SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)

A scanning electron microscope is a machine comprised of

an electron generating component called the gun,
a column through which the electron beam travels, a series of
lenses to shape the electron beam, the sample chamber at the
base, and a series of pumps to keep the system under vacuum.
Below are some topics that help explore inside the machine
and how the electron beam interacts with the sample.

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 PARTS OF SEM

Electromagnetic Lens-
An electromagnetic lens is a coil of wire through which
current flows. Because the current flow produces a magnetic
field at right angles, the field pushes inwards into the hole in
the centre. This acts to shape a beam of electrons travelling in
their natural spiral path down the central hole.

There are two lens sets. The condenser lens is at the top and
the objective lens at the bottom. Each does a different job. The
condenser lens converges the cone of the electron beam to a spot below
it, before the cone flares out again and is converged back again by the
objective lens and down onto the sample. This initial convergence can
be at different heights, that is, close to the lens, or further away. The
closer it is to the lens, the smaller the spot diameter at the point of
convergence. The further away, the larger the diameter of this point. So
the condenser lens current controls this initial spot size and is referred to
as the spot size control. 

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Aperture-
The objective aperture arm fits above the
objective lens in the SEM. It is a metal rod that holds a thin
plate of metal containing four holes. Over this fits a much
thinner rectangle of metal with holes (apertures) of different
sizes. By moving the arm in and out different sized holes can
be put into the beam path.

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 IMAGE FORMATION
Secondary electron (SE) images-

Secondary electrons are low energy electrons formed by ( inelastic

scattering ) and have energy of less than 50eV. The low energy of
these electrons allows them to be collected easily. This is achieved
by placing a positively biased grill on the front of the SE detector,
which is positioned off to one side of the specimen. The positive
grill attracts the negative electrons and they go through it into the
detector.

Because secondary electrons have very low energies,

only those produced at the surface of the sample are able to
escape and be collected by the SE detector. Electrons emitted
from a surface that faces away from the detector or which is
blocked by the topography of the specimen, will appear darker
than surfaces that face towards the detector.

Inelastic scattering-
Electron scattering in which the electron
looses energy through interaction with the sample. Inelastic
scattering is considered to produce secondary electrons.

Backscattered electron (BSE) images

Backscattered (BS) electrons are high-energy electrons (>50

eV) from the primary incident beam that are ejected back out

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from the sample. These BSE are used to produce a different
kind of image. Such an image uses contrast to tell us about the
average atomic number of the sample.

The higher the average atomic number, the more primary

electrons are scattered (bounced) back out of the sample. This
leads to a brighter image for such materials.

The backscattered electron has energy up to the incident beam

energy and is usually very near that energy. The greater
energy of BSE, compared with SE, means that BSE produced
from deeper within the interaction volume are able to escape
from the sample and be collected by the BSE detector, so BSE
images have lower spatial resolution than SE images. In other
words, the BSE can travel further in the sample before coming
out again and so the information they carry is less restricted to
the surface detail. This results in reduced resolution. The
electron Beam moves in horizontal lines backward and
forwards across the sample. Each line is a series of steps.

Interaction volume-

The volume of the sample in which electrons from the primary

electron beam spread out and interact with the atoms of the sample.

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 The size of the interaction volume depends upon the energy of the
electron beam and the average density of the sample.

Depending on height and the shape of sample at each step we

get black grey or white dots that create the image on the
screen. Black happens when no electron hit the detector.
White is when all the electrons hit the detector and grey is in
between them.

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 TEM (Tunneling Electron Microscope)

Tunneling electron microscope works on the principal of tunneling of

electrons in which wavelike properties of electrons permit them to
“tunnel” beyond the surface of a solid.

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 Tunneling Effect

When a quantum object is sent to thicker barrier it bounces

back off but if barrier is thin enough the object may
sometimes get through.

A metal is made up of quantum atoms and electrons. If we

approach a very thin tip electrically powered it may tear the
electrons from the metal by tunnel effect.

By measuring the current passing through the tip we can

reconstruct where the atoms are. This is the working
principle of tunneling electron microscope.

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Determination of composition of steel
and Iron Specimen
OR
Spectroscopy Technique