3D Stress Components The most general state of stress at a point may

be represented by 6 components
From equilibrium principles: Normal Stresses σx σy σz
τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx , τzy = τyz
Shear Stresses τ xy τ yz τ xz
Normal stress (σ) : the subscript identifies the face on which the
stress acts. Tension is positive and compression is negative.
Shear stress (τ) : it has two subscripts. The first subscript
denotes the face on which the stress acts. The second subscript
denotes the direction on that face. A shear stress is positive if it
acts on a positive face and positive direction or if it acts in a
negative face and negative direction.
 For static equilibrium τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx , τzy = τyz resulting in six independent
scalar quantities. These six scalars can be arranged in a 3x3 matrix, giving us a stress
tensor.
⎡σ x τ yx τ zx ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = σ ij = ⎢τ xy σ y τ zy ⎥ The sign convention for the stress elements is that a
positive force on a positive face or a negative force
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥
⎣ ⎦ on a negative face is positive. All others are negative.

The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity associated with two
directions (two subscripts direction of the surface normal and direction of the stress).
Same state of stress is represented by a different set of components if axes are rotated.
There is a special set of components (when axes are rotated) where all the shear
components are zero (principal stresses).
A property of a symmetric tensor is that there exists an orthogonal set of axes 1, 2 and
3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the tensor elements are all zero except
for those in the diagonal.
⎡σ x τ yx τ zx ⎤ ⎡σ 1 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ σ ' = σ ij' = ⎢⎢ 0 σ 2 0 ⎥⎥
σ = σ ij = ⎢τ xy σ y τ zy ⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥ Eigen values ⎢⎣ 0 0 σ 3 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.
The principal stresses are the “new-axes” coordinate system. The angles between the
“old-axes” and the “new-axes” are known as the Eigen-vectors.

Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle

between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress

σ1 k1 l1 m1
σ2 k2 l2 m2
σ3 k3 l3 m3
 Plane Stress
State of stress in which two faces of the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
σ x , σ y , τ xy and σ z = τ zx = τ zy = 0.

Sign Conventions for Shear Stress and Strain

The Shear Stress will be considered

positive when a pair of shear stress
acting on opposite sides of the
element produce a counterclockwise
(ccw) torque (couple).
A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces
(or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.
1

2
σ2 σ1

⎡σ xx τ yx 0⎤ ⎡σ x1x1 τ y1x1 0⎤ ⎡σ 1 0 0⎤
⎢τ 0⎥⎥ ⎢τ σ ⎥ ⎢0 σ 0⎥⎥
⎢ xy σ yy ⎢ x1 y1 y1 y1 0 ⎥ ⎢ 2

⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦

 Stresses on Inclined Sections
Knowing the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the xy axes,
we will calculate the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted by the
axis x1y1.
y
y1 x1
θ
x

σx1
θ Equilibrium of forces:
σx τx1y Acting in x1
1
τxy
τyx
σy
AO Sinθ Sinθ
σ X1 ⋅ = σ X cosθ ⋅ AO + τ XY sinθ ⋅ AO + σY Sinθ ⋅ AO + τYX cosθ ⋅ AO
cosθ Cosθ Cosθ
 Eliminating Ao , secθ = 1/cosθ and
τxy=τyx

σ X 1 = σ X cos 2 θ + σ Y sin 2 θ + 2τ XY sin θ cos θ

σ Y 1 = σ X sin 2 θ + σ Y cos 2 θ − 2τ XY sin θ cosθ
Acting in y1

τx1y1Aosecθ = − σxAosinθ + τxyAocosθ + σyAotanθcosθ − τyxAotanθsinθ

Eliminating Ao , secθ = 1/cosθ and τxy=τyx

τ x1 y1 = −σ x ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + σ y ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + τ xy (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )

 Transformation Equations for Plane Stress
Using the following trigonometric identities:
Cos2θ = ½ (1+ cos 2θ) σx +σ y σx −σ y
Sin θ = ½ (1- cos 2θ)
2 σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
Sin θ cos θ = ½ sin 2θ 2 2
σx +σy σx −σ y
σ y1 = − cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2

These equations are known as the transformation equations for plane stress.
 σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
Special Cases σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
Case 1: Uniaxial stress τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
σ y = 0 τ xy = τ yx = 0
⎛ 1 + Cos 2θ ⎞
σ x1 = σ x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ Case 3: Biaxial stress
⎝ 2 ⎠
τ xy = 0
⎛ Sin 2θ ⎞
τ x1, y1 = −σ x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
⎝ 2 ⎠ σ x1 = + ⋅ Cos 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
τ x1, y1 = − ⋅ Sin 2θ
Case 2 : Pure Shear 2

σx =σy = 0
σ x1 = τ xy ⋅ Sin 2θ
τ x1, y1 = τ xy ⋅ Cos 2θ
An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses σx=16000psi, σy=6000psi, and
τxy=τyx= 4000psi (as shown in figure below). Determine the stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle θ=45o (counterclockwise - ccw).

Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:

σx +σy σx −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx +σy σx −σ y
σ y1 = − cos 2θ − τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
 σx +σy (16000 + 6000) = 11000 psi
Numerical substitution =
2 2
For x-axis θ = +450 (ccw)
σx −σ y (16000 − 6000) = 5000 psi
( )
Sin(2θ ) = Sin 900 = 1
2
=
2
Cos (2θ ) = Cos (90 ) = 0
0
τ xy = 4000 psi
For y-axis θ = +450 + 900 (ccw) σ x1 = 11000 + 5000(0) + 4000(1) = 15000 psi
(
Sin(2θ ) = Sin 2700 = −1 ) σ y1 = 11000 − 5000(0) − 4000(1) = 7000 psi
(
Cos (2θ ) = Cos 2700 = 0 ) τ x1 y1 = −5000(1) + 4000(0) = −5000 psi

