EDITED BY DAVID ADLER

METRIC
HANDBOOK
PLANNING
AND
DESIGN
DATA
SECOND EDITION Architectural
Press
8 Factories
Jolyon Drury CI/SfB 282
UDC 725.4
The Jolyon Drury Consultancy advises on the design of production, distribution and
storage systems and facilities

KEY POINTS: equipment, mechanical handling and motive power associated

• Constant change is endemic with shifts of philosophy from individual craftsmanship to soulless
• Increasing demand for small units and starter
accommodation
production line. The latest innovation is rapidly outdated, and the
buildings designed to accommodate it are often obsolete before
they are commissioned. The following will, in the future, probably
Contents be considered landmarks in factory development:
1 Introduction
2 Classification of production building types • Computer factory for IBM, Havant (1968), Arup Associates

3 Adaptability • Dinkeloo, 8.2 factory for Cummins, Darlington, Roche and

Diesel engine

4 Working methods
5 Machine sizes • Cigarette factory for Players, Nottingham, Arup Associates

6 Outline specification of a typical multi-strategy factory • Car assembly plant for Volvo, Kalmar, 8.3
7 Non-production accommodation
8 Bibliography

2 CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION BUILDING

1 INTRODUCTION TYPES
Factories can be classified as light, medium, heavy or bulk process
1.01 Functions of a factory
industry.
A factory is a complex network of functions, including materials
storage, component manufacture, assembly, interprocess storage,
2.01 Light industries
packaging, despatch and transport interface all of which must work
These include:
together, 8.1.

1.02 History of factory development

• 8.6.
High-precision work in laboratory-like conditions, 8.4, 8.5 and

The history of factory development has been one of continually

changing requirements following improvements in production
• Small-scale craft workshops as are now being encouraged in
both urban and rural areas, 8.7.

labour
in

materials in materials check-off and raw materials time car park for
reception sorting & components sorting check production
storage labour

fuel in boiler plant

(energy canteen
generation)
pre-process buffer store

food in
PRODUCTION kitchen
ventilation
plant waste out
etc offices
quality check on production lavatories
floor for labour and
staff

waste energy inter-process storage

recovery rest room and
first aid

general
waste materials inspection testing etc security store
administration
disposal disposal and tool room

packaging security
car park for
toxic collection research and staff and visitors
development
storage laboratories
prototype shop

product
product load assembly
out despatch check-off

8.1 Relationship diagram for a typical factory

8-1
8-2 Factories

8.2 Cummins’ diesel engine factory at Darlington by Roche and Dinkeloo

a Site plan:
1 factory area
2 brick-enclosed core
3 office area
4 main entrance
5 car parks
6 factory yard for incoming and
outgoing goods
7 stores building
8 pool
9 chimney

14 servicing 21 spares stores

b Factory building plan: 7 lavatory 15 stores room for assembly 22 stores of finished products
1 entrance hall and reception 8 electric power plant components 23 test cells
2 offices 9 machinery 16 assembly 24 test stand
3 canteen 10 boiler room 17 tool stores 25 goods out
4 kitchen 11 calibration 18 tools issue 26 goods in
5 first-aid post 12 metallurgical laboratory 19 main hall 27 dynometer
6 training room 13 chemical laboratory 20 raw materials 28 inspection of incoming goods

component
manufacture

materials storage
store component testing packing despatch

materials
kit sort and component
assembly manufacture

8.4 Typical process flow diagram for light production and

assembly such as small electronic components’ manufacture,
and similar high-technology processes. ‘Kit sort’ refers to the
making up of kits of components for assemblers

a upper level

service drops air handling

8.5 Section through typical factories for light, high-technology

production; multi-storey construction, as new or conversion of
existing building: could be flatted units

b lower level

1 offices
2 assembly
3 parts storage
4 loading

8.3 Volvo car assembly plant at Kalmar: 8.6 Light production and assembly: single storey for small-scale
Team assembly areas are disposed around the perimeter on each and high-technology assembly. High degree of service freedom
level, automatically fed with materials in roof zone
 Factories 8-3

truss (or beam) with capacity to accept

services and 1 tonne point loads

goods-in goods out

dual purpose store
packaging/check

batch
assembly

process process
process process

12000

inter process storage assembly

a Section through unit

process process process

component
store store
12000

component sub-assembly

6000 components shipped as

sub assemblies

8.8 Process flow diagram for batch production and assembly.

Sometimes involves the assembly and shipping out of complete
sub-assemblies, more commonly the production and despatch of
batches of discrete components

Design will depend on circumstances, but will tend to approximate

b Part plan to laboratory or office type design conforming to Planning B1
classification.

