Boucher and Ryan - 2011 - Performance Stress and The Very Young Musician

MENC: The National Association for Music Education
Performance Stress and the Very Young Musician

Author(s): Hélène Boucher and Charlene A. Ryan
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 58, No. 4 (January 2011), pp. 329-345
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40961658
Accessed: 01-09-2023 14:06 +00:00
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IHJUlilMSS ™« National Association**
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Journal of Research in Music Education
Performance Stress and 58(4) 329-345

©2011 MENC: The National
Association for Music Education
the Very Young Musician Reprints and permission:

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DOI: I O.I 177/0022429410386965
http://jrme.sagepub.com
Helene Boucher1 and

Charlene A. Ryan2
Abstract
Performance anxiety is a common experience among musicians. Recent studies

have found it to be an issue not only for adult performers but also for developing
musicians as early as third grade. The question as to its developed or innate nature
led to the present inquiry pertaining to young children's responses to performance
situations. Sixty-six 3- and 4-year-olds taking group music lessons that culminated
in two concerts served as participants. Self-report of anticipatory anxiety, cortisol
secretion, and observation of anxious behaviors were the primary measures.
Results indicated that young children did experience anxiety with respect to music
performances and that responses seemed to have both innate and developed
components. Children with prior performing experience reported less anticipatory
anxiety, but had higher cortisol levels, than those without prior experience. Additionally,
performance location seemed to play a role in children's anxiety responses. Those
who were familiar with their performance environment responded with less anxiety
than those who were not. Overall, second performances within a short time
frame elicited much lower anxiety responses than initial performances. Findings
pertaining to performance location and second performances appear to have direct
pedagogical implications, which may help to reduce performance stress in young
children.
Keywords
performance, stress, anxiety
'McGill University, Montreal, PQ, Canada

2Berklee College of Music, Boston, MA, USA
Corresponding Author:
Helene Boucher, Schulich School of Music, McGill University, Strathcona Music Building, 555 Sherbrooke
Street West, Montreal, Canada H3A I E3
Email: helene. boucher@mail.mcgill.ca
330 Journal of Research in Music Education 58(4)
The experience of music performance anxiety is a common one for performing

