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Performance Enhancement & Health xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Performance Enhancement & Health

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/peh

The developmental features of music performance anxiety and

perfectionism in school age music students
Tim Patston a,b,∗ , Margaret S. Osborne c,d
a
Geelong Grammar School, Corio, Vic. 3214, Australia
b
Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia
c
Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia
d
Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Vic. 3010, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: There is an increasing body of evidence that the prevalence of music performance anxiety (MPA) and
Received 25 May 2015 perfectionism in populations of adult musicians is high, and that both conditions impact negatively on
Received in revised form the psychological health and wellbeing of musicians. There is scant evidence on the origins of these
22 September 2015
two conditions in student populations. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence and
Accepted 25 September 2015
developmental trajectory of MPA and perfectionism in a population of school age children. A sample of
Available online xxx
526 students (male n = 291; female n = 235) across Grades 5–12 at a private school on the outskirts of
Melbourne, Victoria were administered two questionnaires, the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for
Keywords:
Performance anxiety
Adolescents (MPAI-A; Osborne & Kenny, 2005) which measures the somatic, cognitive and behavioural
Perfectionism components of MPA, and the Child Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (C-MPS; DeKryger, 2005). The
Music C-MPS measures the multidimensional components of perfectionism in children, such as Concern over
Students Mistakes, Organisation, Parental Expectations, and Doubts about Actions. The correlation between MPA
Teaching and perfectionism by age showed a consistently strong, positive and highly significant relationship from
10 through to 17 years of age, particularly for Concern over Mistakes. The second significant relationship
between MPA and perfectionism applied to gender, with females experiencing a steeper and more intense
developmental trajectory than males. The third important finding of the research was that levels of
MPA and perfectionism increase with years of experience. This study has implications for teachers and
psychologists working with young students of music.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction rate and sweaty palms), psychologically (such as negative self-

The path to becoming a musician requires many hours of lessons
and practice, over many years. There is an increasing body of evi-
dence that undergraduate and professional musicians experience
high levels of perfectionism and music performance anxiety (MPA).
These conditions can negatively impact one’s enjoyment of playing
and performance, and more importantly, psychological health and
well-being (Kenny & Ackermann, 2009; Patston & Loughlan, 2014).
Musicians can experience marked anxious apprehension about the
potential for making a mistake and not performing to one’s own
standard of excellence, which bears little relationship to their level
of musical skill or degree of preparation (Kenny, 2011; Williamon,
2004). MPA can manifest physiologically (such as increased heart
∗ Corresponding author at: Geelong Grammar School, Corio, Vic. 3214, Australia.
E-mail addresses: tpatston@ggs.vic.edu.au (T. Patston),
mosborne@unimelb.edu.au (M.S. Osborne).
talk and catastrophizing), and behaviourally (such as avoidance
or preparation rituals). Although MPA is not consistently associ-
ated with poor performance outcomes (Braden, Osborne, & Wilson,
2015; Kenny, 2011; Osborne, Kenny, & Cooksey, 2007; Rodebaugh
& Chambless, 2004; Ryan, 1998), the fear of making a mistake and
delivering an unsatisfactory performance drives many musicians
to strive for perfection in their craft (Kenny, 2011; Osborne, 2008;
Patston, 2014).
Perfectionism is a complex, multi-dimensional construct that
reaches beyond mere striving for flawlessness (Flett, Hewitt, Oliver,
& MacDonald, 2002). It relates to striving for self-imposed unre-
alistic standards, a fixed mindset, high levels of self-criticism or
expecting high standards from others (Flett et al., 2002; Slaney,
Rice, & Ashby, 2002; Stairs, 2009). Perfectionism has been identi-
fied as a vulnerability factor for psychopathology and poor mental
health. There is broad consensus that perfectionism in relation to
human performance in areas such as sport and academic perfor-
mance is a complex, multidimensional entity, with both personal