2.02 Medium industries

The greatest need for careful and thoughtful design is in this field.
These industries can be subdivided into:

• factories,
light–medium small-scale engineering and assembly, clothing
paint shops, similar to 8.7.
typical units, staggered to
minimise access depth • General–medium batch production of components for other
factories, medium-sized printing, 8.8 and 8.9.
30°
• Heavy–medium industries requiring intensive use of buildings
and services as in mass production, 8.10 and 8.11.

c Units staggered in plan to reduce site depth required

2.03 Heavy industries
8.7 Typical ‘nursery’ for light production and assembly, low Industries such as steel-making and ship-building require spaces
technology, may be built speculatively (not necessarily enclosed) designed around the work or the

1t suspended off truss nodes

6400

5t gantry crane roof slung

floor to accept production + handlinq plant

8.9 Section through typical purpose-built batch production building. The spans, typically 18 × 12 m and trussed roof construction
are selected for cheap and rapid adaptation to a variety of uses. Floor loading 25 kN/m2
8-4 Factories

special element
process store stores set at points
in production

secondary secondary
process process
component/ production line
raw material process testing/ storage
store packaging
secondary secondary
process process
despatch

packaging
special element store
stores set at points process store process
in production

8.10 Process flow diagram for mass production and assembly. This applies to high-volume line assembly as in the motor industry,
with some components being built into sub-assemblies before final assembly on the main line

100 t

a Section, and

8.11 Materials flow for mass production does not have to

impose a predominantly linear building form. Group assembly
crane rail track
‘cells’ may feed onto a circulatory route, allowing personnel
and services to be grouped into specifically equipped zones
gantry crane

components/
materials
store

components from
other processes b Part plan of traditional type. Heavy-duty gantry cranes
move the workpiece to the appropriate machine tools and
sub-assembly/ assembly areas
test cell
8.13
process
large unit
assembly
hall mechanical plant, 8.12. Traditionally it is difficult to build
process
adaptable structures, 8.13, but modern handling techniques enable
‘loose fit’ buildings to be designed 8.14.

testing 3 ADAPTABILITY

3.01 Design for change

The industrial building usually has to change all or part of its use
several times during the payback period. Adaptability must
disassembly
therefore be built-in: a minimal first cost will soon be negated by
/packaging
the expense of fitting new processes or working methods into an
inherently unsuitable building.
In the recent past, factories were either designed rigidly around
8.12 Process flow diagram for typical heavy engineering. The a specific process or speculatively to a mean specification,
workpiece is the centre to which sub-assemblies are routed. It is resulting in buildings that are unsuitable for many of the modern
likely to be disassembled for shipment processes.
 Factories 8-5

workpiece on car park first stage ultimate

special base entry heavy vehicle heavy vehicle
entry entry
c Section, and
1 first stage factory 4 various options for office expansion
2 first stage office 5 car park
3 factory expansion 6 heavy vehicle area

8.15 Small or medium-size factory development, with a

free-standing office building. The uneven boundary increases the
no fixed overhead cranage possibility of conflict when the factory and offices expand
allows free planning: but simultaneously, and restricts commensurate expansion of car
specialist floor needed
parking

static
work piece
ideally the feeder road should be private to allow as many feeder roads
access as required during development phases ancillary building zone

gases store
expansion
gases storage
boiler house
expansion
boiler house
waste processing
d Part plan of recently developed workshop where large station
waste processing
workpieces remain static, being built up on special bases expansion
that are likely to be employed for transport and installation.
vehicle maintenance
Machine tools and components are brought to the vehicle
workpiece, air-cushion techniques are widely used expansion

8.14 relocated truck park

+ expansion phases II +

principal service road

Adaptability must allow:
8.16 A large plant with segregated development zones:
• Change of process to avoid obsolescence
• The factory and associated car and truck parking. When the
• ownership.of process and product following
Change change of factory expands the truck park becomes the expanded car
park and a new truck park is constructed adjacent to despatch
Changes will normally only be within the broad groupings of • The administration block and associated car parking,
separated from manufacturing by landscaping
building types given in Section 2.02.
• The ancillary area, incorporating individual growth provision
for each element within the zone boundary
3.02 Design for extension
Apart from alterations within the envelope, there may also be
requirements for extension; and the design should anticipate this,
8.15 and 8.16.
wet services

4 WORKING METHODS

4.01 Alternative methods

The alternative methods of work organisation are:

• Team
Linear assembly
• technology.
While the latter is a more recent introduction, there is no indication
that it will completely supplant the former. Consequently,
production buildings must be able to accommodate either or even
both in different areas, 8.17 and 8.18.