Note: σ x + σ y = σ x1 + σ y1
 A plane stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a loaded structure such as
shown below. Determine the stresses acting on an element that is oriented at a
clockwise (cw) angle of 15o with respect to the original element, the principal
stresses, the maximum shear stress and the angle of inclination for the principal
stresses
Solution: We will use the following transformation equations:
σ +σy σx −σy
σ x1 = x + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx −σy
τ x1 y 1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
For x-axis θ = −150 (cw)
( )
Sin(2θ ) = Sin − 300 = −0.5
( )
Cos (2θ ) = Cos − 300 = 0.866
σx +σy
=
(− 46 + 12) = −17 MPa
2 2 σ x + σ y = σ x1 + σ y1
σ x − σ y (− 46 − 12)
= = −29 MPa σ y1 = −1.4 MPa
2 2
τ xy = −19MPa
σ x1 = (− 17 ) + (− 29 )(0.866) + (− 19)(− 0.5) = −32.6MPa
τ x1 y1 = (− 29)(− 0.5) + (− 19)(0.866) = −31MPa
 A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is formed by welding two
triangular plates (see figure). The plate is subjected to a tensile stress of 600psi
in the long direction and a compressive stress of 250psi in the short direction.
Determine the normal stress sw acting perpendicular to the line or the weld and the shear stress
tw acting parallel to the weld. (Assume sw is positive when it acts in tension and tw is positive
when it acts counterclockwise against the weld).
Solution: σx +σy σx −σ y
= 175 psi = 425 psi τ xy = 0 psi
2 2
σ x1 = 375 psi τ x1 y1 = −375 psi
σ y1 = −25 psi
y
σ x + σ y = σ x1 + σ y1 25psi -375psi 375psi
σ y1 = −25 psi
Θ = 30.96o
3
For x-axis tan θ = ⇒
5
x
θ = 30.960 ⇒ 2θ = 61.920
Stresses acting on the weld
25psi
σw

τw 375psi
θ θ = 30.96o σw = -25psi and τw = 375psi
 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stresses
The sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of plane stress
elements is constant and independent of the angle θ.
σ X 1 = σ X cos 2 θ + σ Y sin 2 θ + 2τ XY sin θ cos θ
σ Y 1 = σ X sin 2 θ + σ Y cos 2 θ − 2τ XY sin θ cosθ
σ X 1 + σ Y1 = σ X + σ Y
As we change the angle θ there will be maximum and minimum normal and
shear stresses that are needed for design purposes.

σx +σy σx −σ y
The maximum and minimum normal σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
stresses are known as the principal
δσ x1
stresses. These stresses are found by = −(σ x − σ y ) sin 2θ + 2τ xy cos 2θ = 0
taking the derivative of σx1 with respect δθ
to θ and setting equal to zero. τ xy
tan 2θ P =
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The subscript p indicates that the angle θp defines the orientation of the principal
planes. The angle θp has two values that differ by 90o. They are known as the principal
angles. For one of these angles σx1 is a maximum principal stress and for the other a
minimum. The principal stresses occur in mutually perpendicular planes.
τ xy
tan 2θ P =
(σ x − σ y )
2
τ xy (σ x − σ y )
sin 2θ P = cos2θ P =
R 2R
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
for the maximum stress θ = θ P
2
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞ σ +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛1⎞
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2 ⎜ ⎟
⎛1⎞
σ1 = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ = x + ⎜⎜
2 2 ⎝ 2R ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝R⎠ ⎝R⎠
σ x + σ y ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞ ⎤
2

σ1 = + ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy ) ⎥2

2 R
⎝ ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2 2
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ σ x +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
But R = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 σ1 = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
 Principal Stresses
2 The plus sign gives the algebraically
⎛σx +σ y ⎞ ⎛σx −σ y ⎞
σ 1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = σ Average + R larger principal stress and the minus
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ sign the algebraically smaller principal
2 stress.
⎛σx +σ y ⎞ ⎛σx −σ y ⎞
σ 2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = σ Average − R This are the in-plane principal
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ stresses. The third stress is zero in
plane stress conditions

Maximum Shear Stresses

The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained by taking the
derivative of τx1y1 with respect to θ and setting it equal to zero.

σ x −σ y δτ x1 y1
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ = −(σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ − 2τ xy sin 2θ = 0
2 δθ
(σ x − σ y )
tan 2θ S = − 2
τ xy
 τ xy (σ x − σ y )
cos 2θ s1 = sin 2θ s1 = − and θ s1 = θ P1 − 450
R 2R
Therefore, 2θs-2θp=-90o or θs= θp +/- 45o
The planes for maximum shear (σ x − σ y ) 1
stress occurs at 45o to the principal tan 2θ S = − =− = − cot 2θ P
2τ xy tan 2θ P
planes. The plane of the maximum
positive shear stress τmax is defined sin 2θ S
=−
(
cos 2θ P − sin 90 o − 2θ P
= =
sin 2θ P − 90 o ) ( )
by the angle θS1 for which the cos 2θ S sin 2θ P cos 90 − 2θ P
o
( cos 2θ P − 90 o ) ( )
following equations apply:
2
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
τ MAX = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy ) = R
2
The corresponding maximum shear is given
by the equation ⎝ 2 ⎠

Another expression for the maximum shear (σ 1 − σ 2 )

stress τ MAX =
2

(σ +σ y )
σ AVER =
x
The normal stresses associated with the
maximum shear stress are equal to 2
 Equations of a Circle
σx +σy σx −σ y
General equation σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σx −σ y
Consider σ x1 − σ AVER = cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2
2
σx −σ y
Equation (1) (σ x1 − σ AVER )2 = ⎡⎢ ⎤
cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
σx −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
2
⎡ σx −σ y ⎤
Equation (2) (τ )
x1 y1
2
= ⎢− sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

Equation (1) + Equation (2)

 2 2
⎡σ x − σ y ⎤ ⎡ σ x −σ y ⎤
(σ x1 − σ AVER )2 + (τ x1 y1 )2 =⎢ cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥ + ⎢− sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
2 2
⎡σ x − σ y ⎤ ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛σ −σ y ⎞
⎢ cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ cos 2 2θ + (τ xy )2 sin 2 2θ + 2⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟(τ xy )sin 2θ cos 2θ
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
⎡ σ x −σ y ⎤ ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛σ −σ y ⎞
⎢− sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥ = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ sin 2 2θ + (τ xy )2 cos 2 2θ − 2⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟(τ xy )sin 2θ cos 2θ
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
SUM = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2 = R 2
⎝ 2 ⎠

(σ x1 − σ AVER ) + (τ x1 y1 ) = R 2
2 2
 Mohr Circle
The radius of the Mohr circle is the
magnitude R.