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
2211-2669/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
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2 T. Patston, M.S. Osborne / Performance Enhancement & Health xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
and interpersonal aspects (Stoeber, 2012). Perfectionism may be a
component of the cognitive nature of MPA, such that high concern
about mistakes may interact with self-oriented cognitions associ-
ated with MPA, for example, low estimates of self-efficacy (Kenny,
Davis, & Oates, 2004; Patston, 2014; Sinden, 1999). Perfectionism
also has a significant behavioural component, which may manifest
in sufferers of MPA in areas such as practice efficacy. A perfection-
ist may be expected either to practise incessantly in the pursuit of
the perfect performance (Patston, 2010; Stoeber & Eismann, 2007),
or to avoid practice, as they believe that the perfect performance
is unattainable. Such behaviours may reinforce the condition
of MPA.
Two studies have found that perfectionism is prevalent in
undergraduate populations of musicians (Patston, 2010; Stoeber
& Eismann, 2007). Preliminary work by Osborne (2008; Kenny
& Osborne, 2006) found a weak yet significant positive relation-
ship between MPA and perfectionism in adolescent musicians.
Given that most people learn a musical instrument in their school
years (Osborne, 2016) and that up to 75% of young people expe-
rience performance anxiety (Britsch, 2005), this study sought to
further explore the relationship between MPA and perfection-
ism, in particular, the potential role it may play in exacerbating
performance anxiety in young people learning a musical instru-
ment.
1.1. Development of MPA
A number of theoretical models have been proposed to explain
the relationship between anxiety and performance in music. Mod-
els move from the simplified Yerkes-Dodson “Inverted-U” law that
physiological arousal accompanying extreme anxiety impedes per-
formance quality, extending to conceptualisations which consider
the complexity of individual and situational variables that impact
on the development and experience of MPA (Braden et al., 2015;
Hancock & Ganey, 2003). These include biological vulnerability to
anxiety, musical task mastery and skill, and performance environ-
ment (see for example Kenny, 2011; Osborne, 2008; Papageorgi,
Hallam, & Welch, 2007). Yet currently there is no widely accepted
theoretical position of the developmental trajectory of MPA.
There is evidence that children as young as three may experi-
ence some form of MPA (Boucher & Ryan, 2011; Maroon, 2002; van
Brakel et al., 2006), and that MPA increases throughout adolescence
and peaks at approximately 15 years of age (Osborne & Kenny,
2005; Osborne, Kenny, & Holsomback, 2005) As there is no prior
empirical study on the origins of MPA extant, suggestions from the
MPA literature regarding aetiology will be placed in context with
studies from the broader anxiety-disorder literature.
Contemporary understanding of the aetiology of anxiety dis-
orders is that the condition develops through a combination
of a genetic predisposition and an individual’s learning history
(Barlow, Allen, & Choate, 2004; Mineka & Zinbarg, 2006). Genetic
contributions to MPA cannot be determined in isolation from
an individual’s experience of values and philosophies articulated
within their family and learning environment. The music per-
formance learning history is a complex amalgam of experiences
with teachers, parents, peers, examinations and performances
(Papageorgi et al., 2007). Contextual variables leading up to and
following performing experiences including level of preparation,
and a child’s broader life context are also relevant (Kenny, 2011;
Mineka & Zinbarg, 2006). Teachers who offer positive and support-
ive instruction to young musicians in lessons and early performing
experiences in an empathic environment, with repertoire appropri-
ate to the musical and emotional level of the student, are likely to
contribute to a positive learning history (Osborne & Kenny, 2008).
According to Kenny’s (2011) definition and developmental model
of MPA, a lack of such a positive learning history and appropriate
Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
regard for life contexts may produce distressing experiences for
learners. Musicians may subsequently perform badly, thus being
more predisposed to develop anxiety associated with performance
than students for whom this is not the case.
This is because music performance involves high levels of
physiological and psychological arousal which may be unfamiliar
to young musicians (Osborne, 2016; Osborne, Greene, & Immel,
2014; Patston, 2014). Adolescents have not yet developed cop-
ing strategies to deal with the level of arousal they experience
in performance, particularly high stress performances such as
auditions (Gratto, 1998). Auditions may contribute to the devel-
opment of MPA if strategies to manage this spike in arousal are
not offered (Braden et al., 2015; Robson, Davidson, & Snell, 1995).
Young musicians may develop anxiety in response to the expe-
rience of the physiological effects of arousal which they do not
