club card:
o P(clubs) = m /n or 13/52 = 0.25
______________________
► Two Independent Events: ______________________
● When the probability of one event is not affected by the occurrence of
other event.

______________________
Addition Rule ______________________
______________________
► Addition rule of probability is different for mutually exclusive and not
mutually exclusive events. ______________________
● For mutually exclusive events:
______________________
o P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
o Eg. Draw a card from 52 card deck. Probability of the card either ______________________
being spade or club:
o Solution: P(spade) = 13/52 and P(club) = 13/52
______________________
o Then P(spade or club) = 13/52 + 13/ 52 = 26/52 ______________________
o Because P(spade) and P(club) are mutually exclusive events, as
both cannot happen together. ______________________
______________________


______________________
Addition Rule ______________________
______________________
► Addition rule of probability is different for mutually exclusive and not
mutually exclusive events. ______________________
● For not mutually exclusive events: ______________________
o P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
o Eg. Draw a card from 52 card deck. Probability of the card either
______________________
being „queen‟ or „club‟: ______________________
o Solution: P(queen) = 4/52 and P(club) = 13/52
o Now these events are not mutually exclusive; because the card
______________________
drawn could be P(queen) or P(club) at the same time. ______________________
o Hence (queen or club) = P(queen) + P(club) – P(queen and club)
o i.e. (4/52 + 13/52) – 1/52 = 16/52

______________________

______________________
Multiplication Rule ______________________
______________________
► The multiplication rule of probability:
● For two independent events:
______________________
o P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B) ______________________
● For two dependent events:
______________________
o P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B/A)
o Where P(B/A) is known as Probability of event B given event A: ______________________

o This is also called conditional probability
______________________
o Conditional probability P(B/A) = P(A and B) / P(A)
______________________
______________________

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
► In this lecture, we learned to:
______________________
● Describe and apply concepts such as:
o Independence. ______________________
o Mutually exclusive. ______________________
o Multiplication rules etc.. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Collecting Data
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.B
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Identify and classify:
o Continuous data (variables). ______________________
o Discrete data (attributes). ______________________
● Measurement scales
______________________
o Nominal.
______________________
o Ordinal.
o Interval. ______________________
o Ratio measurement scales ______________________
● Data collection methods, accuracy and integrity.

______________________
What is Data? ______________________
______________________
► Data is the record of actual observations.
► Examples
______________________
● For a cricketer it means runs, average, wickets etc. ______________________
● For quality it means rejection rate, reworks, output specification.
______________________
● A manufacturer it means sales figures, output, stock etc.
► Data and facts are the backbone of every six sigma projects. ______________________
► Without facts problem solving efforts are;
______________________
● Reduced to a guessing game,
● Chances of success are low. ______________________
______________________


______________________
Classification of Data ______________________
______________________
Data Types ______________________
______________________
Variable Attribute ______________________
(Continuous) (Discrete)
Data that can take Data that is result of

______________________
fractional values
• Length
some count
• Customers per day
______________________
• Breadth • Tele calls per day
• Diameter • Rejections per hour ______________________
• Time • Absents per month
______________________

______________________
Measurement Scales ______________________
______________________
► I am a gear shaft producer, to check my production quality I have taken ______________________
the measurement of 1 0shafts we produce. The output were:
● Diameter in mm: 19.1, 18.5, 17.9, 18.2, 19.5, 19.3, 18.6, 17.8, 18.4, 19.7, ______________________
► I am a manager at 3 star hotel, I am interested in number of guests ______________________
checked in per day. Out come of 5 days data collection were:
● Number of guests per day : 100, 110, 90, 105, 95
______________________
► I am a customer relations manager at a telecom company. I need to ______________________
measure our customer satisfaction level, I conducted a survey:
● Categories: poor, average, good, excellent
______________________
► I am a Govt official and required to conduct a survey of marital status in a ______________________
district. Out put of my survey will be:
● Categories: single, married, divorced, widower

______________________
Classification of Data ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Different situations of
measurement. Is there ______________________
any way to classify these
measurement scales?
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Measurement Scales ______________________
______________________
► All measurement in science can be conducted using four different types
of scales. ______________________
Measurement Scales
______________________
______________________
______________________
Ratio Interval Nominal Ordinal ______________________
For measuring For measuring data Defines the data Defines the data ______________________
data which has: which has: into categories: into meaningful
• Meaningful • Meaningful • By name order: ______________________
differences. differences. • Status etc. • By grading
• There exists an • But no absolute • Eg. Operators, • Ranking etc.
absolute zero zero machines, • Eg. A grade
• Eg. Length, age, • Eg. Date, designations etc. students, ranks
weight. temperature etc. etc.

______________________
Data Sources ______________________
______________________
Data Sources
______________________
______________________
______________________
Observations
______________________
Survey
______________________
Electronic
______________________
Experiments
______________________

______________________
Data collection process ______________________
______________________
► Ensure that the data collected is not time or person dependent
► Ensure for the followings: ______________________
● Data integrity: is data genuine? ______________________
● Data precision and accuracy: using the right operational definitions
and appropriated gauges for collecting data. ______________________
● Data consistency: ensure there are no changes in measurement
systems, operational definitions, Metric etc during the course of the
______________________
project. ______________________
● Time traceability: data must be traceable to the time it was collected.
______________________
______________________


______________________
Data Collection Methods ______________________
______________________
► Data can be collected in numerous ways using:
● Check sheets,
______________________
● Universal data sheets ______________________
● Coded data sheets etc.
► However, a good data collection plan is essential to bring down
______________________
meaningful data for the project. A sample data collection plan could be: ______________________
CTQ Definition Data type Size How collected By Whom ______________________
Internal Leak/ Variable 40 During testing Mr. A
Internal leak from hydro booster at test bed ______________________
during testing
______________________
External leak/ Attribute 40 During testing Mr. B
External leak of hyd oil from any at test bed
points of booster during testing

______________________
Assuring Data Accuracy ______________________
______________________
► Process of collecting a portion of data for study from population.
► Different strategies of sampling are:
______________________
● Random sampling: ______________________
o Simple Random sampling: (where population is homogeneous), each
item for sample have equal chances of being selected. Can use random ______________________
table, bowl of numbered chit etc for selection of item.
______________________
o Stratified sampling: When population is known to be from different
sources (machines, production shifts, operators etc). Items are selected ______________________
from each group.
• Judgmental sampling: Where sampling is done based on one‟s experience ______________________
and opinion.
______________________

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Identify and classify:
______________________
o Continuous data (variables). ______________________
o Discrete data (attributes). ______________________
● Measurement scales
______________________
o Nominal.
o Ordinal.
______________________
o Interval. ______________________
o Ratio measurement scales ______________________
● Data collection methods, accuracy and integrity.


