Introduction To linguistics

Chapter 5 Semantics

INTRODUTION TO LINGUISTICS
Chapter 5

Lexical Relations

INTRODUTION TO LINGUISTICS
 5.1. Lexical Fields
• A lexeme is defined by telling what “set” it
belongs to and how it differs form other
members of the same set, such as in
sport, creative writing, manual
occupation, as well as in color.
• Some lexical sets involve part-whole
relationship (arm – hand – finger –
thumbs)
 5.1. Lexical Fields (cont…)
• The set second-minute-hour-day is a part-
whole relationship that is also hierarchical.
• Some set are sequential (number, one,
two, three etc) or cyclical (January,
February, etc., Sunday, Monday, etc.,
spring, summer, etc.)
 5.2. Kinship
• Kinship is universal since all humans are
related to other humans through blood ties
and through marriage, but kinship systems
differ from society to society.
• A relationship is a kind of predicate
- Harold is Alice’s father (Harold is father-of
Alice)
- Rose is Jerry’s sister (Rose is sister-of Jerry)
 5.2. Kinship (cont…)
• Some of the predicate relations in all
kinship systems can be described with
four primitive features; (parent),
(offspring), (sibling), and (spouse).
• We also need the components (male = M)
and (female = F)
 5.2. Kinship (cont…)
• Father = M parent
• Mother = F parent
• Brother = M sibling
• Sister = F sibling
• Son = M offspring
• Daughter = F offspring
 5.3. Hyponymy
• Hyponymy is a word or a phrase which
has meaning in the general word/phrase
called hypeornym.
 5.4 Synonymy
a. We learn semantics.
b. We study semantics.

ab&ba
(The truth of [a] entails the truth of [b], and vice versa.)
~a  ~b & ~b  ~a
(The falsity of [a] entails the falsity of [b], and vice versa.)

[a] = [b] = true, or

[a] = [b] = false
a. We learn semantics.
Both sentences are
paraphrases.
b. We study semantics.

The sentences have

synonymous words.
 Connotation within synonymy

a. She is thin. Neutral ‫محايد‬

b. She is skinny. Pejorative ‫انتقاصي‬

c. She is slender. Flattering ‫مجاملة‬

They are synonymous, but they differ in connotation.

hard difficult
 5.5 Antonymy
a. The television is on now.
b. The television is off now.

If one is true, the other must be false based on the fact.

 Binary /None gradable antonyms
a. The television is on now.
b. The television is off now.

on >< off : binary antonyms

male >< female

dead >< alive
There is no space / scale
asleep >< awake in between.
legal >< illegal
pass >< fail
true >< false
 Non-binary /gradable antonyms

a. This rope is long.

There is space / scale in
b. That rope is short.
between.

short --------------s-c-a-l-e------------- long

0 ; 5 ; 10 ; 20 ; 100 meter

It’s too short. My rope is very long, and I still have another
one much longer if you need more.
More examples of non-binary antonyms:

cold >< hot

low >< high
cheap >< expensive
narrow >< wide
poor >< rich
small >< big
‫ غير مطلوب‬A comparison of four relations

Synonyms
p  q ~p  ~q

Hyponym
p  q ~q  ~p

Antonym
p  ~q ~p  q
 Converse Antonym
Converse Predicate

20a. The map is above the chalkboard.

20b. The chalkboard is below the map.

X and Y

If [a] is the X of [b] , then [b] is Y of [a]

 Converse Antonym
Common Converse Pairs

Husband of/ Wife of, employer of/employee of

Direct Opposite

Before/ after, left-of/right-of

 Converse Antonym
There are pairs of converse 3-argument
predicates
Give-to/receive-from; Sell-to/buy-from; lend-
to/borrow from

Dany broke the window.

Window was broken (by Dany)

Another form of paraphrase.

a b a b
 Symetry and reciprocity
A. This box is the same size as that basket.
B. Sean is married tO Eileen.
C. The greens are neighbor of the browns

Angle BAC is equal to Angle

ACB
 Expression of Quantity
‫غير مطلوب‬

All dogs chase cats. - All collies chase cats

All collies chase cats. - All dogs chase cats.
All dogs chase cats. - All dogs chase angoras.
All dogs chase angoras. - All dogs chase cats.