⎛σ x +σ y ⎞ 2
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ R = ⎜⎜
C σ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2θP
⎛σ −σ ⎞
2 τx
R = ⎜⎜ x y
⎟⎟ + (τ xy )
2
The center of the Mohr circle is the
2
⎝ ⎠ y magnitude

τ (σ +σ y )
σ AVER =
x

2
⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
(σ x1 − σ AVER ) + (τ x1 y1 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + (τ xy )2
2 2
State of Stresses
⎝ 2 ⎠
 Alternative sign conversion for shear
stresses:
(a)clockwise shear stress,
(b)counterclockwise shear stress, and
(c) axes for Mohr’s circle.

Note that clockwise shear stresses are

plotted upward and counterclockwise
shear stresses are plotted downward.

Forms of Mohr’s Circle

a) We can plot the normal stress σx1 positive to the right and the shear stress
τx1y1 positive downwards, i.e. the angle 2θ will be positive when
counterclockwise or
b) We can plot the normal stress σx1 positive to the right and the shear stress τx1y1
positive upwards, i.e. the angle 2θ will be positive when clockwise.
Both forms are mathematically correct. We use (a)
Two forms of Mohr’s circle:

τx1y1 is positive downward and the angle 2θ is

positive counterclockwise, and

τx1y1 is positive upward and the angle 2θ is positive

clockwise. (Note: The first form is used here)
Construction of Mohr’s circle for plane stress.
 At a point on the surface of a pressurized cylinder, the
material is subjected to biaxial stresses σx = 90MPa and σy =
20MPa as shown in the element below.
Using the Mohr circle, determine the stresses acting on an
element inclined at an angle θ = 30o (Sketch a properly
oriented element). (σ = 90MPa, σ = 20MPa and τ = 0MPa)
x y xy

Because the shear stress is zero,

these are the principal stresses.
Construction of the Mohr’s circle
The center of the circle is

σ Average =
(σ x + σ y ) (90 + 20 )
= = 55MPa
2 2

The⎛ σradius
− σ ⎞ of the circle
2 is
90 − 20
2

⎟⎟ + (τ xy )
⎛ ⎞
⎟ + (0 ) = 35MPa
2 2
R = ⎜⎜ x y
= ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Stresses on an element inclined at θ = 30o
By inspection of the circle, the coordinates of point D are
σ x1 = σ Average + R ⋅ Cos 600 = 55 + 35 ⋅ Cos 60 = 72.5MPa
τ x1 y1 = − R ⋅ Sin60o = −35(Sin60o ) = −30.3MPa
σ y1 = σ Average − R ⋅ Cos 600 = 55 − 35 ⋅ Cos 60 = 37.5MPa
 An element in plane stress at the surface of a large
machine is subjected to stresses σx = 15000psi, σy =
5000psi and τxy = 4000psi.
Using the Mohr’s circle determine the following:
a) The stresses acting on an element inclined at an
angle θ = 40o
b) The principal stresses and
c) The maximum shear stresses.

Construction of Mohr’s circle:

σ Average =
(σ x +σy)
=
(15000 + 5000) = 10000 psi
Center of the circle (Point C): 2 2
2
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
2
⎛ 15000 − 5000 ⎞
⎟⎟ + (τ xy ) = ⎜ ⎟ + (4000 ) = 6403 psi
2 2
R = ⎜⎜
Radius of the circle: ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (θ = 0o) has the
coordinates σx1 = 15000psi and τx1y1 = 4000psi

Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90o) has the
coordinates σy1 = 5000psi and τy1x1 = - 4000psi
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R
 Stresses on an element inclined at θ
= 40o
These are given by the coordinates of
point D which is at an angle 2θ = 80o
from point A

By inspection the angle ACP1 for

the principal stresses (point P1) is :
( )
tan ACP1 =
4000
5000
⇒ ACP1 = 38.66o

Then, the angle P1CD is 80o –

38.66o = 41.34o

Knowing this angle, we can calculate the coordinates of point D (by inspection)
σ x1 = σ Average + R ⋅ Cos 41.34o = 10000 + 6403 ⋅ Cos 41.34o = 14810 psi
τ x1 y1 = − R ⋅ Sin 41.34o = −6403(Sin 41.34o ) = −4230 psi
σ y1 = σ Average − R ⋅ Cos 41.34o = 10000 − 6403 ⋅ Cos 41.34o = 5190 psi
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is
14810psi + 5190psi = 15000psi + 5000psi
Principal Stresses
The principal stresses are represented by
points P1 and P2 on Mohr’s circle.
The angle it was found to be 2θ = 38.66o
or θ = 19.3o
σ 1 = σ Average + R = 10000 + 6403 = 16403 psi
σ 2 = σ Average − R = 10000 − 6403 = 3597 psi
Maximum Shear Stresses
These are represented by point S1 and S2 in Mohr’s circle. Algebraically the
maximum shear stress is given by the radius of the circle.
The angle ACS1 from point A to point S1 is 2 θS1 = 51.34o. This angle is negative
because is measured clockwise on the circle. Then the corresponding θS1 value is –
25.7o.
 ⎡15000 4000 0⎤ ⎡16403 0 0⎤
3-D stress state ⎢ ⎥ Psi Transform to ⎢ 0 ⎥ Psi
⎢ 4000 5000 0 ⎥ ⎢ 3597 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦

In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.

The principal stresses are the “new-axes” coordinate system. The angles between
the “old-axes” and the “new-axes” are known as the Eigen-vectors.

Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle

between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress
16403.1242 0.94362832 0.331006939 0
3596.876 -0.33101 0.943628 0
0 0 0 1
At a point on the surface of a generator shaft the stresses are
σx = -50MPa, σy = 10MPa and τxy = - 40MPa as shown in the
figure. Using Mohr’s circle determine the following:
(a)Stresses acting on an element inclined at an angle θ = 45o,
(b)The principal stresses and
(c)The maximum shear stresses

Construction of Mohr’s circle σ Average =

(σ x +σy)
=
(− 50) + (10) = −20MPa
Center of the circle (Point C): 2 2

⎛ (− 50 ) − (10 ) ⎞
2
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
2

⎟⎟ + (τ xy ) = ⎜ ⎟ + (− 40 ) = 50 MPa
2 2
R = ⎜⎜
Radius of the circle:. ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (θ = 0o) has the
coordinates σx1 = -50MPa and τx1y1 = - 40MPa
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90o) has the
coordinates σy1 = 10MPa and τy1x1 = 40MPa
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R.
 Stresses on an element
inclined at θ = 45o
These stresses are given by
the coordinates of point D
(2θ = 90o of point A). To
calculate its magnitude we
need to determine the angles
ACP2 and P2CD.