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Descriptive Statistics
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Define, compute and interpret:
______________________
o Measures of dispersion and central tendency. ______________________
o Construct and interpret frequency distributions, ______________________
o Cumulative frequency distributions.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Central Tendency and Spread ______________________
______________________
► Measures of central Tendency :
● Mean is often best measure of central tendency
______________________
● Median is the centre of a data set, best used when there is no ______________________
extreme values in a data set
● Mode is rarely used central tendency ______________________
► Measures of spread or variation: ______________________
● Standard deviation and variance are most commonly used (standard
deviation is the square root of variance) ______________________
● Range, which is rarely used ______________________
______________________


______________________
Descriptive Statistics Example ______________________
______________________
► Let us consider the score of 35 students in science:
______________________
30 65 35 40 65 35 70
90 45 50 45 55 75 45 ______________________
50 50 60 75 80 85 85
______________________
55 40 65 60 80 70 55
60 55 60 70 60 75 60 ______________________
______________________
► What information can we derive from this set of data.
► By seeing this data, as such we cannot derive any information.
______________________
► We need to use descriptive statistic technique to describe this data set. ______________________

______________________
Cumulative Frequency Distribution Table ______________________
► When we count and tabulate the frequencies and cumulative frequencies,
______________________
it is called a cumulative frequency distribution table: : ______________________
Marks Number of students Scored Cumulative
this mark (frequency) Frequency ______________________
30 1 1
35 2 3
______________________
40 2 5 ______________________
45 3 8
50 3 11 ______________________
55 4 15
60 6 21
______________________
65 3 24
______________________
70 3 27
75 3 30
80 2 32
85 2 34
90 1 35
______________________
Understanding Central Tendency and Variation ______________________
______________________
______________________
6
______________________
5 ______________________
4
3 ______________________
2
1
______________________
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
______________________
Marks
______________________
Central Tendency
Variation


______________________
Descriptive Statistics ______________________
______________________
► Statistically, central tendency and variation are calculated as:
● Mean and variance or standard deviation.
______________________
______________________
o Mean or simple average :
______________________
______________________
o Variance of a data set : s2 =
______________________
______________________
o Standard deviation : ______________________

______________________
Examples ______________________
______________________
► Consider the IQ scores of 5 students; 96, 104, 126, 134 and 140. let us
calculate the mean and standard deviation: ______________________
x (x - x) (x – x )2 ______________________
96 (96 - 120) = -24 576 ______________________
104 (104 - 120) = -16 256
126 (126 - 120) = 6 36 ______________________
134 (134 - 120) = 14 196
______________________
140 (140 - 120) = 20 400
Total (Σ) 600 1464 ______________________
Mean x = Σx / n: i.e 600/5 = 120 ______________________
Variance s2 = = 1464 / 4 = 366
Standard deviation i.e 1464 / 4 = 19.13

______________________
Mean, Standard Deviation with Minitab ______________________
______________________
► Assuming that you have already installed Minitab trial version.
► This is a practice session. Those who would like practice, download the
______________________
file from the link “2. MEAN & STD DEV” ______________________
● Click Calc > Column Statistics
● Column statistics dialog box will open ______________________
● Click Mean / standard deviation / median etc what ever you need to ______________________
find.
● Click on input variable and type „Supplier A‟ or double click on ______________________
supplier A on left tab.
● Click OK to view the result on session window.
______________________
► Same can be calculated using excel sheet also. ______________________


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Click Mean, then click input variable
box and double click the Supplier A and
click OK

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Session window shows Mean. Similarly
______________________
standard deviation can also be calculated. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Define, compute and interpret:
______________________
o Measures of dispersion and central tendency. ______________________
o Construct and interpret frequency distributions, ______________________
o Cumulative frequency distributions.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Graphical Methods (Stem Leaf/Run chart/Box plot)
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Depict relationships by construct/apply/interpret diagrams such as:
______________________
o Stem and leaf plots.‟ ______________________
o Box and whisker plots. ______________________
Run charts.
o
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Stem and Leaf ______________________
______________________
► A graphical method of describing data, often when data is grouped.
► For example from a set of data of some measurement:
______________________
0.19
0.25
0.24
0.38
0.37
0.24
0.11
0.35
0.18
0.22
0.24
0.42
0.42
0.18
0.36
0.49
______________________
______________________
0.11 Stem and Leaf
0.18 ______________________
0.18
0.19
0.22
.1 1 8 8 9 ______________________
0.24
0.24 .2 2 4 4 4 5 ______________________
0.24
0.25
.3 5 6 7 8
______________________
0.35
0.36
0.37 .4 2 2 9
0.38
0.42
0.42
0.49

______________________
Run Charts ______________________
______________________
► Run chart is simply a basic plot of specific process or product value on
fixed time interval. ______________________
► Example: No. of complaints received per 30 min in a service centre: ______________________
______________________
10
______________________
8
______________________
6
______________________
4
2
______________________
1200
0830
1130
0930
0900
0800
1100
1030
1000

______________________
Box Plots ______________________
______________________
► Provide graphical summary of the pattern of variation
► Especially useful:
______________________
● When working with small sets of data ______________________
● Comparing many different situations
► Box plots of any data set can be understood by its five elements:
______________________
● Lowest value in the data set ______________________
● First quartile; the point below which 25% of data falls.
● Median; the middle value in the set of data
______________________
● Third quartile, the point below which 75% of data falls. ______________________
● The largest value in the set of data
______________________

______________________
How to construct? ______________________
______________________
► Eg; Response time in minutes by two Maintenance team of a company
______________________
A 233 335 258 197 262 35 216 173 241 280
B 182 241 146 92 218 205 115 135 289 178

______________________
► Step 1; Arrange the data in order ______________________
A 35 173 197 216 233 241 258 262 280 335 ______________________
B 92 115 135 146 178 182 205 218 241 269 ______________________
► Step 2; find the depth of median = d(m) = (n+1) / 2, where n = number of ______________________
observation in the set of data; here d(m) = (10+1) / 2 = 5.5
► Step 3; find the median, here median lies at 5.5th position of the data ______________________
● Median = 233 + 0.5 (241 – 233) = 247 minute for Team A
● Median = 178 + 0.5 (182 – 178) = 180 minutes for Team B


