Chapter 11

Modeling of Hydraulic Systems

11.1 Introduction

The rational theory of the phenomenon of fluid flow has developed as a branch of
physics known as Fluid Mechanics. Fluid mechanics is a field theory in the sense that
all the entities involved are functions of both space and time. Like any other rational
theory of the physical world, fluid mechanics also has a structure, which is built
upon physical observations. These observations lead to constitutive laws of fluids
which, when subjected to the laws of mechanics and thermodynamics acquire the
power of predicting the motion of fluid media and all other properties that are
relevant in various contexts. It has been rightly pointed out by Karnopp and
Rosenberg [31] that bond graphs are capable of dealing with the problems of fluid mechanics.
One way by which this can be accomplished is by making finite approximations of
partial differential equations and creating bond graphs of micro fluidic lumps, which
interact with each other. However, there is very little to be gained by such an
approach.

Hydraulics on the other hand aims at suitably discretising fluid mechanics. Its lumps
are often real components of a circuit of fluid. These macro lumps may now be
created by combining science of fluid, mechanics and empirical measurements. The
components of a hydraulic circuit are pumps, pipes, pistons, valves, restrictions,
filters, accumulators and hydraulic motors. The fluid flowing through them or stored
in them has very high volumetric stiffness and may be treated as incompressible. The
flow of fluid in major parts of a hydraulic circuit is slow enough to ensure that the
static pressure dominates the dynamic pressure and viscous stresses. However, the
flow may be extremely fast through valves and restrictions, being predominantly
governed by inertial forces. Immediately before and after these restrictions and
valves the flow is again slow. The flow through valves and restrictions are thus
related to the pressures before and after the same. Empirical measurements of
characteristics of these elements become necessary for creating the mathematical
constitutive laws, which are usable in analysis and design of hydraulic circuits.

Some important works on bond graph modeling of hydraulic systems are by Thoma
et, al [65, 66, 67] Karnopp [33] etc.

11.2 Power variables for hydraulic circuits

 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 310
Fluid mechanics being a field theory, the extensive or measure quantities are
expressed in terms of their densities.

The density of power i.e., rate of work done by stresses on unit volume of fluid is
defined as [73]

   xx xx   yy  yy   zz  zz   xy  xy   yz  yz   zx zx (11.1)

where  xx, yy , zz etc. are various components of stress tensor and

 xx ,  yy ,  zz ,  zz etc. are strain rates. In terms of components of velocity

U x U y U z
 xx  ,  yy  ,  zz  ,
x y z
U x U y U y U z U x U z
 xy   ,  yz   and  zx   .
y x z y z x
(11.2)

In hydrostatic situations

 xx   yy   zz   P (11.3)

and all other components are extremely small and may be treated as zero. Thus

 U x U y U z 
   P    .
 (11.4)
 x y z 

The continuity equation may be written as

    U x    U y
  

  U z  
0.
t x y z

For incompressible fluids, the density of the fluid neither varies with time, nor with
space.

Thus
U x U y U z
  0 ,
x y z

or   U  0
311 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

This implies that the stress power imparted to fluid volume is zero. However, let us
not lose heart. Let us proceed to integrate the stress power over a volume of fluid.

 P  U dv  0 ,
V
(11.5)

or     PU   U  P dv  0 .
V
(11.6)

By application of Gauss's theorem and rewriting the equation we arrive at

 PU  ds   U  P dv .
S V
(11.7)

Here S is the surface enclosing the volume and  is unit outer normal at a surface
point.

The equilibrium equation for any continuous medium may be written as

dU
   U  U  B     . (11.8)
dt

Here B is the external body force acting on the fluid per unit volume. In case stress
tensor  is free from shear terms and has only the isotropic pressure the above
equation becomes

dU
   U   U  B  P , (11.9)
dt

dU
or P  B     U  U , (11.10)
dt

DU
or P  B   , (11.11)
Dt
D
where is the convicted derivative.
Dt
Now substituting this expression for P in equation (11.7)

DU
 PU  ds  U  B dv  U  
S V V
Dt
dv . (11.12)
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 312
The first term on the right hand side is the power imparted to the fluid volume by
body forces acting on the fluid. The second term is the rate of change of kinetic
energy of the fluid mass or the power absorbed (as there is negative sign) by the
fluid, which changes its kinetic energy.