tan ACP2=40/30=4/3
ACP2=53.13o
P2CD = 90o – 53.13o = 36.87o

Then, the coordinates of point D are

σ x1 = σ Average + R ⋅ Cos36.87o = (− 20) + 50 ⋅ Cos36.87 o = −60 MPa
τ x1 y1 = R ⋅ Sin36.87 o = 50(Sin36.87 o ) = 30MPa
σ y1 = σ Average − R ⋅ Cos36.87 o = (− 20 ) + 50 ⋅ Cos36.87 o = 20 MPa
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is -50MPa+10MPa = -60MPa +20MPa
Principal Stresses
They are represented by points P1 and
P2 on Mohr’s circle.
σ 1 = σ Average + R = −20 + 50 = 30 MPa
σ 2 = σ Average − R = −20 − 50 = −70 MPa
The angle ACP1 is 2θP1 = 180o + 53.13o
= 233.13o or θP1 = 116.6o
The angle ACP2 is 2θP2 = 53.13o or θP2
= 26.6o
Maximum Shear Stresses
These are represented by point S1 and S2
in Mohr’s circle.
The angle ACS1 is 2θS1 = 90o + 53.13o =
143.13o or θ = 71.6o .
The magnitude of the maximum shear
stress is 50MPa and the normal stresses
corresponding to point S1 is the average
stress -20MPa.
 ⎡ − 50 − 40 0⎤ ⎡30 0 0⎤
3-D stress state ⎢− 40 10 0⎥ MPa Transform to ⎢ 0 − 70 0⎥ MPa
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦

In matrix notation the transformation is known as the Eigen-values.

The principal stresses are the “new-axes” coordinate system. The angles between
the “old-axes” and the “new-axes” are known as the Eigen-vectors.
Cosine of angle Cosine of angle Cosine of angle
between X and the between Y and the between Z and the
principal stress principal stress principal stress principal stress
30 -0.44721359 0.894427193 0
-70 0.894427 0.447214 0
0 0 0 1
 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress
The stress transformations equations were derived solely from equilibrium
conditions and they are material independent.
Here the material properties will be considered (strain) taking into account the
following:
a)The material is uniform throughout the body (homogeneous)
b)The material has the same properties in all directions (isotropic)
c)The material follows Hooke’s law (linearly elastic material)
Hooke’s law: Linear relationship between stress and strain
For uniaxial stress:
(E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus)
σ = Eε
lateral strain ε transverse
Poisson’s ratio: υ = − axial strain = − ε
longitudinal

For pure shear : (G = Shear modulus of elasticity) τ = Gγ

 Element of material in plane stress (σz = 0).

Consider the normal strains εx, εy, εz in plane

stress.
All are shown with positive elongation.

The strains can be expressed in terms of the σx σy

stresses by superimposing the effect of the
εx = −ν
E E
individual stresses.
For instance the strain εx in the x direction: σx σy
ε y = −ν +
a)Due to the stress σx is equal to σx/E. E E
b)Due to the stress σy is equal to –νσy/E.
σx σy
The resulting strain is: ε z = −ν −ν
E E
 The shear stress causes a distortion of the element
such that each z face becomes a rhombus.
τ XY
γ XY =
G
The normal stresses σx and σy have no
effect on the shear strain γxy

σx σy σx σy σx σy τ XY
εx = −ν ε y = −ν + ε z = −ν −ν γ XY =
E E E E E E G
or rearranging the equations:
Eε x νEε y νEε x Eε y
σx = + σY = + + τ XY = G γ XY
(
1 −ν 2
) (
1 −ν 2 ) (1 − ν ) (1 − ν )
2 2

These equations are known collectively as Hooke’s Law for plane stress
These equations contain three material constants (E, G and ν) but only two are
independent because of the relationship:

E
G=
2(1 + ν )
 Special cases of Hooke’s law (σz = 0)
Uniaxial stress : Pure Shear :
σy = 0 τ xy = 0 σx =σy = 0
σx σx τ xy
εx = ε y = ε z = −υ
E E εx = εy = εz = 0 γ xy =
G
τ xy = 0
Biaxial stress :
σx σy σx σy σx σy
εx = -υ ε y = −υ + ε z = −υ -υ
E E E E E E

Volume Change
When a solid object undergoes strains, both its
dimensions and its volume will change.
Consider an object of dimensions a, b, c. The
original volume is Vo = abc and its final volume is
V1 = (a + aεx) (b + bεy) (c + cεz)
V1= abc (1+εx) (1+εy) (1+εz)
Upon expanding the terms:
V1 = Vo (1 + εx + εy + εz + εxεy + εxεz + εyεz + εxεyεz)
For small strains:
V1 = Vo (1 + εx + εy + εz )
The volume change is
ΔV = V1 – Vo = Vo ( εx + εy + εz )
The unit volume change e, also known as dilatation is defines as:
e = ΔV / Vo = εx + εy + εz
Positive strains are considered for elongations and negative strains for
shortening, i.e. positive values of e for an increase in volume.
σx σy σx σy σx σy
εx = −ν ε y = −ν + ε z = −ν −ν
E E E E E E
ΔV (1 − 2υ ) (1 − 2υ )
e= = (σ x + σ y ) For uniaxial stress σy = 0 e =σx
V E E

We can notice that the maximum possible value of Poisson’s ratio is 0.5, because a
larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is in tension
(contrary to physical behavior).
 STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY IN PLANE STRESS
The strain energy density u is the strain energy stored in a unit volume of the
material.Because the normal and shear strains occur independently, we can add the
strain energy of these two elements to obtain the total energy.
Work done = Force x distance
Work done in the x - direction =
(σ x )(bc ) (aε )
x
2
Work done in the y - direction =
(σ )(ac ) (bε )
y
y
2

The sum of the energies due to normal stresses: abc

U= (σ xε x + σ yε y )
2
u1 = (σ xε x + σ yε y )
Then the strain energy density (strain per unit volume) 1
2