______________________
How to construct? ______________________
______________________
► Step 3; Find depth of first quartile d(Q1) and third quartile d(Q3)
● d(Q1) = [(1 x n) + 2] / 4 = [(1 x 10) + 2] / 4 = 3
______________________
● d(Q3) = [(3 x n) + 2] / 4 = [(3 x 10) + 2] / 4 = 8 ______________________
► Step 4; find the 1st and 3rd quartile which 3rd and 8th data respectively as
well as lowest and highest value of data set; ______________________
______________________
Contractor A Contractor B
______________________
Median = 247 Median = 180
______________________
First quartile = 197 First quartile = 135 ______________________
Third quartile = 262 Third quartile = 218
Lowest value = 35 Lowest value = 92
Highest value = 335 Highest value = 269

______________________
How to construct? ______________________
______________________
► Step 5; plot all the 5 values in a graph in following fashion
______________________
400
______________________
345
______________________
Response Time in Minutes
279
300
272
228
______________________
247
200
190 ______________________
207
145
______________________
102
100
______________________
45
0
A B
Contractors

______________________
How to interpret? ______________________
______________________
► Median response time of B was 180 minutes compared to 237 minutes of A
► Variability in A‟s response time was greater than B‟s ______________________
► Fastest response time was of team A, but that does not mean performance ______________________
of team A is better. Because;
● Only about 25% of team A‟s response time was less than 197 minutes ______________________
● Whereas 75% of team B‟s response time was less than 228 minutes ______________________
● Nearly 25% of team A‟s response times were longer than B‟s longest
response time. ______________________
► With this comparison we can conclude that team B‟s performance is better
than of team A.
______________________
______________________


______________________
Box Plot in Minitab ______________________
______________________
► For those who would like to practice:
► Download the file 3.BOX PLOTS from the link
______________________
► Double click on “3. BOX PLOTS” ______________________
► To analyse construct Box Plot:
● Click Graph > Boxplot
______________________
● Boxplot Dialog Box will open. ______________________
● Click „simple‟ and click OK.
● Boxplot One Y Sample dialog box will open.
______________________
● Double click on Team A and click OK ______________________
● Boxplot Graph window will open
______________________
● Analyse the graph
● Repeat the exercise for Team B by yourself.

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Click Graph> Boxplot then click one Y simple.
You can also click multiple Y simple to draw
two box plots together.

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Click Graph variables and double click Team A
and click OK


______________________
Box Plot in Minitab 15 ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
► Other graphical methods include:
______________________
● Regression analysis
● Pareto analysis
______________________
● Histogram etc. ______________________
► All these tools have been covered in your green belt, please revise. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Discrete Probability Distributions
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.E
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
● Describe and interpret the probability distributions such as:
______________________
o Binominal. ______________________
o Poisson. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Probability Distributions ______________________
______________________
► In the previous lecture we talked about various graphical methods of
describing set of data. ______________________
► There were part of descriptive statistics. ______________________
► Inferential statistics deals with inferring about population parameters
based on descriptive parameters (mean, standard deviation etc.) ______________________
► Probability distributions play a major role in inferential statistics.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
► Consider the following situations:
● A sales person knows that chance of maturing a sale in first call itself
______________________
is 20%. He needs to call 8 customers one day. He would like to ______________________
know the probabilities of maturing 2, 4, and 6 sales each in first call
itself. ______________________
● A service manager of a vehicle service station knows that almost 26
vehicles per hour comes to his station for servicing. He would like to ______________________
know the probabilities of 100 or more vehicles coming to him in five ______________________
hours.
● An operation manager of screw manufacturing process knows the ______________________
mean and standard deviation of his process. He would like to know
the percentage of ball bearings that would not meet the customer ______________________
specification.


______________________
______________________
► Different and complex situations; can we help them in predicting the
probabilities? ______________________
► Over centuries, statisticians developed various probability distributions, to ______________________
predict the chance of occurrence of some events of interest.
► There are called probability distributions; which are either: ______________________
● Table, formula or graph that describes,
______________________
● The values of a variable and the probability associated with these
values ______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Types of Probability Distributions ______________________
______________________
Probability ______________________
Distributions
______________________
______________________
Discrete Probability Distributions Continuous Probability Distributions ______________________
• Bi-nominal distributions • Normal distribution
• Poisson distribution • Students t distribution ______________________
• Chi-square distribution
• F distribution etc
______________________
______________________

______________________
Binominal Distribution ______________________
______________________
► The conditions for using binominal distribution are:
● It consists of fixed number of trials (n).
______________________
● For each trial there are two possible outcomes. ______________________
o Can label the one outcome as „success’ and other as „failure’
o Probability of success is „p’ and probability of failure „1-p’

______________________
► The symbology relevant to binominal distribution are: ______________________
● Sample size or number of trial (n).
● Number of successes in the sample (x)
______________________
● Probability of a success for each trial (p) ______________________
● Key assumptions are:
o Each trial is independent.
______________________
o Each trial can result only two outcome: success or failure.


______________________
Binominal Probability Example ______________________
______________________
► Equation for binominal formula is:
n! ______________________
P(x) = px (1-p)n-x
x! (n-x)!
______________________
► Example; sample size of 6 products selected from a batch with non
conforming percentage known as 15%. Find the probability that there are
______________________
exactly 2 non conforming units in this sample. ______________________
● Solution; given that:
o n = 6, x = 2 and p = 15% or 0.15 hence,
______________________
P(2) =
6! 0.152 (1-0.15)6-2 = 0.1762
______________________
2! (6-2)!
o Probability of getting exactly 2 non conformities in the sample of 6
______________________
is equal to 17.62%.

______________________
Poisson Distribution ______________________
______________________
► Another useful discrete probability distribution is the Poisson probability
distribution.
______________________
► Like binominal, the random variable of interest here is also named as ______________________
success of an event.
► The differences between binominal and Poisson are: ______________________
● Random variable in binominal is success in a set of trial (n) ______________________
● Random variable in Poisson is success in an interval of time or
specified region of space. ______________________
► The symbology relevant to Poisson distribution are: ______________________
● Number of successes in an interval(x)
● Mean number of success (µ) in an interval.
______________________

______________________
Poisson Distribution : Example ______________________
e- µ µ x
______________________
► Equation for Poisson distribution is: P(x) = x! ______________________
► Example; In book publishing section, it is known that number of ______________________
typographical error is Poisson distributed as 1.5 errors per 100. The
manager wants to know the probability of typographical errors to be zero ______________________
in 400 page book published recently. ______________________
● Solution; given that:
o µ = 1.5 per 100 pages; means 6 per 400 pages
______________________
o x = 0.
e- 6 µ 0
______________________
P(o) = = 0.00247
0! ______________________
o i.e. Probability of getting zero typographical errors is newly
published book is 0.24% only.


