1ST : LAW OF SEGREGATION

It states :
“hereditary characters are determined by some particulate factors,
these factors occur in pairs and at the time of gamete formation
segregate at random so that only one member of a gene pair is
transmitted to a particular gamete”
 BACKCROSS

“When F1 progeny is crossed back to any one of its

parent is called a backcross”
 BACKCROSS

Tall × Tall Tall × Dwarf

TT TT TT tt

F1 TT all tall F1 Tt all tall

TT all tall TT Tall : Tt tall

Phenotypic ratio = all tall

Genotypic ratio = 1:1
 TESTCROSS

“When F1 progeny is crossed back to one of its

parent which is recessive for the trait it is called a
testcross”

NOTE: All testcrosses are a

back-cross but all backcrosses
are not test-crosses
 TESTCROSS
• A testcross always involves Tall × Dwarf
recessive individual
• The segregation in the progeny is TT tt
always in equal proportions
• Phenotypic ratio and genotypic
ratio are always equal F1 Tt all tall

If any of the above features are not

Tt : tt
obtained it means it is not a testcross ½ Tall : ½ Dwarf
or some other genetic phenomena has
occurred e.g. linkage & crossing over Phenotypic ratio 1:1
or non-allelic interaction Genotypic ratio 1:1
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
2ND LAW
“When two independent genes are controlling two different
characters are studied together in an individual, then the
members of each gene pair segregate and assort
independently with the members of the other gene pair during
gamete formation”

The genes being

studied should be
on separate
chromosomes
 OBSERVING TWO GENE TOGETHER

• Yellow ‘Y’ is dominant over Green ‘y’ colour

• Round ‘W’ is dominant over wrinkled ‘w’
• Gene pair for colour will exist = YY or Yy or yy
• Gene pair for shape will exist = WW or Ww or ww
• When studied together = YYWW or yyww in homozygous state
And YyWW or YYWw or Yyww or yyWw or YyWw heterozygous state
 GAMETE FORMATION IN DIHYBRIDS

• Homozygous state • Heterozygous state

YYWW = YW yyww = yw YyWW = YW, yW Yyww = Yw, yw
YYww = Yw yyWW = yw YYWw = YW, Yw yyWw = yW, yw
YyWw = YW, Yw, yW, yw
Another example Another example;
TTDD = TD ttdd = td TTDd = TD, Td Ttdd = Td, td
TTdd = Td ttDD = tD TtDd = TD, Td, tD, td ttDd = tD, td
 DIHYBRID CROSS
Yellow Round × Green Wrinkled
YYRR yyrr
YR yr

Phenotypic ratio
F1 All Yellow Round
YyRr
Genotypic ratio

Selfing of F1 progeny to produce F2

YyRr × YyRr
 Yellow Round × Yellow Round
YyRr YyRr

YR, Yr, yR, yr YR, Yr, yR, yr

Gamete formation
Y y YR Yr yR yr
R YR yRYR YYRR
r Yr yr Yellow round
Yr

yR

yr
 Yellow Round × Yellow Round
YyRr YyRr

YR, Yr, yR, yr YR, Yr, yR, yr

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round
Yr

yR

yr
 Yellow Round × Yellow Round
YyRr YyRr

YR, Yr, yR, yr YR, Yr, yR, yr

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Yellow round Yellow wrinkled
yR

yr
 Yellow Round × Yellow Round
YyRr YyRr

YR, Yr, yR, yr YR, Yr, yR, yr

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Yellow round Yellow wrinkled
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Green round Green round
yr
 Yellow Round × Yellow Round
YyRr YyRr

YR, Yr, yR, yr YR, Yr, yR, yr

YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round Yellow round
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Yellow round Yellow wrinkled
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
Yellow round Yellow round Green round Green round
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Yellow round Yellow wrinkled Green round Green wrinkled
 Phenotypic Ratio: 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 = 16 Genotypic Ratio: 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1 = 16
YYRR = 1
YyRR = 2
YR Yr yR yr YYRr = 2
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr YyRr = 4
(9 Yellow Round)
Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
round
Another round round
way of writing: round
YYrr = 1
Yr YYRr Y_R_
YYrr = 9 Yellow Round
YyRr Yyrr Yyrr = 2
Yellow Y_rr = 3 Yellow
Yellow WrinkledYellow
Yellow (3 Yellow Wrinkled)
round yyR_ = 3 Green
wrinkled Round wrinkled
round
yyrr = 1 Green Wrinkled
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr yyRR = 1
Yellow Yellow Green Green yyRr = 2
round round round round (3 Green Round)
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Yellow Yellow Green Green yyrr = 1
round wrinkled round wrinkled (1 Green Wrinkled)
DIHYBRID BACK & TEST CROSS
Yellow Round × Green Wrinkled
Yellow Round

YYRR YYRr
YyRr
YyRR
YYRR
yyrr

F1

Test Cross
Back cross
 TEST CROSS
F1 Yellow Round × Green Wrinkled
YyRr yyrr
YR, Yr, yR, yr yr

YyRr Yellow Round

Yyrr
Genotypic ratio = 1:1:1:1
yyRr
yyrr
• A testcross always involves
recessive individual
• The segregation in the progeny is
always in equal proportions
• Phenotypic ratio and genotypic
ratio are always equal
Yellow Wrinkled
Phenotypic ratio = 1:1:1:1
Green Round
Green Wrinkled
If any of the above features are
not obtained it means it is not a
testcross or some other genetic
phenomena has occurred e.g.
linkage & crossing over or non-
allelic interaction or epigenetics
 SOME THING TO KNOW
• Why Mendel was Successful?
• Why scientist of his time were unable to understand him?
• Dominance is not always absolute
• Paritculate theory
 MISCONCEPTIONS TO BE AVOIDED

A particular gene in one group or individuals expresses itself as a dominant trait is no

reason to assume that a different gene with a similar or even identical expression must
also be dominant in another group

e.g. a gene for black fur may b dominant in one species but recessive in another
Like in guinea pigs black fur is dominant but in sheep it is recessive
 MISCONCEPTIONS TO BE AVOIDED

“Dominance concerns the frequency of dominant genes in a group of population”

People often assume that simply because a particular gene is dominant it must be more
abundant in the population than its recessive allele

e.g. Curly hair people are few in population despite of this trait being dominant or
incomplete dominant
Frequency of blue eyed people in Scandinavia is more than brown eyed people
 MISCONCEPTIONS TO BE AVOIDED

Some traits being admired a lot in humans are not due to dominant genes
Infact some traits like extra fingers or toes,A form of muscular dystrophy, a type of
dwarfism are not recessive but dominant controlled genes