understand, particularly when performing in an uncomfortable
environment.
The conditioning of musicians begins at a very young age and
continues through to the highest levels of the music profession.
Theorists (Skinner, 1953; Mineka & Zinbarg, 2006) have argued
that the aetiology of anxiety lies in conditioning, for example in the
study of music this conditioning may be the result of a variety of
learning experiences. The strength of conditioning may be affected
by pre-event variables or post-event variables (Mineka & Zinbarg,
2006). In a music performance context, pre-event variables include
the level of musical preparation and level of interaction with impor-
tant others, such as peers, parents or teachers. Post-event variables
may include the response of an audition panel, an audience, peers,
parents or teachers, as has been already established. If pre-event
or post-event variables are often negative, or reinforce negative
cognitions, such as questioning ability or talent, then MPA could
be developed or reinforced (Kenny, 2011; Papageorgi et al., 2007).
Through conditioning processes, repeat experiences of discomfort
whilst performing may result in poor self-esteem which may lead
to MPA (Ryan, 1998).
Learning a musical instrument is a unique experience for young
children. It may be their first experience of a one-to-one learn-
ing environment. The style of lesson and the temperament of the
teacher would be expected to influence not only a child’s enjoy-
ment of playing, but also their outcome expectancies within lessons
and in exams and performances (Patston & Waters, 2013). An
instrumental teacher who encourages realistic goal-setting and
enjoyment of playing under a variety of conditions is less likely to
create or reinforce anxiety than a teacher for whom exam results
are the only measure of musical success or failure (Kenny, 2011).
However, many instrumental teachers, conservatories and profes-
sional auditions predominantly measure success by exam-style
results (Patston, 2014).
Thus, research investigating MPA in children and adolescents
shows that it manifests early in musical learning, and results
from an interaction of heritable traits, and learned experiences.
There are no longitudinal studies which have revisited participants
over an extended period in order to assess changes. Dimensions
of performance anxiety shift over time depending on situation
(e.g., informal versus formal performance; Miller & Chesky, 2004;
Powell, 2004; Ryan, 1998), and maturational changes in the devel-
opment of the child and adolescent brain, particularly the limbic
system, exacerbating emotional reactions to socially significant life
events (Blakemore, 2010; Wolf, Bazargani, Kilford, Dumontheil,
& Blakemore, 2015). Naturally, musical variables are also highly
significant; including the ability to practise effectively, select
repertoire appropriate to ability and experience, and obtain per-
formance experience (see Williamon, 2004). Deficits in any of
these areas are likely to reduce musical competency and increase
the likelihood of a performance catastrophe and subsequent
MPA.
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1.2. Development of perfectionism
There is little empirical research into the aetiology of per-
fectionism (Stoeber, 2012). Extrinsic causalities related to family
and cultural environment have been proposed (DeKryger, 2005;
Hamachek, 1978; Soenens et al., 2008). Initial studies in the field
of dance indicate that many ballet dancers have perfectionistic
tendencies which emphasise high standards of others (Nordin-
Bates, Cumming, Sharp, & Aways, 2011; van Staden, Myburgh,
& Poggenpoel, 2009). In music, perfectionistic attitudes may
be applied to technique, rehearsal or performance. It has been
suggested that studio music teachers may contribute to the devel-
opment of this condition in their students (Patston, 2014). Intrinsic
causalities, such as temperament and openness to socialisation
have also been proposed (Flett et al., 2002). The two key stages
for the development of perfectionism appear to be early child-
hood (Evans et al., 1997), and adolescence (Flett et al., 2002; Frost,
Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990). Indeed, perfectionism has
been identified in children as young as Grade 1 (Kline & Short, 1991).
Research into the cognitive and behavioural intersection of MPA
and perfectionism (Patston, 2010, 2014), has found that there are
higher than normative levels of perfectionism in adult musicians
and suggested that perfectionism may be a cognitive mediator
of MPA. Only one study to date conducted by Osborne (2008;
Kenny & Osborne, 2006) has investigated the relationship of per-
fectionism and MPA in a sample of 381 adolescents (aged 12–19
years) using the Frost Perfectionism Scale and the Music Per-
formance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (MPAI-A; Osborne &
Kenny, 2005). Although the total perfectionism scale correlated
positively with the MPAI-A (r = 0.21, p < 001), the relationship was
weak and warrants further investigation, particularly given the pro-
found relationship between the two constructs evidenced in adult
musicians.
The aim of this study was to build on this preliminary work