Similarly, the strain energy density associated with the 1

u2 = τ xyγ xy
shear strain: 2

By combining the strain energy densities for the normal u=

1
(σ xε x + σ yε y + τ xyγ xy )
and shear strains: 2
The strain energy density in terms σ X2 σ Y2 σ Xσ Y τ XY
2
u= + −υ +
of stress alone: 2E 2E E 2G
The strain energy density in terms
of strain alone:
u=
(
E
2 1−υ 2
ε 2
X + ε
) (
2
Y − 2υε ε
X Y +
G 2
2
γ XY )
For the special case of uniaxial stress: For the special case of pure shear:
σy = 0 τ xy = 0 ε y = −υε x γ xy = 0 σx = 0 σy = 0 εy = ε x = 0
σ x2 Eε x2 τ xy2 Gγ xy2
u= or u= u= or u=
2E 2 2G 2

TRIAXIAL STRESS
An element of the material subjected to normal
stresses σx, σy and σz acting in three mutually
perpendicular directions is said to be in a state
of triaxial stress. Since there is no shear in x, y
or z faces then the stresses σx, σy and σz are
the principal stresses in the material.
If an inclined plane parallel to the z-axis is cut through the element, the only stress
of the inclined face are the normal stress σ and the shear stress τ, both of which act
parallel to the xy plane.
Because these stresses are independent of the σz, we can use
the transformation equations of plane stress, as well as the
Mohr’s circle for plane stress, when determining the stresses
σ and τ in triaxial stress.
The same general conclusion hold for normal and shear stresses
acting on inclined planes cut through the element parallel to the
x and y axes.
Maximum Shear Stress For a material in triaxial stress, the maximum shear stresses
occur on elements oriented at angles of 45o to the x, y and z
axes.
σ X −σY
for the inclined plane // z-axis (τ MAX )Z = ±
2
σY −σZ
for the inclined plane // x-axis (τ MAX ) X =±
2
σ X −σZ
for the inclined plane // y-axis (τ MAX )Y =±
2
The absolute maximum of the shear stress is the numerically largest of the above.
The stresses acting on elements oriented at
various angles to the x, y and z axes can be
visualized with the aid of the Mohr’s
circle.

In this case σx > σy > σz

 Hooke’s Law for Triaxial Stress
If Hooke’s law is obeyed, it is possible to obtain the σx σy σz
εx = −ν −ν
relationship between normal stresses and normal strains E E E
using the same procedure as for plane stress. σx σy σz
ε y = −ν + −ν
E E E
Or σy
σx σz
ε z = −ν −ν +
σ x =
E
(1 + υ )(1 − 2υ )
[(1 − υ )ε x + υε y + υε z ] E E E

σ y =
E
(1 + υ )(1 − 2υ )
[υε x + (1 − υ )ε y + υε z ] They are known as the
Hooke’s law for triaxial
σ z =
E
(1 + υ )(1 − 2υ )
[υε x + υε y + (1 − υ )ε z ] stress.

Unit Volume Change ΔV

e= = ε X + εY + ε Z
The unit volume change (or dilatation) for an VO
element in triaxial stress is obtained in the
same manner as for plane stress.
If Hooke' s laws apply, then
ΔV (1 − 2υ )
e= = (σ X + σ Y + σ Z )
VO E
 Strain Energy Density
The strain energy density for an σ xε x σ y ε y σ z ε z
element in triaxial stress is
u= + +
2 2 2
obtained by the same method In terms of stresses :
used for plane stress.
υ
u=
1
2E
( )
σ x2 + σ y2 + σ z2 - (σ xσ y + σ xσ z + σ yσ z )
E
In terms of the strains:

u=
E
2(1 + υ )(1 − 2υ )
[ ( ) ]
(1 − υ ) ε x2 + ε y2 + ε z2 + 2υ (ε xε y + ε xε z + ε yε z )
Spherical Stress
A special case of triaxial stress, called spherical stress, occurs σ x = σ y = σ z = σ 0
whenever all three normal stresses are equal:
The Mohr’s circle is reduced to a single point. Any plane cut through the element
will be free of shear stress and will be subjected to the same normal stress so and
it is a principal plane.
σO
The normal strains in spherical stress are also ε O = (1 − 2υ ) The volume change
E
the same in all directions, provided the material
is isotropic and if Hooke’s law applies: e = 3ε O = 3σ O
(1 − 2υ )
E

Element in spherical stress.
K = bulk or volume modulus of elasticity
E σ0
K= K=
3(1 − 2υ ) e
If ν = 1/3 then K = E
If ν = 0 then K = E/3
If ν = 1/2 then K = infinite (rigid material having no
change in volume)
These formulas also apply to and element in uniform compression,
for example rock deep within the earth or material submerged in
water (hydrostatic stress).
 PLAIN STRAIN
Strains are measured by strain gages.
A material is said to be in a state of plain strain if the only deformations are those
in the xy plane, i.e. it has only three strain components εx, εy and γxy.
Plain stress is analogous to plane stress, but under ordinary conditions they do
not occur simultaneously
Exception when σx = -σy and when ν = 0

Strain components εx, εy, and γxy in the

xy plane (plane strain).
Comparison of plane stress and plane strain.
 APPLICATION OF THE TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
The transformation equations for plane stress are valid even when σz is not zero,
because σz does not enter the equations of equilibrium.Therefore, the
transformations equations for plane stress can also be used for stresses in plane
strain.
Similarly, the strain transformation equations that will be derived for the case of
plain strain in the xy plane are valid even when εz is not zero, because the strain εz
does not affect the geometric relationship used for the derivation.Therefore, the
transformations equations for plane strain can also be used for strains in plane
stress.
Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

We will assume that the strain εx, εy and γxy

associated with the xy plane are known.
We need to determine the normal and shear strains
(εx1 and γx1y1) associated with the x1y1 axis. εy1 can
be obtained from the equation of εx1 by substituting
θ +90 for θ.
For an element of size dx, dy
In the x direction:
the strain εx produces an elongation εx dx.
The diagonal increases in length by εx dx cos θ.

In the y direction:
the strain εy produces an elongation εy dy.
The diagonal increases in length by εy dy sin θ.

The shear strain γxy in the plane xy produces a

distortion of the element such that the angle at the
lower left corner decreases by an amount equal to
the shear strain. Consequently, the upper face
moves to the right by an amount γxy dy. This
deformation results in an increase in the length of
the diagonal equal to: γxy dy cos θ
 The total increase Δδ of the diagonal is the sum of the preceding three expressions,
thus: Δd = ε dx(Cosθ ) + ε dy (Sinθ ) + γ dy (Cosθ )
x y xy

Δd ⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞
But ε x1 = = ε x ⎜ ⎟(Cosθ ) + ε y ⎜ ⎟(Sinθ ) + γ xy ⎜ ⎟(Cosθ )
ds ⎝ ds ⎠ ⎝ ds ⎠ ⎝ ds ⎠
dx dy
= Cosθ = Sinθ
ds ds
ε x 1 = ε x Cos 2θ + ε y Sin 2θ + γ xy Sin θ Cos θ
Shear Strain γx1y1 associated with x1y1 axes.

