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 4. 3 Functionalist approaches / 55
Exercises I 59

4. 4 Translation pedagogy, criticism and evaluati on I 63

Exercises I 67

4. 5 Translating between cultures / 71

4.5. I Techniques of dealing with culture-bound terms and texts I 72
Exercises I 76

5. Sociolinguistics and Translilion I 79

5.1 Language varieties in translation / 79

5.1.1 User-related/permanent language varieties / 80
5.1.1.1 Idiolects / 80
5.1.1.2 Dialects / 80
5. 1.2 Use-related I transient language varieties / 81
5.1.3 Slans/ 83
Esercises '84

6. Psycholinguistics and Translation / 87

Exercises I 92

7. Equivalence in Translation / 95
Exercises I 99

Bibliographical References / 101

6
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 Translation Studies

(A) "Pure"

Theoretical

/\
General Partial Product Process Translator Translation Translation
Oriented Oriented Training Aids Criticism

Medium Arca Rank Text-Type Timc Problem

Restrictecl Restrictcd Restr-icted Restricted Restricted Restrictcd

lrespective of alternative graphical representations related to terms such as spectrum,

cline, continuum, which come closer to the reality of translation sfudies - the clearly
delimited branches and sub-branches of the diagram actually overlap irrespective of the
-
different place which could always be found for one sub-branch of translation'studies or
another (e.g. some aspects of "translation criticism" could pertain to section A as well,
1
etc.), Holmes's pioneering schema has the obvious merit of bringing to the fore the main
areas ofresearch in the field.
The new name for the discipline was retaken by Andrd Lefevere at a 7976 Colloquium
held at Leuven, Belgium. He defined translation studies as "the discipline which concerns
itself with problems raised by the production and description of translations." Its goal is
"to a comprehensive theory which can also be used as a guideline for the
produce
production of translations." (1978:234) The school of Tel-Aviv, promoting the
polysystem theory in translation and represented by such scholars as Ithamar Even-Zohar
and Gideon Toury was soon recognised as sharing cultural and literary preoccupations
with the Dutch and Belgian scholars and the former's studies came to be incorporated
under the comprehensive name of the new subject.
As this course is meant to prove, the (socio and psycho) linguistic, pragmatic, texfual
and functionalist approaches are extremely important directions in contemporary
translation studies. On the other hand, owing to the joined efforts of scholars on both the
"linguistic" and "literary" side, translation studies now includes all the significant
research in translation, although there are
still controversies on issues concerning the aims
of the subject, the support disciplines involved, the relationship between theory and
practice in translation, etc. In more recent years and for primarily methodological reasons
Amparo Hurtado Albir (1994, 1996 passim) has revised Holmes's schema so as to better
outline the position of the three main branches of translation studies (theoretical,
descriptive and applied, with the descriptive branch holding a central place), the close
connections between them as well as the concrete types of research (that can be either
general or partial) they can engender. Her diagram, reproduced in an adapted form here,
is also a valuable tool for integrating and connecting various kinds ofresearch already
undertaken in the discipline:

10
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 discipline is linguistics, \Mith all its branches and extensions: pragmatics, text-linguistics, oI
semantics, comparative linguistics, cognitive linguistics. All these subjects have contributed ht
in a fundamental way to the development of research in translation, a thing which was Sr
also made possible by the groundwork done by the Russian formalist school in the 1920's \i
and, subsequently, by the Prague Linguistic Circle and its disciples: Volosinov, Mukarovsky, Ja
T5mjanov, Jakobson, Levy, Popovic. Their pioneering work ensured a leading position for of
linguistics and stylistics in some particular schools of literary criticism as well as in ur
franslation studies and acts, even now, as one of the connecting bridges between linguistics UI
and literature-oriented positions.
Since the early 60's discourse on translation has developed from a strictly linguistic
stance, focusing on the word and sentence levels, to broader pragmatic, texfual and
functionalist perspectives, and from the examination of texts in isolation to the whole
communicative socio-cultural context in which texts are produced and received. From a
semiotic perspective, Roman Jakobson (1959) integrates translation
with a wider and more coherent theory of communication. He
tr
distinguishes between intralingual ffanslation (inside the same
language, whenever we explain something using paraphrase or
Linguistics is concerned with the
theory and description of language
replace a word using a qmonym, etc.), interlingual tanslation I
(between different languages) and intersemiotic tanslation (pos-
for its otvt sake, translation studies
with the tlreory and description of sible because of the existence of other codes, i.e. the musical code, Itr
recreating concrete tert, y'hether lit- the colour code, etc., whose message can also be "translated," do
erary, specialised or getteral. i.e. explained). titr
(Mary Snell-Hornby) But languages are also deeply rooted in the cultures they stand rul
for and whose values they enshrine. Discoveries in anthropology da
and current research in the more recent subject(s) of (cross) cultural studies can always u9
elucidate the meaning of the source text that has then to be rendered, in a culturally th(
meaningful fornr, to the members of a different cultural community. Conternporary discourse Tt
on translation no longer ignores the cultural embedding of both source and translated lff
texts, which governs in a decisive way the translators' choices. F
Sociology and sociolinguistics reveal social aspects of the two communities brought sd
into contact by the translating act, their frndings also supporting hanslation in matters l9
related, for instance, to non-linguistic factors affecting translation, to issues of ideology ,--lz
and power, to the varieties of language used in producing and translating texts: dialects, on
sociolects, registers, etc. e\-l
Psychological investigations try to account for the operations that take place in the CL
translators' minds during the translating process, to provide a more scientific basis when Prr
discussing the translators' intuition or creativity. Psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics srrl
support translation studies by shedding light, through empirical methods including ITiA