by Osborne (2008; Kenny & Osborne, 2006) to further understand
the relationship between MPA and perfectionism in school-aged
music students, using a recent, more refined measure of perfec-
tionism specifically developed for children and adolescents in a
larger sample of Australian school children. Based on this study,
it was hypothesised that that there would be a moderate to strong
positive relationship between MPA and perfectionism. In light of
the paucity of research investigating the relationship between MPA
and perfectionism across late childhood and adolescence, the fol-
lowing exploratory research questions were investigated in order
to increase our understanding of demographic features associated
with MPA and perfectionism in adolescent musicians and identify
potential developmental risk factors:
RQ1: If MPA and perfectionism are highly correlated, given that
MPA increases throughout adolescence until approximately
15 years of age and is higher for females, does perfectionism
also demonstrate similar relationships with age and gender?
RQ2: Do MPA and perfectionism vary in terms of the number and
type of instruments learned, lessons per week and time spent
practising, and in what ways?
2. Method
2.1. Participants
A sample of 526 students (male n = 291; female n = 235) across
Grades 5–12 at a private school on the outskirts of Melbourne, Vic-
toria agreed to participate in the research. The mean age of the
sample was 12.56 years (SD = 1.79 years). Sixty-two percent of stu-
dents (n = 342) learned at least one musical instrument, of which
Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
3
129 reported learning more than one instrument (two instruments
n = 85, three instruments n = 31, four or more instruments n = 13).
Instruments learned by category in descending order were: key-
board (21.7%); woodwind (16.2%); guitar (15.1%); string (13.6%);
voice/singing (13.4%); brass (11.1%); and percussion (7.7%). The
majority of students had been learning their instrument up to one
year (n = 99, 28.9%), or six or more years (n = 72, 21%), followed
by two (n = 56, 16.3%), three (n = 48, 14.0%), four (n = 35, 10.2%),
and five years (n = 33, 9.6%). Most students learned their instru-
ment at school (n = 210, 61.22%). 16.03% of students learned both
at and outside of school, and 22.74% learned outside of school only.
Four hundred and twenty one students were enrolled in classroom
music.
2.2. Procedure
Ethics approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics
Committee at The University of Melbourne. The study was
introduced to all music classes in Grades 5–12 by the Director of
Performing Arts. Students were invited to complete the question-
naires during a pastoral care lesson. Surveys were administered
and completed online using Polldaddy (www.polldaddy.com). This
provided an engaging and efficient way of capturing large amounts
of survey data.
2.3. Measures
Demographics: Data collected included grade, gender, age, whether
learning to sing or play a musical instrument, instrument learned,
whether learning more than one instrument, how long learning,
where main instrument was learned, number of lessons per week,
time spent practising, and whether they were enrolled in class-
room music.
Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for Adolescents (MPAI-A;
Osborne & Kenny, 2005). Fifteen items measure the somatic (e.g.,
“Before I perform, I get butterflies in my stomach”), cognitive (e.g.,
“I often worry about my ability to perform”), and behavioural (e.g.,
“I would rather play on my own than in front of other people”)
characteristics of MPA. Items are measured on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 0 (Not at all) to 6 (All the time) which are
summed to yield a total score (0–72; with item 10 reverse scored).
This scale has high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .92).
Mean scores for MPAI-A increase according to age and gender,
with lowest scores reported for 11–13 year old boys (M = 32.53,
SD = 20.30) and highest scores for 14–19 year old girls (M = 54.50,
SD = 20.56) (Osborne et al., 2005).
Child Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (C-MPS; DeKryger,
2005). The C-MPS is based on Frost et al.’s (1990) Multidimensional
Perfectionism Scale. The scale comprises of 32 self-report items
answered on a Likert scale 1 – Strongly disagree to 5 – Strongly
agree which are specifically designed to measure the multidimen-
sional components of perfectionism in children from 7 years of
age. DeKryger’s (2005) scale development study does not report
means and standard deviations for the scale. Factor analysed sub-
scales and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (in parentheses) are as
follows: (1) Concern over Mistakes (.85); (2) Organisation (.88);
(3) Parental Expectations (.62); (4) Doubts about Actions (.63):
(5) Goal Orientation (.66); (6) Performance Evaluation (.62); (7)
Maladaptive Striving (.52).
3. Results
Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Distributions for
MPAI-A and C-MPS scores met criteria for normality and homo-
geneity.
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Table 1
MPAI-A and C-MPS descriptive statistics by age and gender.