4.02 Linear assembly 8.17 Mass production buildings have to accept changes in
In this method, machines are arranged along work-travel routes. At production technology. This plan shows a conventional line
each station components are added, until the work has been assembly that may be adapted to the form in 8.18
8-6 Factories

despatch despatch despatch 8.18 The factory can change to team assembly due to new
product. Note localisation of amenity and wet service areas to
identify with teams. Chance of opening courts adjacent to
amenity areas, though these may change position as production
demands

1700

900

despatch despatch despatch

1800 750

a General purpose chuck lathe

1750

1500

2400 750
2500
a Plate drill

b Hydraulic copying lathe

8.20 Lathes

2400

1800 1250

2600

b Radial drill 1800 800

a Surface grinder

2400

1050

1200

750 750 950

c Adjustable multi-drill b Twist drill grinding machine

8.19 Drilling machines 8.21 Grinding machines

 Factories 8-7

2400

2000–
4500+
2600
2000

8.22 Cold sawing machine

900 1200

8.24 Hydraulic pedal press

8.19 to 8.24 The majority of machine tools do not exceed

2600+ 7.5 kN / m2 in loading on the floor

1600

3000

groups, and all or a substantial part of the work is assembled

8.23 Gear cutting machine
completely assembled and finished. Supplies of components and
materials are needed at each station; and waste must be
removed.
within the group. There is a need for storage of materials and
components. The main planning requirements are for unrestrictive
space and strong floors to enable the machines to be relocated at
will, with adaptable overhead services systems. Storage and
assembly spaces should be interchangeable.

4.03 Team technology 5 MACHINE SIZES

This appears to restore to the labour force a feeling of The sizes of typical machines for light and medium duty industries
responsibility and achievement. The machines are arranged in are shown in 8.19 to 8.24.

6 OUTLINE SPECIFICATION OF A TYPICAL MULTI-STRATEGY FACTORY

Scope

Type of industries for Buildings of this type are suitable for most manufacturing functions, excluding ‘light’, ‘heavy’ and
which appropriate ‘process’ industries.
Size of project Total area of production space can vary widely. Average size of all projects is 2500 m2 , so most are
smaller. This specification is suitable for projects from about 1000 m2 upwards.
Type of project Forty per cent of industrial projects are adaptations and extensions of existing premises. This specification
sets out the genera1 requirements of those projects, or parts of projects, free from special restraints.