______________________
Poisson/Binominal in Excel ______________________
______________________
► The calculations in all of the probability distributions are tedious.
► Excel sheet could also be used for finding these distributions.
______________________
► For binominal probability we need to know: ______________________
● Probability success (p), number of success (x) and number of trials (n).
● Formula for excel is “=BINOMDIST(x, n, p, True or False)
______________________
● The example for binominal can be calculated in excel as: ______________________
o Select a cell and type: =BINOMDIST(2, 6, 0.15, False) and enter,
we will get the same answer as 0.176
______________________
► Similarly for Poisson we need to know: ______________________
● Number of successes in an interval(x), mean number of success ( µ).
● Formula for excel is “=POISSON(x, µ, True or False)
______________________
● The example for Poisson can be calculated in excel as:
o Select a cell and type: =POISSON(0, 6, False) and enter, we will
get the same answer as 0.00247

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
______________________
o Binominal. ______________________
o Poisson. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Continuous Probability Distributions
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.E
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
o Normal. ______________________
o Chi square. ______________________
Students‟ t.
o
______________________
o F distributions.
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Properties of Normal Distribution ______________________
______________________
► The curve can be divided in half with equal set of values falling either side
► The peak of the curve represents the center of the process
______________________
► Area under the curve represents 100% of the product/output of the ______________________
process is capable of producing
► A normal distribution can be defined by determining two factors: ______________________
● The mean (µ) and ______________________
● Standard Deviation (σ) of a process
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
► Most important property of a normal distribution is, prediction on
percentage of data falling under +1σ, +2σ, +3σ, ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
µ
-3σ -2σ -1σ +1σ +2σ +3σ
68%
95%
99.73%


______________________
______________________
► Screw manufacturer‟s process is normally distributed with mean (µ) ______________________
50mm and Standard Deviation (σ) as 2mm. A random sample of 1000
screws were collected, how many % of screws are expected fall between: ______________________
● 48 to 52 mm
______________________
● 46 to 54 mm
● 44 to 56 mm ______________________
► Answer:
______________________
● µ = 50 mm, σ = 2mm, hence µ + 1σ = 50 + 1x2 = 48 to 52 mm
● In normal distribution, 68% of data falls under µ + 1σ. ______________________
● 68% of 1000 i.e. 680 screws expected to fall under 48 to 52 mm
______________________
● Similarly µ + 2σ = 50 + 2x2 = 46 to 54 mm,
● 95%, i.e. 950 screws out of 1000 are expected under 46 to 54 mm.

______________________
______________________
______________________
Yes, by linking this Its ok but, will I be able to
distribution with a predict the % of data falling ______________________
Standard Normal under say 46.5 to 51.5 mm?
distribution ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
µ=50mm
-3σ = 44 -2σ = 46 -1σ = 48 +1σ = 52 +2σ = 54 +3σ = 56
68%
95%
99.73%

______________________
Standard normal distribution ______________________
______________________
► What is standard normal distribution? ______________________
► How do I link my normal distribution with a standard distribution?
► Standard distribution is a normal distribution with:
______________________
● The mean (µ) = 0 ______________________
● Standard Deviation (σ) = 1
► We link any normal distribution to standard normal distribution, with the
______________________
help of Z score, where: ______________________
Z = (x - µ) / σ
x is any data point in normal distribution, z value can be either +ve or – ve ______________________
______________________


______________________
Concept of Z value ______________________
______________________
What is Z value ______________________
corresponding to 51.5 mm; What is Z value
Z = (51.5 - 50) / 2 = .75 corresponding to 46.5 mm; ______________________
Z = (46.5 - 50) / 2 = -1.75
______________________
______________________
______________________
-3σ = 44
µ=50mm +3σ = 56
-2σ = 46 -1σ = 48 +1σ = 52 +2σ = 54
______________________
Z= -3 Z= -2 Z = -1 µ=0 Z= 1 Z=2 Z=3
______________________
Z = .75
Z = - 1.75

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Z= -3 Z= -2 Z = -1 µ=0
Z= 1 Z=2 Z=3
► We can divide the total data set or area under the curve into two halves:
______________________
• 50% of data set in +ve Z values and 50 percent at -ve Z values ______________________
• Total area under the curve is 100%. It means area under each half
is 50% or 0.5.
• The area corresponding to a particular Z value can be obtained
from Z table.

______________________
______________________
Now let us predict the % of
data falling under say 46.5 ______________________
to 51.5 mm?
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Z= -3 Z= -2 Z = -1 µ=0
Z= 1 Z=2 Z=3
______________________
Z= -1.75 Z= -.75
► In order to find the probability of data falling at these z values, use a

Z table


______________________
Z table ______________________
______________________
► Area corresponding to Z value 0.75
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Area corresponding to Z0.75 = 0.2734

______________________
Z table ______________________
______________________
► Similarly, area corresponding to Z value 1.75
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Area corresponding to Z-1.75 = 0.4599

______________________
______________________
► Hence the total area between Z-1.75 and Z0.75 = 0.2734 + 0.4599
= 0.7333 or 73.33% ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Z= -3 Z= -2 Z = -1 µ=0
Z= 1 Z=2 Z=3
______________________
Z= -1.75 Z= -.75 ______________________
► It means 73.33% of screws are expected to be within the diameter of
46.5 to 51.5 mm


______________________
Z Value using Minitab ______________________
______________________
► We have discussed about normal Z table.
► However there are cumulative z tables also
______________________
► In cumulative method, in order to find out the area between two Z values; ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Z1 Z2
The area between Z1 and Z2 = ______________________
______________________
Z2 Z1
Area below Z2 – Area below Z1

______________________
Z Value using Excel ______________________
______________________
► Normal probability could also be determined using MS Excel.
► Excel gives the cumulative value of Z.
______________________
► For finding normal probability we need to know two factors: ______________________
● Mean & standard deviation.
______________________
► The formula for finding Z value in Excel is:
● =NORMDIST(x, mean, standard deviation, True) ______________________
● To find the Z value in Excel, for the example we just discussed:
______________________
o Type in one cell of Excel as =NORMDIST(51.5, 50, 2, True)
o We get the same answer as 0.7733 ______________________

o Similarly type in another cell as =NORMDIST(46.5, 50, 2, True)
______________________
o We get the same answer as 0.040
► Subtracting 0.7733 from 0.040:

● we get the probability of data lying between 46.5 and 51.5 as 73.33%

______________________
Student t Distribution ______________________
______________________
► This is similar to normal distribution; the major difference is:
● Normal distribution is used when population parameters are known.
______________________
● Student t distribution is used when population parameters unknown. ______________________
► In practical situation population parameters are seldom known.
______________________
► Student t distribution is also best for when sample size is < 30.
► Formula for „t‟ is similar to formula for „z‟ where z and t as: ______________________
(x - µ) (x - µ)
______________________
Z = T =
σ s/√n ______________________
______________________