Though the vanishing of stress power in an incompressible, inviscid fluid makes it

appear as if pressure does not do anything to the fluid, equation (11.12) shows that
pressure, along with body forces, changes the net kinetic energy of the fluid. Thus
pressure should be treated as a power variable.

The above discussion was largely based on rational concepts of the science of fluid
mechanics. Now in the following sections we will attempt to adjust the above ideas
such that we are able to evolve the concepts relevant to system dynamics of
hydraulic circuits.

11.3 Turning towards hydraulic circuits

Let us consider a rigid tube of arbitrary shape though sufficiently smooth.

Fig. 11.1

We consider the portion from cross-sections A to B (the tube may extend both ways
beyond A and B) as shown in Fig. 11.1.

As the wall of the tube is rigid the velocity of the fluid at the wall has zero
components in the normal direction to the wall. The equation (11.12) then becomes

 PU 
A
A ds 
 PU 
B
B ds

DU

U  B dv  U  
V V
Dt
dv . (11.13)
313 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

Now we proceed towards some simplifications, which lead to tractability in the

analysis and design of hydraulic circuits and hydrostatic transmission.

The flow of the fluid through a tube when it is laminar and stable is predominantly
along the tube. Thus components of fluid inertia in the orthogonal directions are
extremely small. From equation (11.11) it may be concluded that for small body
forces the gradient of pressure across the tube would be very small. Thus we may
assume that at each cross section the value of pressure is uniform. The equation
(11.13) may now be written as

DU
PA
U
A
A ds PB
U
B
B ds 
U  B dv  U  
V V
Dt
dv . (11.14)

where UA and UB are the velocities of fluid entering at A and leaving at B.

Now we may talk about the relevant power variables. Power balance equation (11.14)
suggests that pressure P at any cross section may be taken as effort variable and
discharge rate through any cross section

 
Q
U  ds (11.15)
may be taken as flow variable.

Let us now sharpen our tool a little more for tackling hydraulic circuits, by making
some more assumptions or approximations. Say we have a tube of smoothly varying
cross section.

Fig. 11.2

We assume that the velocity of fluid particles in the tube are nearly uniform over the
entire cross-section and are nearly perpendicular to the cross-sectional area. The
discharge through the cross-section then becomes

  AU .
Q (11.16)
The tube is an agglomeration of stream lines (also termed collectively as stream
tubes) and there exists a central stream line within the tube which may be taken as
the representative stream line for the entire tube. Let us say that the distance along
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 314
this representative stream line is denoted by . Owing to the smallness of cross
sectional area when compared to the length of the tube, the body force per unit
volume B , may also be considered uniform over any cross section. Then taking  as
distance coordinate, the equation in (11.14) is written as

l
B    eb    
 P Q
PAQ B
 Q


o A
A  
d dA

l
  Q  1 / A   
 1 2 2 
   
Q
0

 A  

Q
2 
 d ,


(11.17)

l 
  B    eb     d dA  
 P Q
or PAQ B 

 A  
Q

o A 

 l  
 1       1 1 1   2 
  
 0
A  
d  Q
 
 Q     2  2

 2 
 A  l  A  0 
Q  Q .


(11.18)
  

Rewriting it in the form

 l  
 1     
 1 1 1   2  
 
 0

A  
d   Q Q    2  2
  
 2  
 A  l  A  0 
Q Q


  
(11.19)
l 
 


  B    eb        d  Q  PAQ

 P Q
B
  0.
0 
315 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

We come to realize that it is the

power law for a flow equalizing
junction. The first term is the power
associated with an inertance, the
second term is that with a
dissipator (with square rule), third
term is that with a source of effort
and fourth and fifth terms are those
with the pressures at the ends of
the tube. The bond graph
representation becomes as shown
Fig. 11.3 in the Fig. 11.3.