n MPAI-A C-MPS

Female Male Female Male

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

All ages 526 42.63 (18.57) 38.12 (17.30) 133.45 (34.02) 128.54 (32.98)
9 12 27.20 (18.81) 22.33 (6.65) 122.80 (32.04) 104.00 (18.90)
10 72 32.71 (14.24) 26.55 (12.04) 117.55 (25.68) 103.43 (24.86)
11 59 34.61 (17.97) 33.55 (16.89) 119.77 (35.67) 117.49 (28.08)
12 96 37.03 (15.75) 41.89 (17.48) 127.52 (31.07) 137.12 (33.00)
13 158 44.68 (17.71) 40.88 (18.55) 134.56 (32.27) 131.51 (34.85)
14 62 49.09 (18.41) 41.96 (14.59) 149.26 (35.80) 143.48 (27.21)
15 33 47.83 (18.93) 42.33 (12.92) 136.11 (35.80) 143.40 (29.17)
16 18 51.20 (19.54) 41.71 (14.56) 146.73 (35.87) 140.43 (20.58)
17 16 61.31 (18.06) 33.38 (19.18) 165.34 (27.59) 124.88 (28.61)

Note: 28 students who were not learning an instrument or taking classroom music did not complete the MPAI-A. SD = standard deviation.

Table 2
Correlations between MPA and perfectionism (C-MPS total score and subscales) by age.

Age Scale

C-MPS CM Org PE DA Goal PEval MS

9 .66* .14 .03 −.26 .45 .06 .41 .03

10 .79** .25* .17 .13 .35** .05 .40** .21
11 .80*** .48*** −.17 .44** .37** .03 .35* .12
12 .80** .30** .10 .29** .42** −.14 .50** .22*
13 .82** .45** .19** .28** .18* .03 .42** .42**
14 .80*** .44*** .19 −.01 .42** −.15 .36** .09
15 .74** .37* .20 .25 .26 −.03 .31 .03
16 .92** .64** .14 .29 .18 .09 .63** −.18
17 .83** .50* −.17 −.13 −.03 .03 .14 −.17

Note: C-MPS = perfectionism full scale score. Subscales: CM = concern over mistakes; Org = organisation; PE = parental expectation; DA = doubts about actions; Goal = goal
orientation; PEval = performance evaluation; MS = maladaptive striving.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

