2.

Ocean and Sea Waves

• Lecture developed from the open university book i.e.
Waves, Tides and Shallow-Water Processes.
• Discusses and introduces the qualitative aspects of
water waves and explores some of the simple
relationships of wave dimensions and characteristics.

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2.1 Why Wave Observations are Difficult?
• There is great amount of
randomness in the sea
– waves in nature rarely appear
to look exactly the same from
wave to wave.
– Nor do they propagate in the
same direction.
• Hence observation of wave
characteristics at sea are difficult.

• Mathematical models of wave behaviour are based on the dynamics of

idealized fluids.

• Although ocean waves do not conform precisely with those ideals.

• To a first approximation however some facts are about waves are well
established.

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2.2 What are Waves?
• Water Waves are fluctuations of the water level i.e.
undulatory motion of a water.
• In the sea/ocean they are accompanied by local
currents, acceleration and pressure fluctuations.
• Observation show that waves in nature
– rarely appear to look exactly the same from wave
to wave and
– nor do they propagate in the same direction.
• Hence, there is great amount of randomness in
the sea.
• Thus observations of wave characteristics at sea
are difficult.
• Statistical techniques are used to measure waves.
• However, based on the dynamics of idealized
fluids mathematical models of waves have been
developed, although sea/ocean waves do not
conform precisely with those ideals.
• To a first approximation some facts about waves
are well established.
• The simplest form of a wave is a sine wave.
2.3 Anatomy of an Idealized Water Wave
Parts of a wave are:
• Wave crest:
The highest part of the wave between successive troughs.
• Wave trough:
The lowest part of the wave between successive crests.

Vertical Profile showing the linear dimension &

sinusoidal shape of two successive idealized ocean
waves.
Characteristics of an Idealized Water Wave (cont…)
Wave parameters:
• Wave Height (𝐻):
– overall vertical change in height between wave crest (or
peak) & the wave trough.
– twice the wave amplitude (𝑎)
• Wavelength (𝐿):
– the distance between two successive peaks (or two
successive troughs)
Characteristics of an Idealized Water Wave (cont…)
Wave parameters:
• Wave Steepness:
– wave height divided by Wavelength (𝐻/𝐿).
• Wave period (𝑇):
– the time interval between two successive peaks (or two
successive troughs) passing a fixed point measured in
seconds.
Characteristics of an Idealized Water Wave (cont…)
Wave parameters:
• Linear Wave frequency (𝑓):
– the number of peaks (or troughs) which pass a fixed point
per second.
• Wave speed or wave celerity (𝐶): 𝐶 = 𝐿/𝑇.
 Example 1.
• If a wave has a frequency of 0.2s-1, what is its
period?
2.4 Understanding the Characteristics
of the Wave Motion
1. A wave is a disturbance that travels from one part of a material to
another.(The disturbance caused by dropping a stone into a pond
is transmitted across the pond by ripples)
2. The disturbance is propagated through the material without any
substantive overall motion of the material itself. (A floating cork
merely bobs up and down on the ripples, but experiences little
overall movementin the direction of travel)
3. The disturbance is propagated without any significant distortion of the
wave form. (A ripple shows very little change in the shape as it travels
across a pond.)
4. The disturbance appears to be propagated with constant speed.
If the material is not being transported by wave
propagation, then what is being transported?