Criterion Performance specification Design notes

Requirements of the process

Adaptability Should be designed for general-purpose use and
not around a particular process. General-purpose
characteristics should be maintained wherever
possible, e.g. in stores and production
warehousing as well as in production space itself.
Building positioned on site leaving maximum
possible room for extension, preferably in two
directions.
Single-storey building designed as a large open
space. Standardised, mainly dry construction,
easily extended or modified. Framework able to
carry a variety of alternative roof and wall
claddings, services and handling equipment.
Those external walls not on or near site
boundaries designed for easy demolition.
8-8 Factories
Criterion Performance specification
Requirements of the process (continued)
Plan shape Probably not critical except where linear
flow-processes employed. Rectangular form
maximises usable area, facilitates extension.
Physical environment Process requirements will not usually be critical:
workplace environment and energy efficiency
very important.
Structural dimensions Exact plan dimensions rarely critical, except
where flow processes employed. Aim should be
to optimise convenience for production layouts
provided by open space, e.g. the convenience of
stanchions for locating small equipment, switches,
etc. balanced against the potential adaptability:
freedom for service drops and the location of
equipment against the cost of greater spans and
the loss of overhead craneage.
Internal clear height probably most critical
dimension, for once built can only be modified
with difficulty. Height needed for high stacking,
overhead equipment, possibly facility to install
mezzanines (for works offices, lavatories, control
gear, extension of production space, etc.),
overhead conveyors, etc. Space for services
needed above clear height level.
Structural loadings Within economic restraints, design for heaviest
likely loads.
Provision for services Facility to take any production service (water,
steam, gas, electrical power, etc.) to any point
within production area with minimum disturbance
to building, and therefore production.
Provision for movement It should be possible for the production engineer
of materials and to use the type of material-handling equipment
equipment best suited to the product and production
methods. Use of fork-lift trucks or similar
wheeled materials-handling equipment will be
general; overhead conveyors may be used. Cranes
more usual in engineering than other industries.
Heaviest floor loading is likely to result from
wheels of fork-lift trucks (36 kN) and point loads
from stacked storage cages and from pallet
racking.
Design notes
Rectangular plan form with ratio of long to short
sides between 1:1 (minimises internal travel
distances where no particular traffic routes are
dictated by process) and say, 3:1 (average 2:1).
See under ‘Environmental requirements of labour
force’. In general, the production process will not
require special dust-free conditions, nor will it
create a dusty or especially dirty atmosphere. If
there are toxic or corrosive hazards within the
general production space, these should be isolated
by local compartmentation and extraction
equipment. High standards of cleanliness (e.g.
very exact avoidance of foreign matter) or
hygiene (e.g. avoidance of bacterial
contamination) for some high-technology
factories.
Span 18 m; bay spacing 12 m or even 18 m
(which would permit production line to be turned
at right-angles if needed). These are proven
dimensions in USA but they are greater than
those found in many British factory buildings and
(excluding 18 m square bays) are unlikely to
increase costs significantly over smaller spans.
Internal clear height minimum 6 m. Main vehicle
entrance doors (ground level loading) 5 m.
For intensive manufacture, high stacking,
overhead hoists or mezzanine floors a minimum
height of 7.5 m is recommended.
Ideally point loads of 36 kN, but 25 kN sufficient
for general-purpose use for buildings less than
6 m high to eaves. For very dense storage,
typically mini-load automated component stores,
30 kN/m 2 distributed loading.
Production and building services carried in roof
space above level indicated by ‘clear height’,
with vertical droppers as required to machine
positions. This eliminates overhead craneage, but
allows monorail hoists and conveyors. Roof
structure designed appropriately. Drainage used to
be below floor level, although alternative more
costly but flexible arrangements are preferable. A
permanent grid of drainage runs beneath the floor
(a minimum of, say, one run in the middle of
each 18 m span) will minimise disturbance.
Separate foundations will be provided for any
special or heavy equipment, especially that which
vibrates. Wherever possible, the upper surface of
such foundations will be at or below finished
floor level. Much equipment is now ‘stuck-down’
to the floor. Conventionally, an RC floor slab
with integral granolithic finish is used, although
deterioration of the floor finish is a common
problem in industrial buildings. Durable floors
can be obtained, but they require a suitable base,
good workmanship and close supervision.
Particular finishes may be needed to resist attack
from acids or oils used in certain processes.

Criterion Performance specification
Requirements of the process (continued)
Support for production There are two opposed points of view about
loads supports for such production loads as conveyors,
local hoists and other overhead equipment. One is
that since production loads cannot be
predetermined, they should not be allowed to bear
on the building structure, and should be loads
carried either on the plant or on a separate
structure, as and when this becomes necessary.
This can lead to substructures inhibiting floor
area and future flexibility. Although initially more
expensive the preferred alternative is to design
the roof structure to carry a general minimum of
local loads, and to provide the facility to suspend
conveyors, etc. at will.
Environmental requirements of the labour force
Visual environment Practically all visual tasks will be met by
illumination levels within the range of 200 to 750
lux; illumination in the middle of the range will
be most common. Limiting values of glare index
(as IES Code) are likely to be within 22-28.
Colour schemes should be designed both to assist
the distribution of light and to minimise fatigue.
Natural light design levels: warehouse, packing,
large assembly, heavy forging, casting, saw mills,
Daylight Factor 2% (say 10–15% floor area)
300–500 lux: Bench and machine work, fine
casting, motor repair, general office work,
average general purpose lighting, Daylight Factor
4–5% (say 12–15% floor area) 500 lux: Drawing
work, medium assembly, weaving, small
typesetting, Daylight Factor 6% (say, 15–20%
floor area) 500–750 lux: Small inspection and
assembly, small bench and machine work, 1000
lux + Daylight Factor 10%.
Thermal environment Optimum values of temperature, air movement,
etc. will depend largely upon nature of work –
whether, for example, it is sedentary or active.
Main environmental problem will be to avoid
uncomfortable heat in summer. Minimum
temperatures: heavy work 10°, light work 13º C
sedentary 16°C.
Acoustic environment Production processes highly variable in noise
output. Control by encapsulating machinery and
by using interspersed storage stacks.
Fire protection Some industries are regarded as having
‘abnormal’ fire risk because of the process or
materials used; building design will be affected
by requirements for additional compartmentation.
Generally, fire hazard is classed as ‘moderate’ to
‘low’. The general requirement of fire safety, of a
maximum division of the production area into
self-contained fire-resisting compartments, is at
variance with the general production need for
open space, and should be carefully considered.
Factories 8-9
Design notes
Design assumptions might be that bottom boom
of trusses (assumed spaced at 3 to 3.6 m centres)
carry uniformly distributed load of 8 kN/m run,
and a point load of 10 kN on any panel point at,
say, 3 m centres. Structural supports for heavier
loads are then provided on an ad hoc basis by the
production engineer.
Either daylight or ‘windowless’ design. If
daylight design, a monitor roof shape is a useful
compromise between even light level and energy
conservation. View windows in external walls.
Fluorescent lighting installation arranged in
regular pattern over whole production floor to
give 300 to 500 lux consistent illumination level
E min
must be at least 0.7
Emax
wired in three phases to reduce flicker, and in
trunking for simple replacement. Point luminaires
may be used in areas of higher headroom, or to
provide a high and even intensity. Reflecting
surfaces decorated with colours of high
reflectivity (e.g. underside of roofs: Munsell value
9), but care that glare from surfaces does not
disturb machine operators, e.g. fork-lift truck
drivers.
For 10 per cent and over use PSALI (permanent
supplementary artificial lighting installation).
For a genera1 purpose building and for resale the
design level should not be below a Daylight
Factor of 5 per cent. The method of achieving
this must be checked against insulation
regulations.
For most light industry plant should be able to
provide air temperature of 18–21°C. Minimum
value of thermal insulation for roof and walls U
2
= 0–7 W/m °C
Mechanical ventilation, at least in factories of
average or greater size. Air-change rate (fresh air
supply) minimum 5 litres/second/person
Thermal insulation material can give a measure of
acoustic control, particularly in providing
absorption.
Fire division walls may be required to obtain
acceptable insurance rate. Areas will depend on
process, etc. ‘Fire curtains’ in roof space. Fire
vents in roof surface of total area not less than 1
per cent of floor area. Avoidance of combustible
materials in sheeted claddings. Sprinklers are also
being increasingly required by insurance
companies, both over the process and in the roof
depth to protect services.
8-10 Factories

