EDITED BY DAVID ADLER

METRIC
HANDBOOK
PLANNlNG
AND
DESlGN
DATA
SECOND EDITION Architectural
Press
9 Industrial storage buildings
Jolyon Drury CI/SfB 284
UDC 725.35

KEY POINT: 2 The orientation of the goods sorting and load accumulation
• Modern warehouses need the height to use mechanical aids
at maximum efficiency
areas which must be related to the disposition of the storage
area, i.e. block stacks or racking and loading bays.
3 Will the required bulk of the building be acceptable in terms of
Contents planning consent?
1 Introduction 4 Are the existing roads suitable to meet increased demand?
2 Identification of warehouse and storage types 5 Is there public transport for operatives?
3 Preliminary decisions 6 Are there night operating restrictions which will entail special
4 Height, area and type of handling system features to muffle night noise?
5 Storage method
Can this be catered for by any design measures/configurations?
6 Disposition of the racking
7 Relationship of storage method, mechanical handling
equipment and building height
4 HEIGHT, AREA AND TYPE OF HANDLING SYSTEM
8 Outline specification
The most economical way of gaining volume for storage is to use
9 Security
height, 9.4 and Table I; this affects the choice of the handling
10 Handling equipment
system to be employed. Consider:
11 Bibliography
• characteristic
The type of unit load to be handled and the physical
of the goods - crushability, durability, the type of
1 INTRODUCTION unit loads that will be assembled after sorting (Table II)
Few industrial storage buildings are designed to make a profit
(steel stockholders and cash and carry stores are exceptions); the
• The speed of turnover. This will determine what storage method
is the most efficient.
majority perform the function of a valve or pipeline, limiting the
supply of a product to suit demand, to stabilise prices and allow
steady and economic manufacture within fluctuating market
conditions. Industrial storage is therefore a service at a cost that
goods in
must be minimised.
The payback period most frequently chosen for such a building
is 25 years. During that time, it is likely that the storage method sorting
will need to change at least three times, and that the type of goods
handled will change even more frequently. Flexibility for expan-
active bulk bulk bulk
sion and manner of use are therefore important design stock stock stock stock
considerations.

individual
order pick sort for depot

2 IDENTIFICATION OF WAREHOUSE AND STORAGE

TYPES
load accumulation load accumulation
The three main types are: (direct delivery) (transit)

• Distribution:
Transit between manufacture and the market, 9.1
• of goods from similar to a transit unit, but accepts a wide variety
a number of manufacturers, sorts them into
loading
to clients'
warehouses

orders and distributes them to a number of outlets, 9.2. A direct distribution to regional/area depots

components warehouse for a factory performs a similar

function.
unload at
• Repository: a warehouse used for stockholding, either as a
service (e.g. a furniture repository) or within a company (e.g. a
regional depot

cold store), 9.3. sort sort sort

(store) (store) (store)

active stock
3 PRELIMINARY DECISIONS order order order
assembly assembly assembly
The initial decision about what type of building is required will
involve a choice between these three types, dependent on the client
organisation’s needs. Such a study is generally undertaken in load load load
cooperation with a specialist consultant. Other factors to be
considered at the pre-design stage are:
despatch
1 The orientation of the loading bays and the heavy vehicle
marshalling areas. Future expansion must be taken into 9.1 Relationships in warehouse for transit between manufacturer
account. and market
9-2 Industrial storage buildings

edges resting on runners attached to the rack’s uprights. First in,

last out. Live racking involves inclined storage lanes. For heavy
goods in empty pallet
return pallets and shock-sensitive goods, braking and separating
equipment can be incorporated.
check off/ empty pallet
3 Pallet racking, 9.8, 9.9. For a wide variety of goods, the speed
inspection check of throughput decreases. Pallet racking is the solution with a
large variety of products, brands or pack sizes. Each pallet is
normally allotted a unique position in the racking.
sorting pallet
repair

small slow medium f a s t bulk block distribution Table I Typical internal clear heights for storage areas
lines mover m o v e r mover stack very pallet
back up r a c k i n g fast store
Minimum clear internal Type of storage
height* (m)

small sequential bulk order 5-5.5 Minimum-cost low-rise block stacking

lines order pick pick warehouse. Suitable for light industrial factory
picking use
7.5 Minimum for any industrial storage building
combining racking and block stacking
9+ When narrow-aisle trucks are used
order assembly 15-30 Fully automatic, computer-controlled warehouses
and stacker cranes are to be used