This strain is equal to the decrease in angle

between lines in the material that were initially
along the x1 and y1 axes.
Oa and Ob were the lines initially along the x1 and
y1 axis respectively. The deformation caused by γ
the strains εx, εy and γxy caused the Oa and Ob lines
to rotate and angle α and β from the x1 and y1 axis
respectively. The shear strain γx1y1 is the decrease
in angle between the two lines that originally were
at right angles, therefore, γx1y1=α+β.
The angle α can be found from the deformations
produced by the strains εx, εy and γxy . The strains
εx and γxy produce a clockwise rotation, while the
strain εy produces a counterclockwise rotation.

Let us denote the angle of rotation produced by

εx , εy and γxy as α1 , α2 and α3 respectively.
dx dx dy
α1 = ε x Sinθ = Cosθ = Sinθ
ds ds ds
dy
α 2 = ε y Cosθ
ds
dy
α1 = γ xy Sinθ
ds
α = −α1 + α 2 − α 3 = −(ε x − ε y )SinθCosθ − γ xy Sin 2θ
The rotation of line Ob which initially
was at 90o to the line Oa can be found β = (ε x − ε y )Sin(θ + 90)Cos(θ + 90) + γ xy Sin 2 (θ + 90)
by substituting θ +90 for θ in the
β = −(ε x − ε y )SinθCosθ + γ xyCos 2θ
expression for α. Because β is positive
when clockwise. Thus:
γ xy
γ x1 y1 = α + β = −(ε x − ε y )SinθCosθ +
2
[Cos θ − Sin θ ]
2 2

Transformation Equations for Plain Strain

Using the following trigonometric
identities:
ε x1 =
(
εx + εy
+
) (
εx − εy
cos 2θ +
γ xy )
sin 2θ
Cos2θ = ½ (1+ Cos 2θ) 2 2 2
Sin θ = ½ (1- Cos 2θ)
2

Sin θ cos θ = ½ Sin 2θ

γ x1 y 1
=−
εx −εy(sin 2θ +
)
γ xy
cos 2θ
2 2 2

In var iant = ε x + ε y = ε x1 + ε y1
ε Average =
(ε x +εy)
2
 PRINCIPAL STRAINS
γ xy
The angle for the principal strains is : 2 γ xy
tan 2θ P == =
(ε x −εy) εx − εy
The value for the principal strains are 2

ε1 =
(ε x +εy) ⎛εx − εy
+ ⎜⎜
2
⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

ε2 =
(ε x +εy) ⎛εx − εy ⎞
− ⎜⎜
2
⎛ γ xy ⎞
⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Maximum Shear
The maximum shear strains in 2 2
the xy plane are associated with γ Max = + ⎛ ε x − ε y ⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or γ Max = (ε1 − ε 2 )
axes at 45o to the directions of 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
the principal strains

For isotropic materials, at a given point in an stressed body, the principal strains
and principal stresses occur in the same directions.
 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRAIN
σx εx
It is constructed in the same manner εy
as the Mohr’s circle for plane stress σy
γ
with the following similarities: τ xy xy 2
σ x1 ε x1
τ x1 y1 γ x1 y1
2
 Strain Measurements
An electrical-resistance strain gage is a device for measuring normal strains (ε) on
the surface of a stressed object.
The gages are small (less than ½ inch) made of wires that are bonded to the surface of the object. Each
gage that is stretched or shortened when the object is strained at the point, changes its electrical
resistance. This change in resistance is converted into a measurement of strain.
From three measurements it is possible to calculate the strains in any direction. A
group of three gages arranged in a particular pattern is called a strain rosette.
Because the rosette is mounted in the surface of the body, where the material is in
plane stress, we can use the transformation equations for plane strain to calculate the
strains in various directions.

45° strain rosette, and element oriented at

an angle θ to the xy axes.
General Equations

Other Strain Rosette

 An element of material in plane strain undergoes the following strains: εx=340x10-6
; εy = 110x10-6 ; γxy = 180x10-6 . Determine the following quantities:
(a) the strains of an element oriented at an angle θ = 30o ;
(b) the principal strains and
(c) the maximum shear strains.

(a) Element oriented at an angle

θ = 30o (2θ = 60o)

ε x1 =
(ε x +εy) (ε
cos 2θ +
+ x −εy)
sin 2θ
γ xy
2 2 2
⎡ 340 + 110 340 − 110 180 ⎤
ε x1 =⎢ + Cos 60 + Sin 60 ⎥ × 10 − 6
⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
ε x + ε y = ε x1 + ε y1
ε x1 = 360 × 10 − 6
340μ + 110μ = 360μ + ε y1
γ x1 y 1
=−
(ε x −εy)
cos 2θ
sin 2θ +
γ xy
ε y1 = 90μ
2 2 2
γ x1 y 1 ⎡ 340 − 110 180 ⎤
= ⎢− Sin 60 + Cos 60 ⎥ × 10 − 6 = − 55 × 10 − 6
2 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦

ε Average = 225 μ
 (b) Principal Strains and Angle of Rotation
γ xy
ε 1, 2 =
(ε x +εy) ⎛ε −εy
± ⎜⎜ x
2
⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2
tan 2θ P = =
− 55 μ
= 0.7826
ε x − ε y 340 μ − 110 μ
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
θ P = 19 0
2 2
⎛ 340 μ − 110 μ ⎞ ⎛ 180 ⎞
ε 1 = 225 μ + ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 370 μ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2 2
⎛ 340 μ − 110 μ ⎞ ⎛ 180 ⎞
ε 2 = 225 μ − ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 80 μ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain
2 2
⎛ εx − εy ⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
2 2
γ Max ⎛ 340μ - 110μ ⎞ ⎛ 180μ ⎞
= + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 145μ
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
γ Max = (ε1 − ε 2 ) = 370μ − 80μ = 290μ