The resistance, developing pressure proportional to square of discharge, renders

associated power insensitive to the direction for flow. Thus such an element may
become both dissipative or regenerative. Thus it may lead to instability in a hydraulic
circuit, which amounts to flow separation and turbulence especially when the tube is
diverging. In such cases the flow separation amounts to formation of detached jets
leading to entry of air inside the tube and the tube no longer runs full, thus the entire
analysis becomes invalid. If the modeler is sure that this does not occur in his
2
hydraulic circuit over the range of operation, it would be advisable to replace Q

by Q Q . This however means closing our eyes to a plausible phenomenon. Thus the
modeler’s discretion plays considerable role.

11.4 Appending viscous resistance to this picture

If we allow the viscous stress to be added to the stress tensor of the fluid the total
stress relation may be written as

 1 
    P  2        U  for  x, y , and z.
 3 
 xy    xy ,  yz    yy and  zx    zx .
(11.20)

One may say that the stress tensor may be written as (taking x = x1, y = x2 and z = x3
and integer indices to represent corresponding components of stresses).

 ij   P ij   Dij . (11.21)

The first term is isotropic pressure and the second term is entirely dissipative. The
assumption of incompressibility is retained i.e.,   U  0
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 316

We may now proceed, not from the expression for stress power, but rather from
equation (11.5), which is still valid.

 P U dv  0 ,
V

leading to, after incorporation of equilibrium equation (11.8).

DU
 PU  ds  U  B dv  U  
S V V
Dt
dv –
U     D  dv
V
(11.22)

The last term corresponds to the power dissipated by the viscous forces.

Taking cue from the Hagen-Poiseulle flow, for an unaccelerated flow through a tube
of circular cross-section as shown in Fig. 11.4.

Fig. 11.4

The velocity field

R2   r   P  P2
2
Uz  1     1
4  R  l
 

and the volumetric flow

 4  P1  P2 
Q  R  ,
8  l 

lead to
317 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

2   r 2 
Uz  1     Q . (11.23)
2
R   R  

From equation (11.23), one may apprehend that dissipative forces predominantly
depend on volumetric flow Q  . The geometry and the inertial forces in the tube
would, however, influence the net value. This calls for empirical assessment of these
forces.

To start with, let us assume

    D     Q
 ,

where  is the representative stream line coordinate.

Now writing the equation (11.22) in stream line coordinates as shown in Fig. 11.2
and approximately replacing flow U by the average volumetric flow rate Q  , the
equation may be written as (similar to equation (11.19))

 l  
 1       1 1 1   2  

 
 0 A  
d  Q
 
 Q     2

 2

 2  A  l  A  0 
Q Q


  
 l   l 
          
 

 o A     

d  Q  Q   B    eb        d  Q

 P Q
 PAQ B
  0.
   0 
(11.24)

1
 ( )
Taking  d   v the empirical value of resistivity associated with
0 A( )
viscous force, the equation (11.24) leads to the bond graph model of Fig. 11.5.
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 318

Fig. 11.5 Fig. 11.6

The resistivity creating pressure proportional to Q  2 is called Bernoulli resistance.

From the above derivation one may develop an impression that whenever A(0)  A(l),
the flow becomes unstable for any flow rate and when A(l) = A(0) there should not be
such resistivity at all. In reality this form is not valid as such. Firstly, the conditions at
the ends of tube and slightly beyond are not considered in the above argument.
There may be contraction of stream tube or a change in flow pattern which may still
stabilize the motion rendering dissipative Bernoulli resistors. Of course, at high flow
rates instabilities may set in. There is considerable uncertainty regarding the effective
areas. The basic form of Bernoulli resistance, however, plays the role model, for these
resistances. The actual forms are obtained through experimental measurements.
These measurements should lead to a relation between pressure drop and flow rate
in terms of a representative measurable area.

Let us consider flow of incompressible liquid through an orifice as shown in Fig. 11.6.

1 
 1 1 
 2
P    2  2  Q ,
2 
 Ac Au 


1   Ac2   2
or P  1  Q ,
2 Ac2  Au2 

Ac

or Q  2P /  .
1  Ac2 / Au2

Let Ac  Cc Ao

Cc Ao

Thus Q  2P /  .