The hypothesis that high levels of MPA are associated with
high levels of perfectionism was supported by a very strong, posi-
tive and highly significant correlation, r = .82, p < .001, with 67.24%
of variance shared between the two constructs. Examining the
relationship for MPA total scale score by C-MPS subscale score
reveals moderate and highly significant positive relationships with
Concern over Mistakes (r = .45, p < .001) and Performance Evalu-
ation (r = .41, p < .001). Weaker positive relationships were found
with Doubts about Actions (r = .31, p < .001), Parental Expectations
(r = .25, p < .001), Maladaptive Striving (r = .23, p < .001). The rela-
tionships between MPA, Organisation (r = .09, p < .05) and Goal
Orientation (r = .01, NS) were negligible.
Examining the correlation between MPA and perfectionism by
age showed a consistently strong, positive and highly significant
relationship from 10 through to 17 years of age, particularly for Con-
cern over Mistakes (see Table 2). The relationship with Performance
Evaluation was less marked in upper adolescence, apart from a
strong positive spike at 16 years of age. Doubts about Actions and
Parental Expectation were most strongly related with MPA in late
childhood and early adolescence. The positive relationship between
Maladaptive Striving and MPA was weak to moderate at 12 and 13
years of age. The distribution of strength and significance in posi-
tive relationships suggests that late childhood/pre-adolescence is
a key developmental period in which features of perfectionism are
likely to exacerbate MPA.
3.1. Research questions
3.1.1. Do MPA and perfectionism demonstrate similar
relationships across age and gender?
Total scale scores for MPA and perfectionism by age and gender
are mapped in Fig. 1. The main effect of age, testing the increase
in scores across late childhood and adolescence was significant for
MPA, F(8, 480) = 7.19, p < .001, 2p = 10.7% and perfectionism, F(8,
508) = 8.28, p < .001, 2p = 11.5% (despite uneven numbers by age,
Levene’s homogeneity tests for MPA and perfectionism were non-
significant). Similarly the main effect for gender showed females
scored significantly higher on both MPA, F(1, 480) = 10.21, p < .01,
2p = 2.1%, and perfectionism, F(1, 480) = 4.52, p < .05, 2p = 0.9%.
Interactions between age and gender and post hoc contrasts were
not significant.
3.2. Do MPA and perfectionism vary according to music learning
factors?
Potential differences according to music learning variables were
examined. Tables 3 and 4 show that MPA and perfectionism were
both significantly lower in students who were learning a musi-
cal instrument, and more so for students learning more than one
instrument. MPA was also significantly lower for students enrolled
in classroom music. An opposite, non-significant pattern was found
for perfectionism which was lower in students not enrolled in
classroom music. For MPA, these results could indicate a potential
avoidance effect of students not engaging in music and instrumen-
tal learning due to higher anxiety levels, compared to students
who are more inclined to learn a musical instrument because they
are less fearful. Considering the lower level of MPA for those stu-
dents learning more than one instrument, it is also possible that
the increased music performance experience and exposure gained
through greater amounts of instrumental learning may reduce
MPA.
Table 4 reports a decrease in levels of both MPA and perfection-
ism as number of instruments increased to three. However, both

Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
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Table 3
Levels of MPA and perfectionism for instrumental and classroom music learners.

Variable Learning instrument Not learning instrument Test statistic (df)

Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

MPA 37.56 (16.96) 45.05 (18.95) t(496) = 4.50**

Perfectionism 127.05 (31.11) 137.58 (36.68) t(325.87) = 3.30**

Classroom music Non-classroom music Test statistic (df)

MPA 39.39 (17.50) 44.41 (20.20) t(496) = 2.26*

Perfectionism 131.56 (33.04) 127.41 (35.30) t(524) = −1.09, ns
*
p < .05.
**
p < .001.

Table 4 Examining MPA by number of years learning a musical instru-

Levels of MPA and perfectionism by number of instruments learned.
ment showed a non-significant trend with progressively higher
Instruments learned MPA Perfectionism scores from two to six years, H (5) = 10.70, p < .07. The increase in
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) perfectionism scores with more years of learning was significant, H
One instrument 39.06 (17.38) 128.05 (30.59) (5) = 13.86, p < .05, with post hoc tests showing significant increases
More than one instrument 35.32 (16.10) 125.55 (31.95) between 1 and 6 (U = 2448, p < .025) and 2 and 6 years learning
Test statistic t(496) = 4.50, p < .06 t(340) = 0.72, ns (U = 1493, p < .025) (Fig. 2).
Two 33.12 (16.73) 120.93 (30.70)
There were no significant differences in MPA or perfection-
Three 33.98 (15.33) 124.29 (33.40)
Four or more 46.11 (14.18) 152.54 (28.01) ism for students by number of music lessons per week (one:
Test statistic F(3,321) = 4.21, p < .01 F(3, 338) = 4.33, p < .01 MPA M = 37.48, SD = 17.29; C-MPS M = 126.32, SD = 31.83; two: MPA
M = 39.07, SD = 16.04; C-MPS M = 129.09, SD = 28.67; three: MPA
MPA and perfectionism scores increased significantly for students M = 32.70, SD = 15.82; C-MPS M = 126.50, SD = 32.35), or whether
who were learning four or more instruments. Post hoc Tukey HSD lessons were taken at school (MPA M = 37.34, SD = 17.60; C-
tests with Bonferroni correction revealed the only significant differ- MPS M = 125.63, SD = 31.09), outside of school (MPA M = 38.48,
ence between groups was that perfectionism for students learning
four or more instruments was significantly higher than those learn-
ing two instruments (p < .025).