experiments, on the cognitive aspects of translating.

For the particular case of literary texts, literary theory, criticism and history, aesthetics,
and, more recently, manipulation studies, post-colonial studies and women's studies can
all justiff the translators' options for particular texts, their translation strategies, the
importance of translations in a particular culture, at a particular time, etc.
Last but not least, any reflection on translation is - implicitly or explicitly - based on
some kind of philosophical assumptions concerning the relationship between language,
thought and reality. German idealistic philosophy, and Humboldt's theories in particular,
as well as positivistic perspectives have fostered, for instance, the traditional discourse on
the possibility and impossibility of translating or on the never-ending issue of the fidelity

12
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 However, from the more complex perspective of translation studies, this relationship is t_\

far from being very smooth. On the one hand, it is one of the (ambitious) aims of the discipline .*
to be able to "distinguish regularity of behaviour in recurrent situations of the same t5rpe,"
(Toury 1995: 55) which the study of actual texts has not yet been able to provide. On the R
other hand, it is equally true that translation studies is by far more comprehensive than a
mere accumulation of "translation tips," even if organised in a systematic way. It may
also involve, for instance, the examination of the corpus of translations within a culture in
order to account for their function and importance as well as for their links with the main g(
trends in a national literature. The links with practice may equally concern the exami- AI
nation of translated texts for translation criticism, for a national history of translations or FI
for didactic reasons. Unfortunately a gap still separates theactivity ofprofessional tanslators r0
from that of many translation theorists. ch
It is nevertheless significant that at present both linguistics and literature-oriented D
studies of translation support the idea of an empirical component of the discipline, meant l
to deal with the description and exploration of act,nl texts and to set the relationship of
between practice and theory on a more systematic basis. so
In fact, as Susan Bassnett says (1992: xix), "research in translation studies has barely is
begun. There are dozens ofbooks to be written, doctoral theses to be pursued, theoretical th(
texts to be discovered and translated; literary history is waiting to be rewritten as the new on
knowledge filters through. " po
I
gr}
D
Exercises prr
als
I
l.Improve the source mitd printre mln6stirile moldave, datoritd albas- thr
trului din picturile exterioare, recunoscut tr lumea czu
.Work on the possible textual inaccuracies that tntreag[ ca ,,albastrul de Vorone!", ce pare s5 re- tOt
might have slipped into the Romanian source text produc[ intreaga puritate qi transparenli a cerului ah
before actually proceeding to its translation: moldav in lunile de toamn6. isr
De aici sE pornim spre m[nlstirea fortificatd de
Pornind spre linutul Moldovei, la bordul unei la Moldovila, ctitoritd la 1532, unde putem des-
aeronave TAROM, aterizdm dupi mai bine de o coperi o ampl6 fresci exterioari de o valoare -r. l

ord de zbor la Suceava, vechea cetate de scaun a artistic[ excepfional[. Ne continu[m apoi drumul
Moldovei, intemeiati la 1388 de familia domni- spre Sucevita, idicatd,la 1583 gi care incinti prin
.R
toare a Mugatinilor, ale cdrei zidtri de apdrare se frumuselea picturilor interioare gi exterioare, unde in r,

pot vedea gi astSzi. De aici, sd ne continu[m dru-
mul frcind popas la mindstirile moldave, bijuterii
ale artei medievale romAnegti gi europene. Si ne
oprim mai intii la ministirea Humorului, constru-
itd la 1530 gi a cirei picturd exterioard impresio-
neazdprin prospelimea culorilor gi intinderea fres-
celor. Trecind in continuare prin Gura Humorului,
unde putem vizita ttn interesant muzeu etnogra-
fic, ajungem la Vorone! a cdrei construclie a fost
inceput6 la 1488 de $tefan cel Mare. Este renu-
putem admira o nuanp de verdg de mare originalitate.
(Profile TAROM)
2. Gist translation
. Summaise the content of thefollowing article, thm
translate it in this new "condensed" form (8 lines):
Struggling on the economic brinlq Romania is at
last selling some of its pized industial dinosaurs. It

14
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