1  Cc Ao / Au  2

Often even Au is indeterminate, thus a discharge coefficient Cd is used such that

 C A
Q d o 2P /  ,
319 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

1 
or P  2 2
Q 2   Q 2 .
2 Cd Ao

The discharge coefficients are experimentally determined. The bond graph may now
be drawn as shown in Fig. 11.7.

Fig. 11.7

 2 i.e., the
 Q
For theoretical stability of flow, the flow should be such that Rv Q
 Q
viscous dissipation should be larger than power of Bernoulli resistance, or 1 
Rv
. In fluid mechanics the general criteria for stability is determined by Reynold's
number   v0 D /  , where v0 is velocity of the fluid, D is a representative length
dimension and    /  .

In fact for an orifice the value of Au remains uncertain and depends on Reynold's
number. Thus the Cd itself depends on the Reynold's number. The meaningful
Reynold's number for orifice is

Q Dh 4  orifice area
orif  , where Dh  .
 A0 orifice perimeter

The variation of Cd with Reynold's number is roughly as shown in Fig. 11.8.

 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 320

Fig. 11.8 Fig. 11.9

For details about other practical situation readers may refer any standard books of
fluid power such as Control of Fluid Power by McCloy and Martin [43].

A valve with variable opening is shown in Fig. 11.9. In such cases both Cd and the
area A0 (x) of the opening would depend on valve actuation x and


P  Q Q .
2C d2  x  A02  x 
If the force due to gravity is the sole body force acting on the fluid then

l
 0
B    eb        ds    g  z e  z o  ,

where g is the acceleration due to gravity, and z0 and ze are the vertical heights of
entry point and end of the tube.

11.5 Hydraulic compliances

The hydraulic compliances deviates the system from the basic assumption which was
made so far, i.e., the uniformity of discharge through the portion of hydraulic
system. The presence of hydraulic compliances creates a difference in the dynamics
of the portions of a system before and after a hydraulic compliance. The difference
arises due to the charging/ discharging of the compliance itself. The hydraulic system
is thus so discretized, that the elements of incompressible dynamics, which include
fluid inertia, viscous or linear resistivity, Bernoulli resistance, the body forces, are
lumped at one place and are appended to an 1-junction. The compressibility of the
fluid, flexibility of the conduit and the other compliances which are part of the basic
321 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

system are lumped and appended to a 0-junction. Thus the bond graph model of the
hydraulic line shown in Fig. 11.10 becomes as shown in Fig. 11.11.

Fig. 11.10

Fig. 11.11

The hydraulic compliance may exist in a hydraulic circuit due to following aspects.

(a) Compressibility of the fluid: Thus far we assumed the fluid to be

incompressible in the evaluation of its inertial and resistive natures. In reality
hydraulic fluids are compressible to some extent. The effect of compressibility may
be incorporated by considering the bulk modulus of the fluid.

dV
P   B , B = bulk modulus.
V

For small pressure variations, due to compressibility effect, we may rewrite this
relation as

B
P   dV ,
V0

where V0 is the nominal volume of the fluid.

 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 322
Let us consider the situation as shown in Fig. 11.12(a). Let the nominal volume of the
fluid in the cylinder be V0. If the compression of the fluid over the nominal volume is
taken as positive displacement then the bond graph model would be as shown in
Fig. 11.12(b), where Q   Av , Q   A v and Q  is the rate of
1 1 1 2 2 2 3
reduction of the fluid volume.

Fig. 11.12(a) Fig. 11.12(b)

The bulk modulus is a very uncertain fluid parameter. It depends on the percentage
of air dissolved in the fluid or on the percentage of air entrapped in the fluid in the
form of bubbles. If the air is dissolved in the fluid or oil the bulk modulus increases
with the pressure depending on Air-fluid ratio. If the air is entrapped then the bulk
modulus increases with the pressure and tends to assume a limiting value at higher
pressures. Readers may refer McCloy and Martin [43] for details.