musicians. It has been shown to manifest in a variety of ways - psychologically,
behaviorally, and physiologically - and to impact upon the overall life happiness of
those who suffer from it (cf. Dews & Williams, 1989; Fishbein, Middlestadt, Ottati,
Straus, & Ellis, 1988; Kendrick, Craig, Lawson, & Davidson, 1982; Lockwood,
1989; Ryan & Andrews, 2009; van Kemenade, van Son, & van Heesch, 1995;
Wesner, Noyes, & Davis, 1990). Strategies for coping with anxiety commonly are
reported among professionals and amateurs alike, with many seeking professional
treatment to overcome anxiety's effects.
Most of the research on this topic has focused on adult musicians. However, in
recent years, the experience of performance anxiety in developing musicians has been
the focus of a growing body of literature. Adolescents have been found to experience
anxiety in both solo and ensemble contexts, with gender differences emerging as a
notable factor in the timing and extent to which anxiety affects them (Fehm & Schmidt,
2006; Lorenz, 2002; Maroon, 2003; Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Osborne, Kenny, &
Cooksey, 2007; Osborne, Kenny, & Holsomback, 2005; Papageorgi, 2006; Rae &
McCambridge, 2004; Rothlisberger, 1992; Ryan, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2006; Ryan,
Boucher, & Ryan, 2009). Low self-esteem and neuroticism have been linked to higher
levels of anxiety in this population, as have insufficient practice and perceived expecta-
tions of high-level performances. Anxiety appears to be a topic of concern for young
musicians, but one that they feel is not addressed sufficiently by teachers and institu-
tions (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Ryan et al., 2009).
Performance anxiety also has been documented in elementary school children and
clearly is present in students from as early as third grade (Ryan, 2006). Gender differ-
ences appear to be absent in third and fourth grade but are evident starting in fifth grade
and seem to be related to the onset of puberty, given the delay in heightened response
between males and females that has been noted in several studies. Differences between
the genders have been noted in each of the response systems - behavioral, physiologi-
cal, and psychological - with females exhibiting a marked synchrony of response and
males, a notable desynchrony (LeBlanc, Jin, Obert, & Siivola, 1997; Osborne et al.,
2005; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Ryan, 2004, 2006). By sixth grade, children have
been found to have developed their own personal coping strategies for dealing with
performance anxiety, while advice from teachers for coping has been noted as rela-
tively uncommon (Fehm & Schmidt, 2006; Ryan, 1998, 2004; Ryan et al., 2009).
The question as to whether anxiety is developed or innate has been raised in a num-
ber of studies, with the suggestion that it may be likened to test anxiety - absent in early
childhood but firmly engrained by second grade (Wolfe, 1990). However, this compari-
son may not be an appropriate one for understanding music performance anxiety. While
test anxiety and music performance anxiety both involve performance-evaluative situ-
ations, they have several key differences. The first is that testing does not normally
happen in a social context. With the exception of spelling-bee-type contests, it would
be rare to have an audience while taking a test; for a music performance, an audience
is required. The second is that testing is relatively uncommon prior to second grade, while
music performances typically begin in kindergarten and sometimes in the preschool
Boucher and Ryan 33 1
years. These early performances generally are believed to be positive experiences for
young children, allowing them to demonstrate for parents, teachers, and others what
they have been working on in class and/or in private lessons. It appears to be a common
belief that anxiety does not play a role in the performance situation until children are
older (Kenny & Osborne, 2006). Yet, teachers and parents of young children can attest
to incidents of crying, uncooperative behavior, and inexplicably mute children when
curtains open on a performance. A systematic study of young children's performance
experiences and responses has not been undertaken previously.
Young children make an ideal population with which to examine the innate versus
developed question. While some preschoolers have had performance experiences -
in ballet class, figure skating, or music - many have not. If anxiety is truly innate, it
should be present from the first performance experience. If it is developed, we should
see a difference in response between students who have had prior experience and
those who have not. The purpose of the present study was to examine the group music
performance experiences of young children with a focus on indicators of performance
anxiety. The following questions were addressed through this research: (1) Do young
children report anticipatory stress prior to a music performance? (2) Do young chil-
dren exhibit physiological stress responses during music performances? (3) Do young
children exhibit behavioral signs of stress during music performances? and (4) Does
prior experience in performing impact upon children's anticipated and actual responses
to music performance?
Method
Participants
Sixty-six children (34 males and 32 females) participated in this study. Twenty-seven
of the children were 3 years old (12 males and 15 females), and 39 were 4 years old
(22 males and 17 females). The study took place in two daycare centers within the
same region of a large city that served families of similar backgrounds. All but four
children spoke French as their first language; each of these four children was fluent in
French as a second language. Since the level of verbal instruction in the music class
was quite basic and much of the learning involved teacher imitation, language was not
deemed to be an issue. The children's regular teachers were always present at lessons
to provide additional assistance when needed. Nineteen percent of the participants were
involved regularly in organized performing activities, 46% involving music. Sixty-
nine percent of the children had had at least one previous performance experience.
Measures
Pictorial Scale of Perceived Musical Competence, Reported Liking, and Reported Feeling
Toward Performing. Because performance anxiety in young children has not been studied
previously, we could find no appropriate inventory with which to measure anticipatory
stress in this population. Using the state form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for
Table I . Items of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Musical Competence, Reported Liking, and
Reported Feeling Toward Performing
Perceived competence Good at singing