Fig. 2. Music performance anxiety and perfectionism by years learning a musical

Fig. 1. Music performance anxiety and perfectionism by age and gender. instrument.

Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
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6 T. Patston, M.S. Osborne / Performance Enhancement & Health xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
SD = 16.68; C-MPS M = 125.96, SD = 30.39), or both (MPA M = 37.28,
SD = 14.72; C-MPS M = 133.46, SD = 31.95).
4. Discussion
In this study we investigated the prevalence of perfection-
ism and MPA in a sample of school age students. In addition
we compared the developmental features of the two constructs.
Exploratory research questions were investigated in order to
increase our understanding of demographic features associated
with MPA and perfectionism in adolescent musicians and identify
potential developmental risk factors. We analysed whether the two
constructs share a developmental trajectory in terms of age and
gender. We explored whether and how the constructs varied in
terms of the number and type of instruments learned, lessons per
week and time spent practising.
There were three major findings from the research. Firstly, the
study demonstrated a very strong positive correlation between
MPA and perfectionism. Exploring the sub-scales of the perfection-
ism measure enabled a nuanced understanding of how features
of perfectionism were most strongly related to MPA. Several per-
fectionism subscales were found to be particularly salient. The
Concern over Mistakes subscale was very high. This may be con-
sidered surprising, as making mistakes is a normal part of how
students develop their knowledge and skills at school. Teaching
young students to play an instrument normally focuses on two
areas, the physical skills required to play the instrument, and
the skills involved in reading and playing the music. Students
at the ages of those in this sample are acquiring new physi-
cal skills constantly, ranging from learning to write, to the gross
and fine motor coordination skills associated with sports. Learn-
ing a musical instrument involves repeated errors and correction
as students acquire the physical technique of playing instrument
and cognitive representations of musical notation (Bamberger,
2006; Milbrath, McPherson, & Osborne, 2015), which over time
can feed student perceptions of insufficient competency and/or
loss of intrinsic motivation (Renwick & Reeve, 2012; Wigfield
& Eccles, 2000). The strong positive correlation with Concern
over Mistakes suggests that students are becoming anxious and
worried about mistakes in their music making. We acknowl-
edge that in music training, performance and critical evaluation
can begin earlier than evaluations in other areas, such as test-
taking or athletic performance. It is also possible that the teaching
styles of instrumental teachers may contribute to the develop-
ment of such maladaptive cognitions (Patston, 2014). Findings from
the current study would indicate this assertion is worth further
research.
Similar conclusions could be drawn for Organisation and Doubts
about Actions. Students in this study felt anxious about their music
making, worried that they were unorganised and lacked confi-
dence in their playing. This was true across all ages in the sample.
It would be expected that with training, practice and experience,
these concerns would alleviate over time. Instead they appear to be
reinforced. As with the concern over mistakes subscale, the role of
teachers needs to be questioned. In terms of Parental Expectations,
this finding may be expected in school age students. This level of
concern has been found to taper off in undergraduates (Patston,
2014).
The second significant correlation between MPA and perfection-
ism applies to gender, with females experiencing a steeper and
more intense developmental trajectory than males. The develop-
mental pathways of MPA and perfectionism are consistent in late
childhood between males and females. The pathways diverge dur-
ing early adolescence and remain so until the end of schooling. This
finding is of particular relevance to music educators. Awareness
Please cite this article in press as: Patston, T., & Osborne, M.S. The developmental features of music performance anxiety and perfec-
tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003
of the correlation may lead to the development of gender specific
strategies in pedagogy.
The third important finding of the research was that levels of
MPA and perfectionism increase with years of experience. It would
seem reasonable to assume that, as experience with the instrument
increased, and, as familiarity with the teaching associated with
instrumental lessons increased over time, students would become
more comfortable and less anxious and perfectionistic with their
playing. This finding raises further questions in a number of areas.