______________________
Other Continuous Distributions ______________________
______________________
► The other major continuous distributions are:
● Chi-Square distributions.
______________________
● F distributions. ______________________
● Both are used for comparing the variance of two samples or
populations.
______________________
► The major inputs for these distributions are: ______________________
● Degrees of freedom, which is nothing but,
______________________
● One minus of the sample size (n-1)
► These distributions are commonly used during hypothesis testing. ______________________
(n-1)s2 ______________________
► Chi-Square distribution: X2 = 2 σ2
X/v1
► F distribution: F= 2
Y/v2

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
______________________
o Normal. ______________________
o Chi square. ______________________
o Students‟ t. ______________________
o F distributions.
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Measurement System Analysis
______________________
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.C
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
● Calculate, analyze and interpret measurement system capability:
______________________
o Repeatability & Reproducibility (Gage R&R). ______________________
o Measurement correlation. ______________________
o Measurement bias.
______________________
o Linearity.
o Percent agreement.
______________________
o Precision/Tolerance (P/T) etc. ______________________
______________________

______________________
Measurement System Analysis MSA ______________________
______________________
► Objective of measure phase is to:
● Identify the critical outputs and inputs using process knowledge:
______________________
o Key Process Output Variables (KPOV) ______________________
o Key Process Input variables (KPIV)
► After identifying KPOVs and KPIVs, we need to:

______________________
● Define a data collection plan. ______________________
● Collect data to measure the current performance of the process.
► But before we start measuring, we need to validate:
______________________
● Whether the measurement system capable of generating accurate ______________________
data of KPOVs and KPIVs? In order to validate this,
● Need to carry out Measurement System Analysis (MSA) too. ______________________

______________________
Measurement System Analysis (MSA) ______________________
______________________
► It is difficult to find out a perfect measurement system
► All measurement systems are subject to variation.
______________________
► The sources of variation in measurement system are: ______________________
● Operator
● Gauge/Equipment
______________________
● Part ______________________
► By MSA we study the Repeatability and Reproducibility of gauge (R&R)
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Gauge R&R ______________________
______________________
► Stands for Gauge Repeatability and Reproducibility ______________________
► Repeatability:
● The variation in measurements of same piece of product taken by ______________________
one operator with same gauge (variation due to gauge)
______________________
► Reproducibility:
● The variation in the average of measurements taken by different ______________________
operators while using the same gauge to measure same piece of
product (variation due to operator) ______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Common MSA Terminology ______________________
______________________
► Bias:
● Systematic difference between mean of the measurement result and
______________________
true value. ______________________
► Linearity:
● Difference in bias through the range of measurements. ______________________
► Precision to tolerance ratio (PTR): ______________________
● Measure of the capability of the measurement system:
► Percent agreement: ______________________
● Refers to the percent of time in an attribute Gage (R&R) where the
appraisers agree with themselves.
______________________
______________________

______________________
Gauge R&R ______________________
______________________
► A simple way to study Gauge R&R is: ______________________
● Select the gauge used in the process under study
● Select 3 operators and 10 different parts ______________________
● Get 2 or 3 measurements each for these 10 parts ______________________
● Calculate each variations and total variation in measurements
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Gauge R&R study (with one gauge) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

______________________
______________________
► We will get total 60 or 90 measurements based on the trials ______________________
► The measurements will show 3 types of variations:
● Part to part variation (It must be, as each part is different)
______________________
● Repeatability (variation in same part measurements by same operator) ______________________
● Reproducibility (variation in same part measurements by different
operators) ______________________
● Total variation contributed by the above variations
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Different Measurement Variations ______________________
Part to Part variation in measurements. This
has to be, as each parts are different
______________________
______________________
______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ______________________
Variation in measurements taken by same operator with same ______________________
gage. Less Repeatability caused by faulty gage .
______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 ______________________
Variation in average measurements taken by different operators with same
gage. Less Reproducibility caused by un trained operators.
______________________
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3


______________________
______________________
► Your MSA is said to be validated if: ______________________
● R&R variation to the total variation is ≤ 14%;
● > 14% ≤ 28% is acceptable subject to cost of repair of gauge ______________________
► Gauge R&R calculation is tedious hence we use Minitab software. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
MSA with Minitab ______________________
______________________
► Download and double click on “1. MSA”
► This files consist of two sets of measurement data: ______________________
● 60 set of measurement data by 3 operators each for each gauge: ______________________
o Micrometer
o Bore gauge
______________________
● We show you the MSA for Micrometer, you need to do the MSA for ______________________
Bore gauge yourself for practice.
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Click Stat > Quality Tools > Gage ______________________
Study > Gage (RR Crossed)


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Double click on sample, operator,

micrometer respectively and click ok

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Session window ______________________
results
______________________
Graphical window
results

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
%SV should be less than 28% and Number of

Distinct Categories should be more than 5 for
MSA to be accepted.

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Part to part variation has to be more

and Gage RR variation should be
below 28%
______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Calculate, analyze and interpret measurement system capability:
______________________
o Repeatability & Reproducibility (Gage R&R). ______________________
o Measurement correlation. ______________________
o Measurement bias.
______________________
o Linearity.
o Percent agreement. ______________________
o Precion/Tolerance (P/T) ______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Process Capability Studies1
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK F ______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
● Identify, describe and apply the process capability studies.
______________________
● Identify characteristics, specifications and tolerances. ______________________
● Distinguish between: ______________________
o Natural process limits and specification limits.
______________________
o Calculate process performance metrics.
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Process Capability ______________________
______________________
► The ability of a process to meet customer specifications. ______________________
► An important tool for:
● Choosing the best out of a set competing processes. ______________________
● Predicting the extent of variation for any process.
______________________
● Evaluation of new equipment, process audit, etc…..
► Two key variables to study the process capability of a process are: ______________________
● Specification limit
______________________
● Control limit
► Let us examine these two factors in detail: ______________________
______________________

______________________
Process Capability ______________________
______________________
______________________
Input Process Output
______________________
______________________
Every process has its own inherent ability to
produce a product/service, depending upon:
Out requirements are specified by its user
or customer. ______________________
•
•
Men involved in the process
Machine involved in the process
It has nothing to do with the inherent ability
of a process.
______________________
• Material supplied for the process
• Methods used in production process
The out put requirements are expressed as ______________________
specification limits (Voice of Customer)
This inherent ability is expressed as the
control limits of a process (Voice of ______________________
Process)
Ability to meet customer specification

Capability of process is its


______________________
Control Limits ______________________
______________________
► Control limits are inherent to the process. ______________________
► Control limit is a function of natural variability of a process;
● Means control limit is a function of standard deviation of a process. ______________________
► In order to find the control limit of process, we need to; ______________________
● Know population mean (µ) of the process and;
● Standard deviation (σ). ______________________
● If standard deviation is not, it can also be estimated from sample ______________________
standard deviation(s).
● The control limits for a process is µ 3σ ______________________
______________________