Good at playing instruments
Good at dancing
Good at making loud and soft sounds
Good at doing fast and slow dance movements
Knows all the words of the songs
Reported liking Likes to sing
Likes to sing for friends and family
Likes to dance
Likes to dance for friends and family
Likes to play instruments
Likes to play instruments for friends and family
Reported feeling toward Is happy that parents will be listening to the concert
performing Is calm when thinks of the concert
If makes a mistake during concert, thinks will continue to do
the music
Thinks mom and dad will like the concert
Is confident will remember what to do at the concert
Feels well when thinks of the concert
Children (Speilberger et al., 1973) and the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory for
Adolescents (Kenny & Osborne, 2006), we designed a set of dichotomous statements
pertaining to the music performance context that are worded appropriately for use with
young children (see Table 1). Because young children often have trouble understanding
complex, seemingly abstract concepts such as being smart or nervous, a graphic repre-
sentation of the statements was created. This scale was modeled after the Pictorial
Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA) by Harter and Pike
(1984). The PSPCSA was designed for use with preschoolers and has demonstrated
validity and reliability with children as young as 3 years (Cramer & Skidd, 1992; Harter
& Pike, 1984; Paguio & Hollett, 1991; Stansbury & Harris, 2000).
The music scale includes two sets of pictures that are identical in all ways, except
for the gender of the child depicted. One set was designed for male participants and
one for female participants. Each pair of pictures addresses one aspect of music
instruction or performance. All were regular components of the children's lessons and
upcoming concerts - for example, singing or instrument playing. On each page there
are two pictures - one depicting a child who likes/is good at/is having a positive expe-
rience with what he or she is doing and one that depicts a child who does not like/is not
good at/is having a negative experience with the activity. The scale was designed to
Boucher and Ryan 333
measure three primary areas: perceived musical competence, enjoyment of the perfor-
mance experience, and feelings about performing. This last section includes questions
pertaining to a stress response, as derived from the adolescent and adult anxiety scales
noted above. It is intended to provide a measure of the child's anticipatory stress toward
the upcoming performance.
Cortisol Secretion. Salivary cortisol was examined as a physiological measure of chil-

dren's stress response to the performance situation. Cortisol, commonly known as the
stress hormone, has been examined in a number of studies on stress in young children
(cf. Gunnar et al., 1989; Nachmias et al., 1996; Stansbury & Harris, 2000). Participants
placed sorbettes (short plastic sticks with a small piece of filter paper attached) in their
mouths to collect saliva and then saved them in individually labeled cry o vials. They
then were frozen and taken to a hospital laboratory for analysis.
Behavioral Measure - Videotaped Observations. Videotapes of two concerts and one

music lesson were analyzed for signs of anxious behaviors. The original recordings
were restructured into observation (15 seconds) and data-recording intervals (10 sec-
onds). Children were observed in the three situations and their behaviors were
recorded on a seven-category observation grid that included the following catego-
ries: (1) overt-emotional behaviors, (2) feet and legs, (3) arms and hands, (4) body,
(5) head/face, (6) interaction with objects, and (7) interaction with others. These cat-
egories were based on those used in previous studies by Brotons (1994) and Ryan
(2000), plus three that we added because we believed that they pertained to the early
childhood setting (overt-emotional behaviors, interaction with objects, and interac-
tion with others).
Parent Questionnaire. Parents were asked to complete a multiple-choice questionnaire

that focused on their child's previous performance experiences as well as their past
and present involvement in performance activities (e.g., dance, figure skating, music,
gymnastics). Additional questions pertained to parents' current and previous involve-
ment in performance activities as well as the family's socioeconomic status. This last
information was used to verify that the samples from both day cares composed simi-
lar populations.
Procedure
Participants were recruited for this study through their day cares. Notices were sent
home to all parents whose children had registered for group music instruction.
Parents of 68 children provided consent; parents of 4 children did not. One child
left the day care after a few weeks and did not complete the study. Another child
participated in the lessons and concerts, but because he had been diagnosed with
Asperger's syndrome and might, therefore, present atypical results, we decided not
to include his data in the study.
Figure I . Example from Pictorial Scale of Perceived Musical Competence, Reported Liking,
and Reported Feeling Toward Performing: Perceived competence - good at singing
Each group met for music lessons 30 minutes per week for a total of 10 weeks.
One of the researchers was the music teacher at both schools and thus was able to
ensure that all participants received the same type of instruction. At the end of the
course, each group of children performed in two concerts for their families, occurring
on 2 consecutive days. Concert programs comprised group singing, movement, and
instrument playing.
The study took place in the day care centers, and the individual daycare directors
chose the concert location that was most appropriate and easily accessible for children
in their school. The concerts for Day Care A were held in a large college classroom
that was adjacent to the daycare. The concerts for Day Care B were held in a large
church basement.
The pictorial Scale of Perceived Musical Competence, Reported Liking, and