Are the increases in MPA and perfectionism due to the students
or the teachers? Do the constructs develop as a normal conse-
quence of the psychological development of children, or are the
teachers facilitating (perhaps unwittingly) the rise of these condi-
tions in their students? Preliminary research in this area (Patston &
Waters, in press) indicates that teachers do have a significant role
to play in facilitating anxiety and perfectionism in their students.
Increasing the ratio of positive to negative comments in a lesson,
affirming rather than criticising progress made, providing realis-
tic goal setting, and providing students with moments of pleasure
rather than punishment in a lesson should lead to less anxious and
less perfectionistic students. Such an approach is preferable to the
bias toward strong negative feedback in traditional music lessons
(Patston, 2014).
4.1. Limitations and implications for future research
This study was conducted in one co-educational private school.
There may have been factors unique to this particular environ-
ment. Some of the year group samples were small. It would be
desirable to replicate this study in a variety of educational settings,
including single sex schools and schools of differing socio-economic
demographics. It would be valuable to track MPA and perfection-
ism experiences in a further longitudinal study to determine if
early onset inhibits not only musical development, but also an
individual’s experience of critical evaluation in other areas. The
implications of such a study would benefit educators as well as
musicians.
This study has made some intriguing findings in regard to MPA
and perfectionism in school age children. The identification of
early manifestations of perfectionism or MPA can facilitate early
intervention strategies to be devised and implemented before the
condition becomes debilitating. Importantly, studio teachers of
young children can be made aware if their teaching style or content
may be contributing to the onset and development of the condition.
As yet, no empirical research has been done to explore the role of
instrumental teachers in influencing the development of perfec-
tionism and MPA. Given the pivotal role played by instrumental
teachers, not only with children, but with all musicians throughout
their performing lives, this would suggest such research would be
a high priority.
Moreover, the role of schools, in the case of children, in providing
environments in which perfectionism and/or anxiety may develop,
is worthy of discussion. In the first author’s school, performances
are graded according to student experience. Early performance
opportunities are relatively informal, with class mates, friends and
family invited to enjoy the occasion. There are no formal introduc-
tions, and students who experience memory lapse are encouraged,
in a supportive way, to repeat the work. Feedback after the con-
cert is positively biased, and parents and friends thanked by the
students for their support of practice. A more structured form
of formality and feedback including possible areas for improve-
ment is introduced as students begin the music examinations
system. All music staff are encouraged to provide detailed and accu-
rate feedback the day after a performance. Parents are informed
of the school’s feedback policy. Comparing the long term effects
of a positive teaching environment and the traditional teaching
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environment would be a help illuminate the influence of the insti-
tutional environment on the development of MPA; as well as
presenting some suggestions for combatting MPA.
4.2. Conclusions
This study contributes to the burgeoning literature on the aetiol-
ogy and developmental trajectory of MPA. It presents new insights
into the potentially substantial role that perfectionism has in the
experience of MPA during late childhood and pre-adolescence,
and suggests this to be a fruitful period during which interven-
tions to alleviate the distress experienced by both phenomena can
be implemented. The findings also provide some insight into the
high correlation of perfectionism and MPA in adult populations. It
appears that these psychological conditions begin to affect music
students at a very young age, and, through a combination of teach-
ing, institutional experiences and performance exposures, develop
into issues which adversely affect the psychological health of adult
musicians. The findings of this study suggest that the implementa-
tion of interventions to address perfectionism in the early stages of
musical development is warranted.
Financial support
No financial assistance was received for this project.
Conflict of interest
None declared.
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tionism in school age music students. Performance Enhancement & Health (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.09.003