______________________
Control Limits ______________________
______________________
► Example of control limit: ______________________
● You have a process that produces shaft.
● The (mean µ) and standard deviation (σ) if the population is known as: ______________________
o 200 mm and 10 mm respectively
______________________
● The control limits are 200 3 x 10 mm:
● The Lower Control Limit (LCL) and Upper Control Limit (UCL) are; ______________________
______________________
Parameters Sample µ σ LCL UCL Width (6σ)
______________________
Diameter of Shaft 10 200mm 10mm 170 mm 230 mm 60 mm ______________________

______________________
Specification limit ______________________
______________________
► For every product or process there is a desired level of performance.
► Commonly called as target and limits ______________________
► This desired level is stipulated by customers. ______________________
► Target value examples:
● Curing temperature : 90o C ______________________
● Courier delivery : 10 am ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Specification limit ______________________
______________________
► Is it possible to maintain the curing time exactly at 90o C ? or, ______________________
► Is it possible to deliver the courier exactly at 10 am ?
● No there will always be a variation. ______________________
● Then how much variation is permissible, they are the limits. ______________________
● Eg 90 4o C , 10 am 1 hour
► Lower Spec limit (LSL), target and Upper Spec Limit (USL) are; ______________________
______________________
Parameters LSL Target USL Spec Width (USL-LSL)
Curing Temperature 86o C 90o C 94o C 8o C ______________________
Courier Delivery 9 am 10 am 11 am 2 hour
______________________

______________________
Process Capability Example ______________________
______________________
► Operation Manager of some company needs to select supplier for a
shaft.
______________________
► The specification of the shaft is 40+5mm. ______________________
► There were 4 suppliers viz, A, B, C and D.
► How has he selected the best supplier:
______________________
● A team has visited all the supplies premises. ______________________
● They have carried out audit of supplier processes.
● They collected 20 random samples of shaft from each supplier and
______________________
● Conducted a process capability study of each supplier. ______________________
► Let us see the result of process capability study;
______________________

______________________
Variation from Supplier to Supplier ______________________
______________________
______________________
Supplier Measurements of 25 samples Average ______________________
A
33
41
47
38
46
42
34
36
35
40
41
36
44
44
37
38
43
37
39
43
39
45
42
40
40
40 ______________________
40 41 40 37 35 41 44 37 41 39 40 42 40
______________________
B 40
41 39 41 39 40 40 44 38 39 41 39 42
______________________
39 41 39 40 38 41 40 39 39 39 39 38 40
C
40 40 38 40 40 41 41 41 40 42 41 41
40 ______________________
D
39 41 39 41 40 38 42 39 41 40 39 40 41
40
______________________
39 40 41 39 40 41 39 40 41 40 40 40


______________________
Variation from Supplier to Supplier ______________________
______________________
► The average of all suppliers are 40?
► Does this information is enough to select the supplier? ______________________
► Then what makes the difference between the suppliers. ______________________
It is the standard deviation (s) that differentiates the suppliers ______________________
Suppliers Mean µ Stddev(s) ______________________
Supplier A 40 3.76
Supplier B 40 1.68
______________________
Supplier C 40 1.06 ______________________
Supplier D 40 .08
______________________
Lesser the standard Deviation, Better the process performance

______________________
Process of Supplier A (σ = 3.76) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LSL (35 mm) USL (45 mm)
______________________
Defects
Defects ______________________
______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 ______________________
Specification width (USL – LSL) = 10 mm
Process width or control limits (UCL – LCL) = 6s = 22.58

______________________
Process of Supplier B (σ = 1.68) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LSL (35 mm) USL (45 mm) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Process width or control limits (UCL – LCL) = 6s = 10


______________________
Process of Supplier C (σ = 1.06) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 ______________________

______________________
Process of supplier D (σ = .08) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 ______________________

______________________
Selection Based on Variation ______________________
______________________
Process width > Specification width (Cp < 1) Process width = Specification width (Cp = 1)
process not capable process just capable ______________________
LSL USL LSL USL
______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Supplier A Supplier B ______________________

Process width < Spec width (Cp > 1)
Process width much less than Spec width (Cp = 2)
process at 6σ capability
______________________
process capable
LSL USL LSL USL

______________________
______________________
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
Supplier C Supplier D


______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Identify, describe and apply the process capability studies.
______________________
● Identify characteristics, specifications and tolerances. ______________________
● Distinguish between: ______________________
o Natural process limits and specification limits.
______________________
o Calculate process performance metrics.
______________________
► Next Lecture – Process capability studies 2 (BOK III.F.3) ______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK F ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Define, select and calculate:
______________________
o Cp Cpk and Cpm ______________________
o Assess process capability ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Process Capability indices ______________________
______________________
► Capability of the process can be found once we know;
● Standard deviation (sigma σ ) of the process.
______________________
● Specification limit given by the customer. ______________________
● Two commonly used process capability indices are:
o Potential Process Capability (Cp)
______________________
o Process Capability Index (Cpk) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Process Capability (Cp) ______________________
______________________
► Two steps for calculating the process capability are:
● Measure the variability (sigma σ) of process and ______________________
● Compare it with customer specification for products ______________________
Specification Width
______________________
USL-LSL
Cp = =
Process Width UCL-LCL ______________________
LCL = µ - 3σ UCL = µ + 3σ ______________________
UCL-LCL = (µ + 3σ) - (µ - 3σ) = 3σ - (- 3σ) = 6σ ______________________
Cp =
USL-LSL ______________________
6σ

______________________
Process Capability of Suppliers ______________________
______________________
► Based on process capability calculation for above suppliers,
► The sample standard deviation (s) is used as estimate for sigma ( σ). ______________________
► Specification width = USL-LSL = (45 - 35) = 10 mm ______________________
Suppliers Mean µ Sigma σ (UCL-LCL) = 6σ Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6σ ______________________
Supplier A 40 3.76 25.58 0.44
______________________
Supplier B 40 2.68 16.06 1
Supplier C 40 2.07 12.43 1.5 ______________________
Supplier D 40 1.08 6.48 2 ______________________
Since, sigma is the only variable here, process capability purely
______________________
depends upon the standard deviation of any process