* Clearance for structural members, sprinklers, lighting must be added to obtain

load assembly overall height of buildings

load
Table II Classification of materials for handling and storage as unit loads

Description Examples Storage method

despatch

9.2 Relationships in distribution warehouse Materials not strong Automobile components, On pallet in rack
enough to withstand made-up textiles,
crushing – not suitable electrical appliance
as integral unit load components,
manufacturing chemists’
sundries, light
engineering products,
goods in glassware

Materials strong enough Casks and drums, sawn On pallet, or self-

check-off/ to withstand crushing – and machined timber, palletised and block
sorting suitable for unit loads sheet materials stowed

Irregular-shaped Goods in cases, crates or On post pallets and

active stock bulk stock materials, strong in cartons stacked, on pallets in
themselves suitably rack or self palletised
packed into unit loads
order
picking Bagged materials which Grain, powder, and On pallet and block
form a flat surface under similar stowed
load

order assembly
Bagged materials which Forgings, moulded or On pallet in rack
do not form a flat machined parts, nuts and
surface under load or bolts
loading will not take pressure

Large irregular loose Moulded plastics; sheet On post pallets and

despatch materials metal pressings stacked

9.3 Relationships in a stockholding warehouse. The bulk stock Small irregular loose Machined and moulded In cage pallets and
area is dominant materials parts, pressings, forgings stacked

Materials hot from Castings and forgings On post pallets and

production process stacked

5 STORAGE METHOD Materials too long to be Steel sections, tubes, Horizontally in tube or
Storage methods (see Tables III to V) include: handled other than by timber bar racks
side loader or boom

1 Very fast throughput involving a limited number of products:

Materials strong enough Partly machined Steel box pallets with
block stacking, 9.5, rather than racking. First in, first out, or first to withstand crushing automotive parts, special partitions
in, last out configuration, depending on the shelf life of the but subject to damage painted finished
goods materials, books

2 A wider variety of goods, but still with fast turnover: drive-in

Perishable goods Frozen meat, vegetables, Cartons, soft packs
racking, 9.6, or ‘live’ (roll-through) storage, 9.7. Pallets are drink pallets, box pallets, etc.
placed into racking up to four positions deep, with the pallets’
 Industrial storage buildings 9-3

doors

1·2m high loading bank 27m x 4·8m

makes fork lift operation
difficult

roof lights hamper lift truck cannot damage roof structure or services
loading exposed to fork lifts
wind & rain

4·5m
all loading

9·1m
inside
expensive site build-up often racking & block storage
leading to subsequent floor affected by roof pitch
troubles maximum utilization of height for racking & block storage

site area 3700m2 site area 3700m 2

1040m roadway
eliminates possible extension

portal frames at close centres

space for minimum obstruction by structure
hinder free movement
extension of 6000m3 area 1340m 2
doors too small & too many volume 12200m 3
out with high security risk in

centralized labour force

area 1340m 2 loading & unloading under cover
volume 8000m 3

canopy
1 or 2 storey offices take too much site
585m2 of yard for
manoeuvring parking etc

offices do not intrude into site

a Traditional portal frame b Modern ‘big box’. This provides a much more flexible
solution at lower cost when operating efficiency is assessed.