Reported Feeling Toward Performing was administered individually during the
2-week period preceding the concerts. Each child met with one of the researchers,
who read the pairs of statements out loud while pointing to the pictures (see Figure 1
for an example). The child was asked to indicate which of the two children on each
page they were like and, when they responded, how much they were like them - a
little bit or a lot. For example, for the photos in Figure 1, the researcher said, "This
girl is good at singing and this one is not so good at singing." The child then was
asked, "Which girl are you more like? Are you good at singing or not so good at sing-
ing?" If the child selected the "good at singing" picture, she then was asked, "Are you
really good at singing, or just pretty good at singing?" The child would then respond
either verbally or by selecting the corresponding big or small circle, indicating "a lot"
or "a little." Data were recorded by checking the corresponding circle on the answer
sheet. These instructions and data collection procedures were modeled directly after
the original PSPCSA (Harter & Pike, 1984).
To measure cortisol response, three saliva samples were taken for each participant.
The first, which served as the baseline, was taken on a normal daycare afternoon,
1 week prior to the concerts. The second and third samples were obtained after each
concert. Saliva was collected for multiple children simultaneously, in groups of 6 to 10.
Each group was seated at a small table where the researcher discussed the concept of
saliva with them:
"Do you know what the wet stuff is that you have in your mouth? You can touch
it. This wet stuff is called saliva and I would like you to give me some of your
saliva to help me with my project. Do you agree?"
As soon as each child agreed, a numbered cryovial was placed on the table directly in
front of him or her, along with a sorbette. The children held the paper on a plastic stick
and placed the paper in their mouths until it was saturated with saliva. This typically
took about 1 minute. Each child was required to do this twice in order to collect enough
saliva to analyze. The sorbettes were then placed in the cryovials and frozen for trans-
portation to the lab.
Results
In order to address the four study questions, the results have been organized accord-
ing to the anxiety response system examined: (1) self-reported anticipatory stress,
(2) physiological response to the performance context, and (3) behavioral signs of
anxiety. Since prior experience (question #4) is considered with regard to each of
the response systems, it is discussed first and subsequently included in each of the
response system analyses.
Parent Questionnaire
Parents were asked to provide details as to their child's current and previous involve-
ment in various performance activities (including, but not exclusive to, music
activities). Nineteen percent of the children were involved in organized performance
activities at the time of the study: 62% in dance, 46% in music, 38% in gymnastics,
and 15% in figure skating. Sixty-two percent of these children were involved in more
than one activity.
Sixty-nine percent of participants had performed in some capacity at least once.
Eighty-seven percent of these experiences had occurred in the day care at a December
or end-of-year show. Only two children had given solo performances; all others had
performed in group contexts. Forty-nine percent of children who had performed prior
to this study had had only one experience, while 34% had had two experiences. No
3-year-olds had more than two performance experiences, but 19% of the 4-year-olds
had three experiences and 1 1% had between four and six experiences.
Anticipatory Stress Scores
Each item on the scale was scored from 0 to 4, whereby 0 indicated the least competence
(i.e., a lot like the child who is not competent at the task) and 4 indicated the most
competence (i.e., a lot like the child who is good at the task). Higher scores, therefore,
indicate greater competence, greater liking, and thus, according to our operational
definition, lower anticipatory stress.
Twenty-five percent of the children scored the maximum of 72, indicating minimal