______________________
Process Capability Index (Cpk) ______________________
______________________
► Major weakness of Cp is that;
● In real life, hardly any process remains centered to target. ______________________
● Cpk is better measure in such cases
______________________
USL- µ µ- LSL
,
Cpk = Min
3σ 3σ ______________________
► E.g. µ = 22 , σ = 0.8 , USL = 24 , LSL = 18 find Cp and Cpk ______________________
USL-LSL 24 - 18
Cp = = = 1.25 ______________________
6σ 6 x .8
______________________
USL- µ µ- LSL 24 - 22 22 - 18
, ,
Cpk = Min
3σ 3σ
= Min
3 x .8 3 x .8
= Min [ 0.83, 1.67] = 0.83
______________________
► If Cp = Cpk it means process is centered

______________________
Process Operating at 3 Sigma Level ______________________
______________________
[identity the standard deviation to [If process width (+3σ) is equal to spec ______________________
find out process control limits (+3σ)] width, the process is said to operating
in 3 sigma level. To improve the ______________________
LSL process, we need to reduce σ] USL
High % of defects; ______________________
66800 defects per million
______________________
______________________
______________________
-3σ -2σ -1σ µ +1σ +2σ +3σ ______________________
Specification width (USL – LSL)
Process width or control limits (UCL – LCL) = 6σ

______________________
Process Operating at 4 Sigma Level ______________________
______________________
[find out where does your
[Identify the standard deviation to specification limits lie, if spec limits ______________________
find out process control limits (+3σ)] fall at 4 sigma point then the process
is said to be operating in 4 sigma ______________________
LSL level] USL
low % of defects; ______________________
6,210 defects per million
______________________
______________________
______________________
-4σ -3σ -2σ -1σ µ +1σ +2σ +3σ +4σ ______________________


______________________
Process Operating at 6Sigma Level ______________________
______________________
[Calculate the standard deviation to
[Find out where is your specification
limits, if spec limits are at 6 sigma
______________________
find out process control limits (+3σ)]
point, your process is said to
operating at 6 sigma level]
______________________
LSL
Very low % of defects;
USL
______________________
3.4 defects per million ______________________
______________________
______________________
-6σ -5σ -4σ -3σ -2σ -1σ µ +2σ +3σ +4σ +5σ +6σ ______________________

______________________
Process Capability Study : Minitab ______________________
______________________
► Download and Double click on “5. PROCESS CAPABILIYT”
► This files consist of 4 sets of quality data of 4 suppliers:
______________________
► We show you to do capability analysis for supplier A, repeat yourself for ______________________
others:
● Click Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > normal ______________________
● Capability analysis dialog box will open ______________________
● Type „Supplier A‟ at single column, type 1 in subgroup size box.
● Type lower spec as 35 and upper spec as 45 ______________________
● Click ok to view capability analysis graphic window ______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Click single column, type subgroup size as 1,

enter lower spec, upper spec and click OK

______________________
Capability Analysis with Minitab ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Defects Defects
______________________

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
● Define, select and calculate:
______________________
o Cp Cpk and Cpm ______________________
o Asses process capability ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.F
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Define, select and calculate Pp Ppk
______________________
● Asses process capability. ______________________
● Describe long and short term capability. ______________________
● Understand the concepts of 1.5 sigma shift in long term.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Process Performance Indices ______________________
______________________
► Process performance is similar to process capability indices.
► The major process performance indices are:
______________________
● Process performance index (Pp) ______________________
● Potential Process Capability (Ppk)
► Major difference between process capability and process performance
______________________
are: ______________________
● Process capability is the long term capability and calculated with
known mean and standard deviation: ______________________
o If standard deviation is not known we can also estimate it based
on sample standard deviation.
______________________
o The process is said to be statistical control. ______________________
● Process performance index is calculated with sample standard
deviation and for short period of time, as well as process may not be
in state of statistical control.


______________________
Process Performance Index (Pp) ______________________
______________________
► Two steps for calculating the process capability are:
● Measure the standard deviation (s) of process and
______________________
● Compare it with customer specification for products ______________________
______________________
Specification Width USL-LSL
Pp =
Process Width
= ______________________
UCL-LCL
LCL = µ - 3s UCL = µ + 3s
______________________
UCL-LCL = (µ + 3s) - (µ - 3s) = 3s - (- 3s) = 6s
______________________
USL-LSL
______________________
Pp =
6s

______________________
Potential Process Capability (Ppk) ______________________
______________________
► Major weakness of Cp is that;
● In real life, hardly any process remains centered to target. ______________________
● Ppk is better measure in such cases ______________________
USL- x x- LSL
,
Ppk = Min
3s 3s
______________________
► Eg. x = 22 , s = 0.8 , USL = 24 , LSL = 18 find Pp and Ppk ______________________
Pp =
USL-LSL
=
24 - 18
= 1.25 ______________________
6s 6 x .8
______________________
USL- µ µ- LSL 24 - 22 22 - 18
,
Ppk = Min
3s 3s
= Min
3 x .8
,
3 x .8
= Min [ 0.83, 1.67] = 0.83 ______________________

______________________
Long Term v/s Short Term Capability ______________________
______________________
► Often process capability indices Cp and Cpk are considered as long term
capability and, ______________________
► Process performance indices Pp and Ppk are considered as short term ______________________
capability.
► Other way of defining short and long capability as: ______________________
● For short term anything less than 30 days of production run.
______________________
● For long term everything after 30 days of production run.
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Long Term v/s Short Term Capability ______________________
______________________
► Major relation between long and short capability in six sigma parlance:
● Long term variability = short term variability + 1.5σ shift.
______________________
● This is based on the assumption that process will drift or shift + 1.5σ ______________________
in the long term.
● When this drift is taken into account, 6σ equates to 3.4 DPMO,
______________________
otherwise, 4.5σ equates to 3.4 DPMO. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
µ
+1.5σ

______________________
Process Capability for Attributes ______________________
______________________
► The above discussed capability studies are related to continuous data.
► However many of the times, data collected are of discrete in nature, such
______________________
as: ______________________
● Number of defects.
● Defective units, ______________________
● Percent defectives etc. ______________________
► There are other methods such as, p chart, np chart, u chart etc.
► They are discussed in detail in improve and control phase. ______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
Process Capability for Attributes ______________________
______________________
► DPMO is one way of finding process capability for attributes. ______________________
● DPMO calculation will be explained in next lecture.
► A process operating at six sigma levels will produce only 3.4 defective ______________________
parts per million opportunities (DPMO).
______________________
► The table below depicts the DPMO and corresponding quality
percentage for any process operating at different sigma levels ______________________
Sigma Level (σ) Quality % DPMO ______________________
1σ 30.23 697700
______________________
2σ 69.13 308700
3σ 93.32 66800 ______________________
4σ 99.3790 6210
5σ 99.97670 233
6σ 99.99966 3.4