Criterion Performance specification Design notes

Environmental requirements of the labour force (continued)

Explosion hazard Not normally considered critical, but can be

Building economics
accommodated with blow-out panels, or placing
part of process outside the main building.
The cost of using a factory building is an A ‘basic’ specification: concrete floor slab;
important element in the long-term cost of exposed structural framework and services;
manufacturing. Nevertheless, without adequate simple finishes, such as painted steelwork,
justification, few managements are prepared to untreated concrete, fairfaced brickwork;
pay more than the minimum to obtain their self-finished insulating materials forming roof
essential specification, one reason being that lining.
investment in plant, equipment, perhaps labour is
likely to show a higher return than investment in
buildings (see Sections 3.01, 3.02).

7 NON-PRODUCTION ACCOMMODATION 7.03 Canteens

Staff are not allowed to eat in dirty or dusty surroundings. If the
7.01 Offices
process demands a clean environment the reverse may apply, and
There is a tendency for administrative and production space to
the importation of food into the working area may need to be
be interchangeable. Two types of offices will be required in close
discouraged.
conjunction with the production space:
Canteens are therefore nearly always now provided. See
• vised.
Foreman’s desk space in sight and proximity of work super-
This is formed from easily demountable components to
Chapter 18 for details of design.

allow for rapid relocation. Sometimes to avoid floor obstruc-

tions this accommodation is raised to mezzanine levels where
visibility is improved
• executive offices for the local administrative staff, or the
company headquarters where these are not elsewhere. This type
of accommodation is designed in accordance with Section 16,
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963, and will depend
on the numbers to be accommodated. As a rough guide, allow
10–15 per cent of the production floor area, or 5 m 2 per
person.
7.02 Lavatories
For sanitary accommodation see Chapter 3. A first aid facility is
normally provided in conjunction with this.
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Drury, Architects’ Journal Handbook of Factory Design,
Architectural Press, 1977–8
O. W. Grube, Industrial Buildings and Factories
Pemberton, Plant Layout and Materials Handling, Macmillan
Factories Act 1961
Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act, 1963, HMSO
Insulation Act 1972
Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, HMSO
Health and Safety Booklets, HMSO
Workplace Directive, published as Workplace (Health, Safety and
Welfare) Regulations, Approved Code of Practice, HMSO, 1992
METRIC HANDBOOK
PLANNING AND DESIGN DATA
Edited by DAVID ADLER BSc DIC DEng MICE Civil Engineering Consultant

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