anticipatory stress with regard to the upcoming performances. However, the scores
ranged from 34 to 72, with a mean of 65.74, indicating that many children had some
anticipatory stress about performing. Only one child had the minimum score, indicat-
ing a maximum amount of stress.
The scale was divided into three sections: (1) Perceived Musical Competence,
(2) Reported Liking for Performing, and (3) Reported Feelings Toward Performing.
Significant positive correlations ranging from r = 0.529 to r = 0.647 (p < .01) were
found between all possible pairings of the three sections of the scale. The musical
activities that children reported liking the least were those involving an audience.
These included likes to play instruments for friends and family, M= 3.57 (0.73), and
likes to sing for friends and family, M- 3.58 (0.88).
We wondered whether educational environment, gender, or age of the children
affected participants' level of self-reported anxiety. A three-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed on these variables; however, there were no significant dif-
ferences. To determine if the children's Anticipatory Stress scores were linked to pre-
vious experience, a univariate ANOVA was performed with Previous Experience
(Yes/No) as the independent variable and Anticipatory Stress score as the dependent
variable. A significant difference was found, F(l, 63) = 4.08,/? < .05, whereby children
with previous performance experience had lower anticipatory stress scores than those
with no experience.
Cortisol Levels
While levels of cortisol at the second concert were similar to baseline (0.15 and 0.16 ug/dl,
respectively), by far the highest mean was measured after the first concert perfor-
mance (.42 ug/dl). Six children from Day Care B had very high values at the first
concert: 1.57, 1.45, 1.79, 2.17, 3.3, and 1.63 ug/dl. In fact, the medical researcher who
ran the laboratory analysis noted, "We seldom see these types of values [even] in
adults. This must reflect a large stressor in these individuals."
In order to determine whether cortisol levels appeared to be affected by the perfor-
mance situation or differed according to day care, gender, or age of the children, a
three-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed on cortisol test time (baseline,
Concert 1, Concert 2) with educational environment, gender, and age as the indepen-
dent variables. Results indicate a significant main effect for educational environment,
F(l9 47) = 13.94,/? < .001, where Day Care B was found to have a significantly higher
Figure 2. Interaction between cortisol test time (baseline, Concert I , Concert 2) and
educational environment
mean across the three test times than Day Care A. A significant main effect also was
found for test time, F(2, 94) = 10.78,/? < .001, where Concert 1 was found to have a
significantly higher mean than baseline and Concert 2. These results are presented in
Figure 2. A polynomial test of effect revealed a significant quadratic trend for test
time (p < .001), indicating an inverted-U shape relationship peaking at Concert 1.
Additionally, a significant interaction was found between test time and educational
environment, F(2, 94) = 18.1,/? < .001. Children in Day Care A had higher baseline
scores than those in Day Care B. However, children in Day Care B's mean cortisol
levels increased from baseline to Concert 1, while they decreased from baseline to
Concert 1 in Day Care A.
In order to determine the effect of previous performing experience on children's
physiological response to the concerts, a repeated measures ANOVA was performed
on cortisol test time (baseline, Concert 1 , Concert 2) with previous experience as the
independent variable. A significant main effect was found for previous experience,
F(l, 53) = 4.01,/? < .05, whereby children with previous experience had a significantly
higher cortisol mean than those with no previous experience. A significant interaction
also was found between test time and previous experience, F(2, 106) = 4.21,/? < .05.
While both groups had similar baseline means, cortisol levels showed a greater
increase from baseline to Concert 1 for children with previous experience. A polyno-
mial test of effect revealed a significant quadratic trend for the interaction between