______________________
Conducting Process Capability Study ______________________
______________________
► General way that industries follow for conducting process capability study
are: ______________________
● Select the quality characteristic of interest. ______________________
● Confirm the measurement system is capable.
● Gather data in 25 to 30 uniformly sized subgroups.
______________________
● Use control charts to find process is in statistical control. ______________________
● Conduct normality test of collected data.
● Determine process capability (either manually or using Minitab).
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Process Capability for Attributes
______________________
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.F.5
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
● Calculate process performance metrics:
o Defects Per Unit (DPU) ______________________
o Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO), sigma levels and process ______________________
capability indices.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
DPMO ______________________
______________________
► Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) is the metric to describe the ______________________
defects in six sigma. In order to understand DPMO we need to
understand the following terms: ______________________
● Unit
______________________
● Defect
● Defective ______________________
● Defect opportunity
______________________
● Defects per unit
● Defects per opportunity ______________________
______________________

______________________
Unit, Defect ______________________
______________________
► In order to understand the above terms let us take the example of ready ______________________
made shirt manufacturing:
A unit is a product, component or service
______________________
to be studied with a six sigma project.
Here 1 shirt is a unit. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
A defect is a non conformance on one of ______________________
quality characteristics of a unit that
causes customer dissatisfaction. Eg
button missing, cuts, marks etc.

______________________
Defect Opportunities ______________________
______________________
► A defect opportunity is each circumstance in which a quality is not met.
______________________
► what are the defect opportunities for this shirt keeping in view of the
customer? ______________________
Faded colour ______________________
Loose stitches
Cuts in shirt ______________________

Pocket
missing
______________________
Dirt, marks in
shirt ______________________
Button
Improper
missing
______________________
packing Size label not
attached
8 possible defect opportunities


______________________
Calculating DPMO ______________________
______________________
► In order to find out the DPMO of shirt making process, let us take a ______________________
sample of shirts and find out the defects.
► In this case we have taken a sample of 15 shirts and study the defects. ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
All shirts are not
identical, there are
variation
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
There are lot

many defects
too
______________________
______________________
Pocket missing from ______________________
shirt a defect
button missing from

______________________
shirt a defect
______________________
______________________
______________________
Pen marks in ______________________
shirt a defect
______________________
Cuts in shirts a defect


______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
A non conforming unit is a defective unit. A defective unit may contain one or more defects.
There are 9 defective units in the above case

______________________
Defect Per Unit (DPU) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Total 10 defects ______________________
in 15 units
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
Defect per unit is the average of all the defects for a given number of units. This is calculated
by taking a set of sample(in the above case it is we checked 15 units) and total number of
defects in that sample (here there were total 10 defects). Now divide total defects by total
units to find out DPU (ie 10/15 = .67)

______________________
Calculation of DPMO ______________________
______________________
► In order to calculate the DPMO you need to calculate the Defects per ______________________
opportunity which is equal to:
______________________
● DPU / Defect opportunities
● ie (.67 / 8)
______________________
► Defects per million opportunities (DPMO) as the name itself suggests ______________________
defects per piece in a process when it produces a million item:
● = (.67 / 8) x 1,000,000 = 83750
______________________
● It means when this company produces 1 million shirts, the process is ______________________
likely to make 83750 defects.
► What is the sigma level for this process? ______________________


______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
______________________
o Defects Per Unit (DPU) ______________________
o Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO), sigma levels and process ______________________
capability indices.
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________

______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
LECTURE: Process capability for Attributes2
ASQ Six Sigma Black Belt BOK V.F.5 ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
o Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) ______________________
o Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


______________________
Process Yield ______________________
______________________
► A yield is a pass rate of product and is defined in various ways;
● First Time Yield (FTY); number of good units produced divided by the
______________________
number of total units going into the process; ______________________
● Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY); Rolled Throughput Yield is similar to
FTY, but process reworks are also considered while calculating yield. ______________________
______________________
Process A
Process Inputs
______________________
Process B
______________________
Process C ______________________
Process Output

______________________
Process Yield Examples ______________________
______________________
► First Time Yield (FTY); Suppose there is process X which has three sub
process viz A, B, C; Inputs and outputs in unit for each sub processes ______________________
are:
______________________
90 80
100 Process A Process B Process C 75 ______________________
______________________
● FTY for Process A = 90/100 = 0.9
● FTY for Process B = 80/90 = 0.89 ______________________
● FTY for Process C = 75/80 =0.94
______________________
► Total First Time Yield for process X = 0.9 x 0.89 x 0.94 = 0.75
______________________

______________________
Process Yield Examples ______________________
______________________
► Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY); In the same example suppose there have
been rewords in between the process, RTY is found by considering the ______________________
reworks too;
______________________
90 80
100 Process A Process B Process C 75 ______________________
10 scraps, 5 reworks 10 scraps, 7 reworks
______________________
5 scraps, 3reworks
______________________
● RTY for Process A = [100 – (10+5)] = 85/100 = 0.85
______________________
● RTY for Process B = [90 – (10+7)] = 73/90 = 0.81
● RTY for Process C = [80 – (5+3)] = 72/80 = 0.90 ______________________
► Total Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) for process P;
= 0.85 x 0.81 x 0.90 = 0.62


______________________
Cost of Poor Quality ______________________
______________________
► COPQ stands for Cost of Poor Quality.
► Cost involved in not doing things right at first time. ______________________
► The elements of Quality Cost are: ______________________
● Appraisal costs: It is the cost involved in appraisal/inspection of
product or services. ______________________
● Prevention Cost: cost of all activities for the purpose of prevention of
failures (eg. Training cost, ISO certification cost etc.)
______________________
● Internal Failure cost: Cost incurred in internal defects, reworks and ______________________
scraps during operations.
● External Failure Cost: Costs incurred to rectify the failure occurred at ______________________
customer end. (warranty cost, product recall cost etc.)
______________________

______________________
Cost of Poor Quality ______________________
______________________
► Illustration from Juran‟s Quality Control Handbook:
______________________
Appraisal &
Prevention Costs ______________________
Level of quality
Internal & External
______________________
at minimum
total cost Failure cost ______________________
______________________
Total Cost
______________________
______________________
0% quality 100% quality

______________________
Lecture Summary ______________________
______________________
______________________
o Rolled Throughput Yield (RTY) ______________________
o Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ) ______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________
______________________


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Online Six Sigma Black Belt Certification Program Hand Book By OTIFAS; www.otifas.

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o Understanding the spread of data (range, standard deviation)

o Probability of falling percentage of data between a range of values.

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(mean, median, mode,

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Always better to study large number of small

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► Example: suppose a card is randomly selected from a standard 52 card ______________________

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o i.e. (4/52 + 13/52) – 1/52 = 16/52

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o Where P(B/A) is known as Probability of event B given event A: ______________________

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Data that can take Data that is result of

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