9.4 Comparison between typical alternative structures

Table III Mechanical handling

Block Post Drive-in Beam pallet Gravity live Powered mobile

stacking pallets racking racking storage racking

Cubic space utilisation (%) 100 90 65 35-50 80 80

Effective use of installation capacity (%) 75 75 75 100 70 100
Accessibility of unit loads (%) 10 10 30 100 30 100
Order picking (%) Poor 30 30 100 30 100
Speed of throughput Fastest Good Poor Good Good Quite good
Load crushing Bad Nil Nil Nil Some Nil
Stability of load Poor Fair Good Good Fair Good
Ease of relocation Not applicable Not applicable Fair Good Difficult Difficult
Speed of installation Not applicable Not applicable Good Fastest Fair Slowest
Rotation of stock Poor Poor Poor Good Excellent Good
9-4 Industrial storage buildings

Table IV Manual handling

Long-span Tiered Raised Cantilever Lightweight Fir tree

shelving shelving storage area shelving live storage racking

Cubic space utilisation (%) 45 45 80 50 65 25

Effective use in 95 95 50 100 70 70
installation capacity (%)
Accessibility of goods Good Good Poor Good Excellent Good
Ease of relocation Good Fair Difficult Fair Very difficult Best
2
Load range (kN/m 2-9.5 2-9.5 2.8-11 2-4.7 Up to 0.2 kN 2.6-4.4 kN per arm
per m run of track
Speed of picking Good Fair Poor Good Very good Good
Speed of installation Very good Good Fair Fair Slowest Fastest
Rotation of stock Very good Good Poor Very good Excellent Very good

Table V Load mounting

Load mounting Type of load

Heavy Flat Sacked/bagged Small unit Drums Coils Casks Bales Textile
unstable load cards/sheets loads loads Reels Raw materials
Barrels

Special cradle *
with/without pallet
Standard pallet * * * * * * *
Flat board pallet + * * * *
decking supports
Direct mounting * * * * * * *
on timber panels
Drum supports *
Post pallets - * * * * *
cage/bin
Coil supports * *
Skips/skeds *
with skids

any depth

pallet width + 200 between

uprights
9 m max but
depends on load
gap passes through resistance of
stack & starts again goods pallet height + 300 ( 200
clearance + 100 bearer rail)+350
when above 5000 mm

out

take out

put away any length

in
guide rails for forklift if lifting
higher than 5m

9.5 Method of block stacking for stock rotation. Where cartons 9.6 Drive-in racking for fork-lift. A maximum depth of six
are being stacked on pallets, a height of three pallets is the pallets, with fluorescent lighting in the racking structure.
normal maximum Four-pallet depth is preferable
 Industrial storage buildings 9-5

6 DISPOSITION OF THE RACKING

There are two common alternatives:

• fast
The rack is oriented at 90° to the order assembly areas, with the
turnover stock in the bays nearest to it or
• order
One complete racking face is oriented along one side of the
assembly area and reserved for very fast-moving stock.

7 RELATIONSHIP OF STORAGE METHOD,

MECHANICAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT AND
BUILDING HEIGHT
The effect of handling equipment on warehouse section is shown
max lift height in 9.10 to 9.13. These factors depend on site conditions:
= max safe lift
including incline
clearance 1 For very constricted sites where a large volume of goods needs
(7·000 typical) to be held high-bay, automated warehouses can prove the most
economical solution. Such warehouses have been built up to
30 m high, the racking being used as the roof and wall cladding
supporting structure. Handling machines run on fixed tracks,
9.7 Roll-through racking 9.13, 9.14.
2 For medium- and large-scale installations where full automation
is not justified, storage areas up to 12 m high allow free-standing
up to 6m high at 1·2 t per pallet for single racking (bolted to the floor) with aisle widths marginally wider
unrestrained rack, but bolted to floor
than the largest pallet, 9.15. ‘Narrow-aisle trucks’ used in this
can be used ar double unit ( back to type of plant are free path machines based on fork-lift
back) with spacers : up to 12m high, technology, 9.16.
bolted to floor 3 Where the cost of high-bay stacking and high-lift machinery is
not justified, fork-lifts and reach trucks are used, 9.17. Reach

min 600 from

sprinklers to top
of storage when 7·500 for general
ceiling is used storage : racking, block
stowage etc