Figure 3. Interaction between cortisol test time (baseline, Concert I, Concert 2) and
previous experience
Test Time and Previous Experience (see Figure 3), indicating an inverted-U shape
peaking at Concert 1 that was much more pronounced for children with previous per-
forming experience.
In order to determine if the children's anticipatory stress was related to their actual
cortisol response, the data obtained through the Children's Self-Report Measure were
categorized into three groups according to high, medium, and low anticipatory stress
scores. A repeated measures ANOVA was performed on cortisol test time (baseline,
Concert 1 , Concert 2), with anticipatory stress level as the independent variable.
A significant main effect was found for anticipatory stress level, F(2, 52) = 4.15,/?
< .05. A Tukey HSD post hoc test revealed that the high-stress group had a signifi-
cantly higher cortisol mean than the moderate-stress group (p < .05). The test also
revealed that the mean difference between the moderate- and low-stress groups
approached significance (p < .06), with the low-stress group exhibiting higher cortisol
levels than the moderate-stress group. Additionally, a significant interaction was
found between test time and anticipatory stress, F(4, 104) = 2.96, p < .05. At baseline,
the high-stress group had a slightly higher mean than the moderate- and low-stress
groups, and the moderate-stress group was slighter higher than the low-stress group.
At Concert 1 , the high- and low-stress groups had similar results and were higher than
the moderate- and low-stress group; however, at Concert 2, the high-stress group had
a higher mean than both other groups. A polynomial test revealed a significant linear
trend (p < .05) for Test Time by Anticipatory Stress.
Observations of Anxious Behaviors
In order to test the reliability of the researchers' observations, 20% of the video
recordings also were viewed by a trained independent observer. A Pearson correlation
of 0.82 was found between the two observers, which we deemed to be satisfactory.
A three-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed on anxious behaviors for
the three test times (baseline, Concert 1, Concert 2) with educational environment,
gender, and age as the independent variables. A significant main effect was found for
educational environment, F(l, 48) = 14.82,/? < .001, whereby Day Care B was found
to have a significantly higher mean than Day Care A. A significant main effect also
was found for test time, F(2, 96) = 22.7, p < .001, whereby Concert 1 was found to
have a significantly higher mean than baseline and Concert 2. Concert 1 also elicited
a significantly greater number of anxious behaviors than Concert 2. No significant
main effects were found for gender or for age, nor were any other significant interac-
tions noted. The highest average number of anxious behaviors was noted at Concert 1,
with 216.68 anxious behaviors per child. This was followed by Concert 2, with 190.7
behaviors, and baseline, with 148.43.
In order to determine the impact of previous performing experience on behavioral
signs of anxiety, a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures was performed on
anxious behaviors for the three test times (baseline, Concert 1, Concert 2) with previous
experience as the independent variable. There were no significant differences.
In order to determine if anticipatory stress could be linked to the number of anx-
ious behaviors for the three test times, a repeated measures ANOVA was performed
on anxious behaviors for the three test times (baseline, Concert 1, Concert 2) with
anticipatory stress as the independent variable. There were no significant differences.
For most categories of anxious behaviors, the frequency of behaviors was summed
for each observation period. Those listed in the "overt emotional behaviors" category
also were timed. These include avoidance (child does not get on stage, child leaves the
stage, or child turns his or her back or side to the audience), refusal (child refuses to
participate, to sing, dance, or play instruments), and emotional reaction (child gets on
stage but cries and/or kicks).