(b) Flexibility of the tubes or conduits: The pressure inside a tube or conduit may
cause change in the diameter of the tube, which may amount to volumetric
compliance in the circuit. The volumetric stiffness may be computed for a circular
Et
tube of length l as K  where E is young's modulus of the tube material; t
4 2 l 2
is the thickness of the tube.

(c) Incorporation of a surge tank: A typical surge tank is shown in Fig. 11.13 and
g
the bond graph in Fig. 11.14 where P  V .
A

Fig. 11.13 Fig. 11.14

323 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

(d) Incorporation of accumulator in the circuit: The accumulator is an energy

storage unit. Often in these accumulators the hydraulic oil is used to compress a
closed volume of air, which in fact stores the energy. An air bag accumulator is
shown in the Fig. 11.15.

Fig. 11.15 Fig. 11.16

The bulk stiffness of air bag accumulator is much smaller when compared with those
due to the compressibility of fluid or flexibility of the tube. The accumulators are
often used in a hydraulic circuit to smoothen the flow and to supply an additional
amount of fluid when demand occurs suddenly.

These devices are essentially nonlinear. The pressure to volume relation is obtained
on the basic assumption that there is no heat lost from the accumulator. Thus treating
the process to be adiabatic

PV   PoV0 ,

PoV0
or P , where   C P / C V for the gas.
V

The bond graph model may be created as shown in Fig. 11.16, where Q4 is the net
charge in the activated C element, initial condition for which is taken as zero.

11.6 Effort and flow sources, hydraulic gyrator and transformer

A pressure source may be a massive source of fluid to which the hydraulic circuit is
connected. The discharge from this source does not change the level of the fluid
significantly if replenished by some other sources.
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 324

Fig. 11.17 Fig. 11.18

A source as shown in Fig. 11.17 may be represented by a source of effort, the effort
being the pressure as shown in Fig. 11.18.

Alternatively a circuit drawing power from a hydraulic accumulator of very large

capacity (Fig. 11.19), which is being replenished by some other source, may as well be
simplified as a source of effort.

Fig. 11.19

The flow sources are various kinds of positive displacement pumps like gear pumps,
vane pumps, swash plate type axial piston pumps. These sources deliver fluid at a
volumetric flow rate which is decided by the speed at which they are driven and the
constructional parameters. Such sources may be represented by a source of flow
(Fig. 11.20).

Fig. 11.20
325 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

A centrifugal pump or a reaction turbine may be conceived of as a gyrator. In case of

such pumps the shaft speed determines the head and in reaction turbines, the head
determines the speed of the shaft. Of course there are several parasitic elements in
terms of slips and leakages. The standard structure is shown in the Fig. 11.21.

Fig. 11.21

We are not going to take up the case of these gyrators in detail, mainly due to
constraints of space in this book. We would ask the reader to refer an interesting
paper by Paynter [48].

A hydraulic transformer may not be entirely in hydraulic domain. A piston

transducer may be conceived as a hydraulic transformer. A simple situation is shown
in Fig. 11.22.

Fig. 11.22 Fig. 11.23

In ideal situations, i.e., neglecting the leakage and hydraulic resistance, consideration
of power conservation leads to

  Av ,
Q

and P  F / A ,

where v is the velocity of the piston, A is the area and F is the force applied on the
piston.

11.7 Bond graph model of a hydraulic servomotor

 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 326
In this section we discuss hydraulic circuit of a servomotor. The system is not
entirely in hydraulic domain. We are not using the symbols which are used for
representing hydraulic circuits. For the symbols, reader may refer to any standard
book of Industrial hydraulics, such as the one by Pippenger and Hicks [49] or books
on control of fluid power, such as the one by McCloy and Martin [49]. Here we
present the system in such a way that our physical understanding is not obscured.