9.8 Pallet racking 9.10 Section through small warehouse for fork-lift operation

1·200 typical

100
150
200 when higher
than 5·000 from (ft
grnd : pallet sits on floor
450 for each truck
300 for turret truck
bottom beams ( for use
50 100 50 with reach or turret
800 trucks)
1·000
1·200 section

800
tie 450 mm with 250 column 1·000
pallet support beams tie 200 50 1·200

1·700
150 2·100
50 2·500
50

rsc
50 800
1·200 1·200 1·000
typical 250 x 250 1·200
universal column 100 75 75 75 100
2·725 plan
9.9 Construction of
(depending on size of rack upright)
pallet racking
9-6 Industrial storage buildings

when sprinklers are located within 150mm min between pallet and underside of support
trusses and no ceiling then beams for intermediate sprinklers (see 13.9)
clearances not necessary truss depth approx 1/12 span for economy

9·300mm for 7·700 mm racking over doors

light storage high rack where practicable
or bottles and
selected goods approx half most height† 450mm 4·200, 4·500, mm
8m high but not less than 4·300 for 4·800, 5·100 6·500
lift 2 stage most (nearest controlling average heights for turret
dimension 4·500) of external doors trucks

forklift 2·800 for each truck for 6·500 lift +

approx 4·300 aisle
width for 8m lift

9.11 Section through large warehouse for fork-lift or reach truck operation

2·200 cab/most clearance

1·200 typical
12·300
100 10·800 lift to
150 13·000 top beam
200 when higher clear
than 5·000 from fft height allow for 6·500
1·500 300 base clearance collapsed height
grnd : pallet sits on floor
for turret truck guide
450 for each truck rails
300 for turret truck
bottom beams ( for use
50 100 50 with reach or turret 2·100 1·600 aisle width
800 trucks) (1·000 deep pallet)
1·000
1·200 section

9.12 Section through warehouse for narrow aisle truck operation. Floor tolerance ±3 mm in 3 m run

stacker crane carried on structure

up to 15.000 1500 kg
for manually
controlled
order pickers min 1·600 min 2·200 7·700 9.000
up to aisle width aisle width effective building
up to 20 m

30·000 height height

for automated
stacker cranes

1500 kg
2·000 between guide rails
high lift side loader : eg steel stock

9.13 Section through warehouse for stacker crane handling (left) up to 30 m

and steel stockholding with side loader (right)

trucks are suitable for conventional pallet weights (1 to 1.5 a Order picker
tonnes) over flat floors. They can lift to 9 m and operate in aisles
of about 2.8 m. A fork-lift truck can carry heavier loads but
requires aisles of 3.2 to 4 m width, 9.18. Heavier trucks are
required to lift greater heights and tend to require a greater aisle
width. b
4 Mobile racking where pallet racking is mounted on mobile bases 9.14 Dimensions of: b Stacker crane
and rests face to face may be suitable where storage is to be
installed in an existing structure or where the site is limited in
area and the turnover of products comparatively low. It is costly
to install and the floor slab has to accept double the normal
• They
The column pitch can be wide, 9.17 and 9.18.
distributed load.
• by neware processes
more adaptable to a change of use or changes dictated

• They are more suitable for the installation of services such as

cooled air.
8 OUTLINE SPECIFICATION

8.01 Storage area 8.02 Order picking and assembly

Pitched roofs, though strong on first cost, waste storage volume Space demanded will vary with the type of business involved and
and run the risk of being damaged by handling equipment: Three the method of order assembly, in turn generated by the method of
factors favour the flat or low pitch roof type: despatch and transport For instance, a brewery warehouse may
 Industrial storage buildings 9-7

9.15 Free path stacker/order picker with elevating cab, fixed mast and
rotating fork. The four-post mast gives extra stability. Out of the aisle can
also be used as a fork-lift truck. The free lift on the fork carriage also
allows differential movement between the pallet and the picking platform.
Minimum building height 2.2 m above top lifting level

9·3 m max stacking height

5·34 m lowered height

4·26m

14·000 (1·000 deep pallets)