Fifteen children (23%) exhibited overt-emotional behaviors during Concert 1 and
1 1 (17%) during Concert 2. Overt behaviors were more common in 3 -year-olds than
in 4-year-olds, 18 compared to 8. Six children with overt emotional behaviors exhib-
ited them at both concerts. The duration of these reactions varied from 8 seconds to
7 minutes 45 seconds (the total length of the performance), with a mean of 1 minute
25 seconds per event. Eight avoidance behaviors were recorded, all at the first concert.
Twenty-three events of refusal were calculated, 12 at the first concert and 11 at the
second. Five children exhibited both avoidance and refusal behaviors during the same
performance (Concert 1). The only child who cried did so offstage but during the
performance time. This was a 3 -year-old girl who went onstage and performed for
3 minutes 15 seconds. She remained onstage but alternated between performing and
refusing to perform for another 3 minutes. Then, at 6 minutes 15 seconds, she turned
her back to the public, before walking offstage and going to her mother's arms, crying.
Because the camera was positioned to record stage events, it did not follow that child,
so this behavior could not be recorded and timed. The same child agreed to take part
in the second concert the next day and performed throughout the whole concert.
Correlations Between the Measures
Since previous studies have found the three systems of anxiety response (behavioral,
physiological, and psychological) to be desynchronous, we calculated Pearson prod-
uct moment correlations on the three anxiety measures in this study to see if the
desynchrony was also the case with young children. No significant relationships
were found, indicating that the desynchrony appears to exist from the earliest per-
forming experiences.
Discussion
The experience of performance anxiety in preschool-age children was examined
through psychological, physiological, and behavioral measures. Sixty-six 3- and
4-year-olds took part in a 10-week music program followed by two concerts. One
music lesson and both concerts were videotaped and analyzed for behavioral signs of
anxiety. Saliva samples were taken after the music lesson and both concerts in order
to compare cortisol secretion. In addition, children completed a pictorial self-report of
anticipatory anxiety, which focused on their perception of their musical competence
and their enjoyment and feelings about performing. Parents also were asked to com-
plete a questionnaire pertaining to their child's previous performance experiences,
their own performance experiences, and the family's socioeconomic status.
It appears that young children do experience stress with regard to performance situ-
ations. This was observed through a rise in cortisol levels and an increase in anxious
behaviors. Cortisol levels showed an inverted-U shape, where baseline and second
concert levels were significantly lower than at the first concert. Because children typically
only perform one concert, rather than two back-to-back, the heightened response for
the first concert in this study would ostensibly be what these children would experience
normally. The fact that results for the second concert were lower than the first are
encouraging, however, suggesting that increased performance opportunities might
reduce some of the stress involved with them.
These cortisol findings are consistent with results in the medical literature, wherein
young children undergoing low stress medical examinations (e.g., papillary response,
reflexes response, and abdomen palpation) produced high levels of cortisol in the first
Boucher and Ryan 34 1
instance, but no cortisol elevation upon 24-hour repeat examination. In contrast, a
stressful medical examination (blood collection through the heel) repeated 24 hours
later elicited the same or a slightly greater cortisol response (Gunnar et al., 1992).
A music performance for young children, then, could potentially be considered a gen-
erally low stress event. It should be noted, however, that some children exhibited
markedly high levels of cortisol at the first concert, indicating a higher anxiety response
for at least some of the children.
Participants exhibited a significant increase in anxious behaviors from a normal