Fig. 11.24

The bond graph model shown in Fig. 11.25 is the proposed one. For actual simulation
some adjustments would be necessary depending on the capability of the simulation
software.
327 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

Fig. 11.25

In this bond graph model SF 1 is the driving speed of the pump shaft. TF 2 3 relates
the driving speed to the ideal volume flow rate. R4 accounts for the leakage in the
pump. C6 is the compliance of the accumulator. R7 is the bypass valves resistivity.
RL is the leak resistance between chamber 1 and 2. R10 is the Bernoulli resistance of
the inlet port to the spool valve. Thus R10 would return effort (pressure)

P10  Q 10 Q 10 . The resistance R13 represents the Bernoulli resistance
2C d2 A 2
for valve port S1 when it is supplying to the chamber 1. The discharge coefficient and
area depend on Reynold's number and the valve opening. The valve opening
depends on position of the valve puppet above the neutral position (when both the
ports are closed). The position of the puppet is stored by C38 as the variable Q38.

 p15
R13 
2C d2  Re  p15 / m15 , Q38   As2
1
 Q38  m15 ,

for Q38  0 .
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 328
I15, I16, I41, and I42 are the inertia of the oil from S1 to CY1 or S2 to CY2. Assuming area of
this part of the tubes constant

L
I15  I16  I 41  I 42  ,
Atube

where L is the tube length from S1 to CY1 or S2 to CY2. R 43 is the drain out resistivity
through the port S1 when the flapper is below the neutral position.

 p41
R43 
2C d2  Re  p41 / m41 , Q38   As2
1
 Q38  m41 ,

for Q38  0 .

The resistor R14 is the counterpart of R13 but operate when Q38 < 0, thus R14 = R43.
Likewise R44 = R13. For Q38 = 0 all the resistances would turn out to be infinity. This
may be accomplished by equating them to a leak resistivity of very high value. C19
and C20 represent the bulk compliance of the fluid in the chamber 1 and 2
respectively. The model discussed is rather theoretical. For actual simulations one
may have to create some margins such that the model does not become singular at
any point of simulation. Say one may select a small value ε such that when Q38 > ε, the
resistors R13 and R44 may be made active where as when Q38 < – ε, the resistors R14 and
R43 may be made active. For |Q38|< ε all these resistivities may be set to a suitable
high value. At the onset this might appear tentative. But one will notice there exists a
reasonable value of ε and the high leak resistivity for which the simulation may turn
out to be considerably faithful. The model still may have considerable stiffness owing
to the high values of bulk stiffness and low values of fluid inertias I15, I41, I16 and I42.
Fast simulations are possible if the fluid in the chamber is considered infinitely rigid
and fluid in S1 – CY1 and S2 – CY2 lines be light and thus with no inertia. The Cd of the
ports are set to a value 0.625 or so as per the Von-Mises asymptotic value and a
suitable linear resistivity may be incorporated to compensate for the departure. Such
simplification may lead to very good estimation of the phenomenon at comparatively
lower computation cost. The simplified bond graph is shown in Fig. 11.26.

However, one must not forget that modeling and simulation is an art which largely
depends on experience and understanding of the system itself.
329 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

Fig. 11.26

Two applications of bond graph modeling in power hydraulic systems are presented
in Chapter - 15. For details readers may refer Dasgupta et al [13, 14, 15].

Problems

P1. Make a bond graph model of the idealized hydroelectric generator shown in
Fig. P11.1. Consider fluid inertia and resistance in the ducts.

Fig. P11.1
 MODELING OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 330

Fig. P11.2

P2. Make a bond graph model of the hydraulic amplifier shown in Fig. P11.2. Area
of the piston driving the load is Ap Consider fluid inertia and resistance in the
conduits, leakage and fluid compliance in the main cylinder. Assume the load to
be resistive.

P3. Figure P11.3 shows a liquid level controller. Make a bond graph model of the
system. Areas of the control cylinder and the tank are Ap and At respectively.
Other geometrical parameters are shown in the figure.

Fig. P11.3

P4. Make a bond graph model of the hydraulic system used for metal forming
operation, shown in Fig. P11.4. Assume the load to be resistive.
331 MODELING AND SIMULATION OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS THROUGH BOND GRAPHS

Fig. P11.4

Project type problem

Pr1. Make a bond graph model of the liquid damper shown in Fig. Pr11.1.

Fig. Pr11.1