Energy is transported across or through a

material without any significant overall
transport of the material itself.
What is the nature of the movement
observed when ripples cross a pond?
1. The progress of the waves
2. The movement of the water particles
themselves

Particles experience a displacing force and a

restoring force and it is these forces that are
often used in describing different types of
waves.
 2.5 Types of Waves
• Two general wave categories:
– Progressive waves where the energy moves through
or across the material.
• Surface waves (So called because they primarily
travel on the surface)
• Internal waves
• Tsunamis
– Standing waves which is the sum of two progressive
waves of equal dimensions travelling in opposite
directions.
• Seiches
2.5.1 Wind-Generated Waves
• the most familiar of surface waves are those which occur at
the interface between atmosphere and ocean, caused by
wind blowing over the sea.
• Size and type of wind-generated waves are controlled by:
– wind velocity
– wind duration
– Fetch (the unobstructed distance of sea)
– original state of the sea surface.
• As wind velocity increases wavelength, period and height
increase, but only if wind duration and fetch are sufficient.
• There are two different restoring forces that act on water
waves.
– surface tension and gravity.
• Most water waves begin as wind (the generating force) blows
over the water and friction causes wrinkles to form on the
surface.
• These are called ripples or capillary waves (wavelengths less
than about 1.7 cm) and their restoring force is surface
tension.
• Small areas of capillary waves can appear and disappear
rapidly giving the impression that they are jumping from point
to point over the surface.
• These rapidly moving patches have been called cat’s-paws.
• As more energy is transferred to the water,
the waves will grow in size.
• This will increase the roughness of the surface
and make it even easier for the wind to
transfer energy to the water so the waves will
grow in size rapidly.
• As the waves grow, gravity will become the
restoring force and the waves will be called
gravity waves.
In practice wave growth ceases whilst wave speed is
still at some value below wind speed.
So why don’t wind generated waves travel as fast as
wind?

1. Some wind energy drives surface current.

2. Some wind energy dissipated by friction converted to
heat and sound.
3. Larger waves lose energy through white capping i.e.
breaking of the tip of the wave crest because it is
being driven forward by the wind faster than the wave
itself is travelling.
 2.5.2 Sea and Swell
• Sea:
– Waves generated locally by wind and will consists of waves of
many different wave heights and periods.
– These waves propagate more or less in the wind direction.
• Swell:
– On large bodies of water, the waves will travel beyond the area
in which they are generated.
– Wave travelling such long distances, the energy of the individual
waves is dissipated by internal friction and wave energy is
transferred from the higher frequency to lower frequencies.
– Waves generated some distance away are called swell.
• On most coasts, sea and swell occur simultaneously.
Exceptions are enclosed bodies of water such as lakes,
reservoirs and inland seas where swell cannot arrive from
lond distances.
 2.5.3 The Fully Developed Sea
• Once the energy that is dissipated by the waves is the
same as that rate at which the waves receive energy
from the wind an equilibrium is eventually reached.

• This equilibrium sea state is known as the fully

developed sea where the size and characteristics of
waves do not change.

• Ideal FDS rarely occurs as

–Wind speed is variable
–Consist of wave fields with range of wave sizes.
–Interaction between waves will also contribute to
wave sizes.

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 2.6.4 Wave Height and Wave
Steepness
Height of any real wave is determined by many companion waves, of different
frequencies and amplitudes, which move into and out of phase with, and across
each other. (in phase means that peaks and troughs coincide)

A typical wave record, i.e. a record variation in water level

(displacement from equilibrium) with time at one position.
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• In wave research, it is necessary to choose a single wave height
which characterizes a particular sea state.

• Oceanographer usually use the significant wave height, H1/3

– the average height of the highest one-third of all waves
occurring in a particular time period.

• Maximum wave height, Hmax(25 years)

– Used in designing of structures such as flood barriers, harbour
installations and drilling platforms.
– It will occur on average once every 25years but it does not mean that
such a wave will occur every 25 years. On the other hand two such
waves might appear next week.

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• Wind speed increases so H1/3 in a FDS increases.Relationship between sea state, H1/3
and wind speed is expressed by Beaufort Scale.

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• Wave steepness is important to sailors and not
the absolute wave height.
• Most wind-generated waves have steepness in
the order of 0.03 to 0.06.
• Waves steeper than this can present problems
for shipping, but it is very rare for wave
steepness to exceed 0.1.
• Wave steepness diminishes with increasing
wavelength.

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