music lesson to both performances, and there were significantly more anxious behav-
iors at the first concert than at the second. This appears to corroborate the findings
pertaining to cortisol - that the first occurrence of the stressful event is more anxiety
inducing than a subsequent occurrence within a short period.
It seems that prior experience in performing impacted upon children's anxiety
responses. Those who had performed publicly prior to this study had lower anticipa-
tory stress scores than those who had never performed. However, children with prior
experience had significantly higher cortisol levels, in particular at the first perfor-
mance, indicating a heightened physiological response to the situation. These findings
seem to provide a preliminary answer to the innate versus developed question - that,
in fact, performance anxiety can stem from either or both. Some children may be
innately performance anxious and others not. They also may develop a wariness or
anxiety about performing as a result of experience, including the expectations and
responses of peers, siblings, teachers, and parents in performance situations.
Special care was taken in the planning of this study to select two daycares that were
as similar as possible. Children lived in the same neighborhood and came from similar
families; they received the same music training from the same instructor, and they
performed the same concert program twice. In spite of these similarities, educational
environment (day care center) as a variable showed a significant main effect for both
anxious behaviors and cortisol levels. The same day care (Day Care B) scored higher
on both measures. In reflecting upon the centers, training, and data collection, the only
tangible difference we could pinpoint was the location where the concerts were held.
The concerts for Day Care A were held in a college classroom that was adjacent to the
daycare. The children were familiar with this room, as special activities and parties
were held there often. The concerts for Day Care B were held on a stage in a large
church basement. The children never had been to this location prior to the concerts. It
may be that performing in this unfamiliar location increased children's anxiety
response to the situation.
Gender was not a significant factor for any of the variables studied. This contrasts
with results for older children (Kenny & Osborne, 2006; Osborne & Kenny, 2005;
Ryan, 1999, 2000, 2006). It is, however, consistent with non-music-related anxiety
studies with young children where no differences were found according to gender
prior to school age (Davis, Donzella, Krueger, & Gunnar, 1999; Dettling, Gunnar, &
Donzella, 1999; Dettling, Parker, Lane, Sebanc, & Gunnar, 2000; Donzella, Gunnar,
Krueger, & Alwin, 2000; Gunnar, Tout, de Haan, Pierce, & Stansbury, 1997; Lewis &
Ramsay, 2002). In Ryan's (2006) study of performance anxiety in elementary school
children, gender differences were not apparent in third and fourth grades but evident in
each higher school grade. It may be that gender does not emerge as a variable until the
late elementary school/early middle school years when adolescence begins.
This study highlights the need for more research into the early performance experi-
ences of children. Suggestions that young children do not experience performance
stress appear to be unfounded. However, as a first step in the process of learning more
about the early stages of performance anxiety, caution must be taken in interpreting
these results. Given the lack of a standardized self-report measure for use with young
children, it was necessary to adapt an existing measure to fit the needs of the study.
While the questions and format were based upon models that have been used success-
fully and reliably with older children (for the anxiety component) and in other contexts
with young children, this was the first time the adapted scale was used with young
children in a music performance context. Certainly, the children appeared to under-
stand the questions and respond effectively and independently to them, but further
work with the measure clearly is warranted to ensure its validity and reliability.
It has been suggested in the literature that performance anxiety is not an issue for
young children. Findings from this study suggest that anxiety actually is present in
some children from their very first performances and that these early performance
experiences quickly can shape children's responses for subsequent performances. The
issue of performance location clearly is an important one for both researchers and
teachers to explore. If simply familiarizing children with the performance venue can
reduce the impact of anxiety on their performance experience, then this would be a
relatively easy step for teachers to take in preparing their students for more comfort-
able and successful performances. Further work also should be undertaken with regard
to the finding that second performances within a short time frame elicit much lower
anxiety responses than initial performances. If this is, indeed, a common finding, then
teachers and students may be able to incorporate it into their performance preparation
plans. Perhaps a practice performance in the performance location a day in advance
may be a simple, yet effective, means of significantly improving students' comfort and
success in performance.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or
publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or author-
ship of this article:
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada.
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Bios
Helene Boucher is instructor of music education at the Faculty of Education and the Schulich
School of Music at McGill University. Her research interests include performance anxiety in
children as well as the adaptation of the Kodaly approach for French-speaking students.
Charlene A. Ryan is associate professor of music education at the Berklee College of Music.
Her research interests focus on performance anxiety and other issues pertaining to the experi-
ence and assessment of music performance.
Submitted September 16, 2009; accepted July 19, 2010.

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MENC: The National Association for Music Education

Performance Stress and the Very Young Musician

Journal of Research in Music Education

Performance Stress and 58(4) 329-345

the Very Young Musician Reprints and permission:

Helene Boucher1 and

Performance anxiety is a common experience among musicians. Recent studies

'McGill University, Montreal, PQ, Canada

The experience of music performance anxiety is a common one for performing

Perceived competence Good at singing

Cortisol Secretion. Salivary cortisol was examined as a physiological measure of chil-

Behavioral Measure - Videotaped Observations. Videotapes of two concerts and one

Parent Questionnaire. Parents were asked to complete a multiple-choice questionnaire

The pictorial Scale of Perceived Musical Competence, Reported Liking, and

Anticipatory Stress Scores

Observations of Anxious Behaviors

Correlations Between the Measures

Participants exhibited a significant increase in anxious behaviors from a normal

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Maroon, M. T. (2003). Potential contributors to performance anxiety among middle school

Submitted September 16, 2009; accepted July 19, 2010.

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