ε Average = 225 μ

(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

γ Max = (ε1 − ε 3 ) = 370μ − 0μ = 370μ

 Transformation Equations
⎛ γ XY ⎞
ε X 1 = ε X cos 2 θ + ε Y sin 2 θ + ⎜ ⎟ 2 sin θ cos θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ γ XY ⎞
εY1 = ε X sin 2
θ + ε Y cos 2
θ − ⎜ ⎟ 2 sin θ cos θ
⎝ 2 ⎠
γ X 1Y 1 γ XY
2
= −ε X sin θ cos θ + ε Y sin θ cos θ +
2
(cos 2
θ − sin 2 θ )

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ cos 2 θ
ε
⎢ X1 ⎥ ε
⎢ X ⎥ sin 2 θ 2 sin θ cosθ ⎤
⎥
⎢ ε ⎥ = [T ]× ⎢ ε ⎥
⎢ Y1 ⎥ ⎢ Y ⎥
[T ] = ⎢⎢ sin 2 θ cos 2 θ − 2 sin θ cosθ ⎥
⎢ γ X 1Y 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎢ γ XY ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎢− sin θ cosθ
⎣ sin θ cosθ (
cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
⎥
⎦
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ε
⎢ X ⎥ ε
⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ε ⎥ = [T ]−1 × ⎢ ε ⎥ ε
⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎡ cos 2
θ sin θ
2
2 sin θ cosθ ⎤ ⎢ ε X ⎥
⎢ Y ⎥ ⎢ Y1 ⎥
⎢ γ XY ⎥ ⎢ γ X 1Y 1 ⎥ ⎢ ε ⎥ = ⎢ sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
⎥⎢
− 2 sin θ cosθ ⎥ ε Y ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ Y1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ γ X 1Y 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣− sin θ cosθ sin θ cosθ ( γ)
cos θ − sin θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ XY ⎥
2 2

⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
 For Θ=30 degrees
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ε X1 ⎥ ⎡ 2 sin 30 cos 30 ⎢ ε X ⎥
⎤
2 2
cos 30 sin 30
⎢ ε ⎥ = ⎢ sin 2 30 ⎥⎢
⎢ cos 2
30 − 2 sin 30 cos 30 ⎥ εY ⎥
⎢ Y1
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
γ (
⎢ X 1Y 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣− sin 30 cos 30 sin 30 cos 30 cos 30 − sin 30 ⎥⎦ ⎢ XY ⎥
2 2
) γ
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
ε
⎢ X 1 ⎥ ⎡ 0.75 0.25 0.876 ⎤ ⎡340⎤ ⎡ 361.3 ⎤
⎢ ε ⎥ = ⎢ 0.25 0. 75 − 0 .876 ⎥ ⎢110 ⎥ μ = ⎢ 88.6 ⎥ μ
⎢ Y1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ γ X 1Y 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣− 0.438 0.438 0.5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 90 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 55.8⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ε xx 2
γ yx
2
γ zx ⎥
⎢1 1 ⎥
[ε ] = ⎢ γ xy ε yy γ zy ⎥ = Strain _ Tensor
⎢2 2 ⎥
⎢1 γ 1
γ yz ε zz ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 xz 2 ⎥⎦
Example
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ε xx 2
γ yx
2
γ zx ⎥ ⎡
340 180 0⎤
⎢1 2 ⎥
1 ⎥ ⎢180
[ε ] = ⎢ γ xy ε yy γ zy ⎥ = ⎢ 2 110 0⎥ μ
⎢2 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢1 γ 1 0 0 0
γ yz ε zz ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 2 xz
2 ⎥⎦
⎡371 0 0⎤
Eigen _ Values ⇒ ⎢⎢ 0 79 0⎥⎥ μ
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦
A 45o strain rosette (rectangular rosette) consists of three electrical-resistance strain gages,
arranged to measure strains in two perpendicular directions and also at a 45o angle (as shown
below). The rosette is bonded to the surface of the structure before it is loaded. Gages A, B and
C measure the normal strains εa, εb and εc in the directions of the lines Oa, Ob and Oc,
respectively.
Explain how to obtain the strains εx1, εy1 and γx1y1, associated with an element oriented at an
angle θ to the xy axes.

⎛γ ⎞
ε a = ε x cos 2 θ + ε y sin 2 θ + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ 2 sin θ cos θ
⎝ 2 ⎠

Angles with respect to x-axis: (a) is zero ; (b) is

45 degrees CCW ; (c) 90 degrees CCW
⎛γ ⎞
ε a = ε x cos 2 0 + ε y sin 2 0 + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ 2 sin 0 cos 0
⎝ 2 ⎠ ε x = εa
⎛γ ⎞
ε b = ε x cos 2 45 + ε y sin 2 45 + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ (2 sin 45 cos 45 ) ε y = εb
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛γ ⎞ γ xy = 2ε b − ε a − ε c
ε b = ε x cos 90 + ε y sin 90 + ⎜⎜ xy
2 2
⎟⎟ (2 sin 90 cos 90 )
⎝ 2 ⎠
 The following results are obtained from a 600 strain gauge
rosette:
Strain in direction of strain gauge A = 750μ;
Strain in direction of SG B, 600 to A = 350μ;
Strain in direction of SG C, 1200 to A = 100 μ.
Determine the principal strains and their directions.
ε a = ε x = 750 μ
⎛γ ⎞
ε b = ε x cos 2 60 + ε y sin 2 60 + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ (2 sin 60 cos 60 )
⎝ 2 ⎠ ε y = 50 μ
⎛γ ⎞ ⇒
ε b = ε x (0 . 25 ) + ε y (0 . 75 ) + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ (0 . 433 ) γ xy = 289μ
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛γ ⎞
ε b = ε x cos 2 120 + ε y sin 2 120 + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ (2 sin 120 cos 120 )
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛γ ⎞
ε b = ε x (0 . 25 ) + ε y (0 . 75 ) + ⎜⎜ xy ⎟⎟ (− 0 . 433 )
⎝ 2 ⎠
 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ε xx 2
γ yx
2
γ zx ⎥ ⎡
750 289 0⎤
2
⎢1 1 ⎥ ⎢289 ⎥
[ε ] = ⎢ γ xy ε yy γ zy ⎥ = ⎢
2
50 0⎥ μ
⎢2 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢1 γ 1 0 0 0
γ yz ε zz ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ 2 xz
2 ⎥⎦
⎡779 0 0⎤
ArcCos(angle)=0.981
Eigen _ Values ⇒ ⎢⎢ 0 21 0⎥⎥ μ
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ Angle =11.2degress