16·100 (1·200 deep pallets)
working aisle
1·57m with
1200 pallet reach truck
100 50 aisle width 50 100
1·200 100 1·200
2·800 (1·200 deep pallets)
2·500 (1·000 deep pallets)
transfer aisle 4·26m min
(4·53m with 1200 pallet)
9.17 Relationship to structure of reach truck aisles

250 1·200 1·200 1 200 1 200 250

1·650 1·650 1·650
1·200 100 100

4·300
turning aisle

19·000 ( for 1000 mm deep pallets)

21·000 ( for 1200 mm deep pallets)
(this round dimension is for feasibility guidance only:
it will vary with specific installations)

9.16 Relationship to structure of narrow-aisle truck aisles

16·100 (1·000 deep pallets)

100 18·200 (1·200 deep pallets) 100
1·200 1·200 150 1·200 1·200
50 3·200 50
(1·000 deep
pallets) fork lift truck
3·500 aisle width
(1·200 deep
pallets)

9.18 Relationship to structure of fork-lift truck aisles. Note: 16 100 mm span is common to fork-lift
and reach truck requirements
9-8 Industrial storage buildings

further back-up stock

pallets if required

shelf for half pallet loads

(greater variety for lower
pallet throughput stock)
(back-up stock)

200
550

ground level face picking

100 shelf

ground level eye line

200

2000
1700
pallet
1100

(fast thro'
put stock)

1000 1000 800 second level order picker

typical (a powered pallet truck with
150
a stepped platform)

9.19 Second level order picking, typically used for food distribution and supermarket
replenishment. The operative fills a roll pallet or cage from the pallet on the floor and the shelf
above it

2 nd level:
long span
shelving in
place of
pallets

sprinkler

a b c A
750-900m 2·15m 1·75 - 2m 2·15m 2m+ 1.5m
swing clearance
dependent on 1-1·2m (if other pickers are to pass) stacker
package size aisle
50mm 50mm
2·8m
overhang for picking from both 9.21 Stacker aisles for order picking:
for onto pallets or pallet a Pulling from lower levels – replenished by stacker truck
handling trucks : reach truck aisle
(9.25) b Alternating pick-up and replenishment aisles c
9.20 Reach truck aisle for second-level order picking Multi-level alternative aisles, replenished by narrow aisle truck

despatch whole pallet loads 9.7, but a pharmaceutical warehouse
may handle and assemble a very large number of small items
Therefore it may require a large area for order assembly, 9.19 to
9.21.
8.03 Loading bay and load accumulation area
The loading bay is the critical link between the storage and
distribution system (Table VI), 9.22. It usually combines inward
and despatch movements It must provide sufficient space for:
A full vehicle length (12 m) should be allowed as the zone behind
the loading dock.
8.04 Office and amenity areas
Large warehouses can employ more than 100 order-picking staff
(mainly female) each shift. Extensive washing and changing
facilities will be required Also space for operatives to rest and
smoke outside the storage area.

• Incoming goods to be checked off 8.05 Equipment maintenance areas

• Empty unit load devices to be removed and Most mechanical handling equipment for internal use is battery-
• Despatch loads to be accumulated (Table VII) powered electric. The batteries need charging at night or after
 Industrial storage buildings 9-9

9.22 Combined arrival/despatch loading bays

3800 min (no aisle

between discharge channels)
5000 min preferred for
reach trucks empty unit load discharge channel
6000 min preffered for (eg roll pallets) sorting area behind
forklift trucks

pallet accumulation: despatch

2500/3000 3500 9120

leveller plate turning aisle one vehicle load

a Where available

incoming load
clearance
back wall for
loading bay
turning aisle
5000 preferable for loading
for transverse equipment 6000
transverse accumulation
accumulation
3000 for one vehicle load

cross route behind dock circulation zone

to clear empty unit loads (eg roll pallets)
or full incoming loads

b Where depth is limited

shifts of about 12 hours. Requirements for maintenance areas

are:
• especially
There is no direct access from loading bays to the warehouse,
through the order-picking zone, without supervision