⎡ 0.981 0.1945 0⎤
Eigen _ Vectors ⇒ ⎢⎢− 0.1945 0.981 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦
 (A) Using the transformation equations define the maximum and minimum
principal strains, maximum shearing strain and principal angles given
εX = 3500μ ; εY = 700μ and γXY = -1050μ
(B) Repeat using the Mohr’s circle.
ArcCos(angle)=0.984
⎡ 3500 − 1050 0⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ Angle =10.28degress
[ε ] = ⎢− 1050 2 700 0⎥ μ
⎢ ⎥ (c) In-Plane Maximum Shear Strain
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥
⎦ γ Max = (ε1 − ε 2 ) = 3595.2μ − 604.8μ = 2990.4μ
⎡3595.2 0 0⎤
Eigen _ Values ⇒ ⎢⎢ 0 604.8 0⎥⎥ μ
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦
⎡0.984 − 0.178 0⎤
Eigen _ Vectors ⇒ ⎢⎢0.178 0.984 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1⎥⎦

(d) Out-of-Plane Maximum Shear Strain

γ Max = (ε1 − ε 3 ) = 3595.2μ − 0μ = 3595.2μ
 The state of stress at a point in a structural member is determined to be as shown.
Knowing that for this material E=210GPa and ν=0.3, use the Mohr’s circle to
determine: (1) the principal stresses; (2) the in-plane maximum shear stress; (3) the
absolute maximum shear stress; (4) principal angles; (5) the strains and the principal
strains; (6) the maximum shear strain; (7) the principal angles.
14MPa
1. Principal Stresses
2
⎛σ +σ y ⎞ ⎛σx −σ y ⎞
σ 1, 2 ⎟⎟ + (τ xy ) = σ Average ± R
2
= ⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟ ± ⎜⎜
y 11.2MPa
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
56MPa
⎛ − 56 − (− 14 ) ⎞
2
x
⎟ + (11.2 ) = 23.8MPa
2
R= ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ − 56 + (− 14 ) ⎞
σ Average = ⎜ ⎟ = −35MPa
⎝ 2 ⎠ σ 1 = 0MPa
σ 1 = −35 + 23.8 = −11.2 MPa σ 2 = −11.2 MPa
σ 2 = −35 − 23.8 = −58.8MPa σ 3 = −58.8MPa
⎡− 56 11.2 0⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
[σ ] = Stress _ Tensor = ⎢⎢11.2 − 14 0⎥⎥ MPa Eigen _ Values ⇒ ⎢⎢0 − 11.2 0 ⎥⎥ MPa
⎢⎣ 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 − 58.8⎥⎦
 2. In-Plane Maximum Shear Stress τ Max = R = 23.8MPa
3. The Absolute Maximum Shear Stress (Out of plane)
σ1 − σ 3 0 − (− 58.8)
τ Max = = = 29.4 MPa
2 2

4. Angle between the x-axis and the

Principal Stresses
τ xy 11.2
( In _ Plane) = tan (2θ P ) = =
(σ x − σ y ) (− 56 − (− 14))
2 2
11.2
⎡ 0 0 0⎤ tan (2θ P ) = = −0.533
− 21
Eigen _Vectors ⇒ ⎢⎢0.2425 0.9701 ⎥
0 2θ P = −28.07 deg
⎥
⎢⎣ 0.9701 − 0.2425 1⎥⎦

For σ1=0 For σ2=-11.2MPa For σ3=-58.8MPa

ArcCos(angle)=0.0 ArcCos(angle)=0.2425 ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =90degress Angle =76degress Angle =14degress
 5. Strains and Principal Strains
σx σy σz εx =
− 56
− (0 . 3 )
− 14
= (− 266 . 6 + 20 )μ = − 246 . 6 μ
εx = −ν −ν 210000 210000
E E E
σy − 56 − 14
σx σz ε y = − (0 . 3 ) + = (80 − 66 . 6 )μ = 13 . 4 μ
ε y = −ν + −ν 210000 210000
E E E
− 56 − 14
σx σy σz ε z = − (0 . 3 ) − (0 . 3 ) = (80 + 20 )μ = 100 μ
ε z = −ν −ν + 210000 210000
E E E
τ XY τ xy 11.2 ε 1, 2 =
(ε x +εy) ⎛εx − εy
± ⎜⎜
2
⎞ ⎛ γ xy ⎞
⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2

γ XY = γ xy = = = 139 μ 2
G G 80770 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
E 210 ε 1, 2 = ε Average ± R
G= = = 80.77GPa
2(1 + ν ) 2(1 + 0.3) (− 246.6 + 13.4) = −116.6μ
ε Average =
⎡ 11 ⎤ 2
⎢ ε xx 22
γ yx
γ zx ⎥ ⎡
− 246.6 139 0 ⎤ 2 2
⎢1 1 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎛ − 246 . 6 − 13 .4 ⎞ ⎛ 139 ⎞
[ε ] = ⎢ γ xy ε yy γ zy ⎥ = ⎢ 139 2 13.4 0 ⎥μ R = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 147.4 μ
⎢2 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎢1 γ 1 0 0 100
γ yz ε zz ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
ε1 = 30.8μ
⎢⎣ 2 xz
2 ⎥⎦
⎡100 0 0 ⎤ ε 2 = −264 μ
Eigen _ Values ⇒ ⎢⎢ 0 30.8 0 ⎥⎥ μ
⎢⎣ 0 0 − 264.0⎥⎦
 6. Maximum Shear Strain and Absolute Maximum Shear Strain
2 2
γ Max
(in _ plane ) = R = ⎛⎜ − 246.6 − 13.4 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ 139 ⎞⎟ = 147.4μ
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
γ Max = 294.8μ

γ Max 100 − (− 264 )

(out _ of _ plane ) = ε1 − ε 3 = = 182 μ
2 2 2
γ Max = 364 μ

7. In-plane and Out-of-plane angles

γ xy
tan 2θ P == 2 =
γ xy
=
139
= −0.534 tan (2θ P ) = −0.533
(ε −εy) ε x − ε y (− 246 .6 − 13 .4 )
x
2 2θ P = −28.07 deg

⎡ 0 0 0⎤
Eigen _Vectors ⇒ ⎢⎢0.2425 0.9701 0⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0.9701 − 0.2425 1⎥⎦
For ε1=100μ For ε2=30.8μ For ε3=-264μ
ArcCos(angle)=0.0 ArcCos(angle)=0.2425 ArcCos(angle)=0.9701
Angle =90degress Angle =76degress Angle =14degress