• A distilled water supply • visible

• 1 tonne hoisting tackle for removing batteries
• Fume extraction and
• Acid resistant floor.
Major services and repairs tend to be done off site.
9 SECURITY
Warehouses are, by definition, prone to theft. Most thefts are
carried out during working hours This can be minimised by
ensuring that:
Access from office accommodation to the warehouse should be
from the office area
• WCs should notrooms,
The changing showers (necessary in cold stores) and
have direct access from the warehouse, and
equally, should not be accessible from outside. Visiting drivers
should have segregated WC facilities
• If small, valuable goods are involved, a search room may be
required
• Operatives’ parking should be well separated from heavy
vehicles’ parking and away from the loading area.
10 HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Some typical handling equipment is shown in 9.23 to 9.27.
9-10 Industrial storage buildings

9.23 Manual pallet truck. For use inside the warehouse building
up orders, loading vehicles on raised docks or with tail-lifts, 9.25 Power travel and lift pedestrian-controlled stacker truck.
general pallet handling. Increasingly used in retail premises for When travelling the pallet rests on the stacker frame which has
handling bulk goods. Capacity up to 1500 kg generally and for travel wheels. Power lifting is independent of the travel frame,
short-distance travel (operatives soon tire when pushing heavy and is directly into the rack. Only suitable for short travel
loads any distance). Forklengths available 0.8 to 1.6 m, widths distances. Lifting range up to 3.6 m. Can be supplied with
from 460 to 680 mm. Heights: lowered 83 mm, raised 203 mm. attachments. Capacity up to 1500 kg at 600 mm centres, straddle
Pallet width should be 150 mm over fork (typical length is width 0.86 to 1.3 m, travel speed up to 4.8 km/h laden. Will turn
1.06 m for a 1.2 m pallet). Where gangways are narrow and with full load on 2.1 m aisle
stability is important, a heavy truck should be used with
maximum width between forks. This device will turn in its own
length but needs additional clearance for overhangs. Normally
it requires level floors to operate satisfactorily, but large wheels
in nylon or with solid rubber tyres plus articulating axles are
available for use in older buildings; although instability may
occur. Steel wheels are available but are less popular. Where
loading ramps are used, pallet trucks with brakes should be
used. Adaptors are available for use as a stillage truck

a Two-way entry pallet

b Four-way entry pallet

9.24 Powered pallet truck. For internal transfer, loading

vehicles on docks, order build-up, transporting roll pallets to
load assembly position. For use with all types of pallet and
cages. Capacity 1800 to 3000 kg, forklengths 0.75 to 1.8 m,
speeds up to 3.6 km/h running light, widths up to 850 mm,
usually 760 mm. Long forks available to carry three roll pallets
at once. Special forks for drums and paper rolls. Will turn in its
own length but needs additional clearance for overhangs. Some
have 200° turn on the single power steering wheel. Aisle width
depends on forklength:
a (90° stacking aisle) = 1840 mm (truck + 1 m pallet)
b (intersecting aisle) = 1570 mm
Turning circle 1.78 m radius with 960 mm long forks. This
device requires level floors and a three-phase charging point. It
can manage ramps up to 10 per cent. Some larger-capacity units c Post pallet
can also be ridden on, and can tow non-powered pallet trucks if
long distances are involved 9.26 Types of pallet
 Industrial storage buildings 9-11

accumulation 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
conveyors 12pallet Peter Falconer and Jolyon Drury, Industrial Storage and Distribu-
magazine
tion (AJ handbook of industrial storage), London, Architectural
Press, 1975
Factories Act 1961, HMSO

2·9m
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, HMSO
full pallets Insulation Act 1972
Health and Safety at Work, etc. Act 1974, HMSO
3·5 m 3·7 m 2·8 m Fire Offices Committee, Rules for automatic sprinkler installa-
tions, 29th edition, revised 1973

9.27 Plan of typical palletising machine. Top right is buffer

track required for slower shrink wrapper
METRIC HANDBOOK
PLANNING AND DESIGN DATA
Edited by DAVID ADLER BSc DIC DEng MICE Civil Engineering Consultant

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