Unconventional Machining

Manufacturing Processes II (MCL231)

Kusum Meena
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Email- Kusum@iitd.ac.in
 Abrasive Jet machining (AJM)

Working-
• Jet of inert gas + abrasives → impinging the
W/pc at very high velocity (200-400 m/s)
→ erosive action → material removal

Characteristics-
• Effective for hard and brittle materials.
• Can produce fine and intricate details.
Fig. Schematic diagram of abrasive jet machining
• Suitable for cutting, deburring, cleaning,
polishing etc.
 Gas propulsion • Supplies dry and clean gas to propel abrasive particles.
system • Gas→ non-toxic, cheap and easily available (N2, Co2, air)
AJM Sub-systems
Abrasive feeder • Feeds the metered quantity of abrasives into the gas stream.

• Cleaning, deburring, cutting →Al2O3, SiC (for harder materials), glass

Abrasive beads→ matt finish, and crushed glass→ heavier peening and cleaning
• Abrasive size- 10 to 50 microns, small→ polishing and cleaning, large→
cutting and peening.

Machining • Closed chamber to control the dispersion of abrasives around the

working area.
chamber • Vacuum dust collector.

• High wear resistance materials (WC 30 hrs, sapphire 300 hrs, life partly
AJM nozzle depends on application). Higher Wear→ diffused stream→ stray cutting
• Nozzle pressure (W/pc material, MRR requirement)
 Process parameters
Stand off distance-
• 7- 13 mm for higher mrr.
• Low SOD- Focused stream →Suitable for cutting (0.8mm), MRR is compromised for higher accuracy, Low
kerf width/ taper.
• High SOD- deburring, cleaning, widened jet stream, less accurate.

Abrasive flow rate

• Higher abrasive flow rate→ number of particles in cutting increases → high mrr,
• Higher abrasive flow rate→ increased mass fraction of abrasive particles → reduced particle velocity →
reduced mrr.

Nozzle pressure
• Relatively less effective on mrr
• Higher nozzle pressure→ increased mrr, compensated by increased wear of nozzle → decreased nozzle life

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝑎

𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑔
Applications

• For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials.

• For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials.
• AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and etching.
• Micro-machining of brittle materials.
 Water jet machining (WJM)
Working-
• High velocity (900 m/sec) small dia.
water Jet→ impact on the W/pc→
erosive action→ material removal.

Characteristics-
• Cutting and slitting- Porous non-metals, paper,
leather, rubber, glass, foam, composites etc.
• No burrs, no thermal damage and good surface
Fig. Schematic diagram of water jet machining
finish.
• Minimum health hazards (no airborne dust)
Intensifier and accumulator

• Increases water pressure.

• To minimize the water pulsation in flow → high pressure water is stored in accumulator.

Nozzle

• Material- wear resistant and easily machinable (Synthetic sapphire, life 250-500 hrs)
• Failure- presence of foreign particle →constriction by mineral deposits.

Catcher

• Tube or slot catcher → to reduce the noise and break the water jet.
• Long tube catcher → allow water jet to break up completely before it reaches to the bottom of the tube.
• Short tube catcher with hard inserts for fast break up of jet.
Process parameters
• Pressure → higher pressure is required to cut thicker materials
• Nozzle diameter (0.07-0.5 mm)
• Traverse rate →decreased value for thicker parts
• Stand-off-distance (Least critical) : Should be less than the 25 mm→ negligible change in
the shape or diameter of the jet, optimal SOD→3 mm.

Applications
• Machining of Asbestos washers, baffles and insulators→ for aerospace applications (minimize
airborne dust)
• High speed cutting of corrugated box.
• Cutting of carbide grit safety walks.
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM)
Working-
• Combines the principle of WJM and AJM.
• A fine abrasive jet → fed into the high velocity
water jet (400 MPa)→ transfer of momentum
from water to the abrasives → impinge on the
W/pc → erosive action → material removal

Characteristics-
• Can cut both metals (Cu, WC, Pb, Al etc.) and
non-metals (Graphite, silica, glass, acrylic
Fig. Schematic diagram of abrasive water jet machining etc.) at high rates and thick sections.
• No thermal and mechanical damage.
Equipment (4 major components)

Pumping system Abrasive feed system

• To produce the high velocity water jet by • To deliver the controlled flow of abrasives into

pressurizing water into an intensifier. water jet nozzle.

• Can be changed by changing the dia. of orifice

Water Jet nozzle Mixing nozzle

• It is same as of the WJM,
• To provide efficient mixing of abrasives and water to
• Produces High velocity (900m/s) water jet,
form the high velocity abrasive-water jet.
diameter 0.075- 0.6 mm
• Nozzle material→ Tungsten carbide or boron carbide.
• Sapphire, expected life 250-500 hr.
 Process parameters
Water based
Water jet pressure
• A critical pressure (Pc) is required → to attain
a minimum abrasive cutting velocity →
otherwise no cutting.
Water flow rate
• Water as a propelling fluid → enables high
abrasive flow rate (0.1 to 5 Kg/min) compared
to air (100 g/min)→ accelerate abrasives to
high velocities (over 300 m/s)→ possible to
cut more hard and thicker materials.
• Beyond a limit, with the change in the water
flow rate, does not result in increased abrasive
velocities.
Abrasive based
Abrasives type
• Garnet, silica and silicon carbide,
• Higher the hardness of the workpiece material,
harder should be the abrasives to be used.
Abrasive Size→
• Ranges from 100-150 grit size, optimum abrasive
size for a particular workpiece material. Ex. Mesh
size 60 for stainless steel machining.
Abrasive flow rate
• Machined depth of cut α abrasive flow rate (m),
ሶ but
beyond a limit increase in m→
ሶ increased wear rate
of mixing nozzle → reduced mixing efficiency →
reduced depth of cut.
Cutting parameters
Traverse speed
• A decrease in traverse rate increases the depth of cut.
• Below a critical traverse speed there would be no increase in depth of cut.
Stand off distance
• An increase in SOD → decreases machined depth → because the liquid phase of the jet breaks up into droplets
→ resulting in free abrasive particles → that leads to a shallower penetration.
• There is an upper value of SOD beyond which the process will no longer do the cutting.

Applications
• Metals & non-metals both,
• Omni-directional cutting with no burrs,
• Industries - aerospace, nuclear, foundries, Construction, etc.,
• Steel components cut plates, tubes, corrugated Structures, etc.
 Thermal Energy based
non-traditional machining processes
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

1. Introduction
• Electro-thermal non-traditional machining
process.
Electrical energy → Electrical spark →Thermal
energy of spark →Material removal.

4 major subsystems
• Power supply
• Dielectric system
• Servo system
• Electrodes
Fig. Schematic diagram of EDM process
2. Working Principal

Potential difference is applied between two electrodes→ Electric field→ electrons from tool accelerate
towards the W/pc→ collision between the dielectric molecules and electrons→ ionization

Fig. Movement of electrons and ions due to applied potential difference

Ionisation of dielectric molecules → concentration of e- and ions increases (repetitive
collision) Generation of Plasma channel →avalanche motion of electrons (visible as spark)

Fig. Generation of Plasma due to collision of e- and dielectric molecules

Arc jumps (least resistance)→ thermal energy → rise in temperature → melting and
evaporation of the material

Fig. Arc jump and melting and evaporation of material

Sudden Expansion → Knocking of loose molten particles → removal of material

Fig. Sudden expansion and knocking the loose molten material

 EDM Subsystem
Power supply
• To supply the electrical energy → produce the spark discharge at the IEG.
• Sensing the IEG voltage, IEG voltage is directly related to the IEG gap.
• For desired cutting conditions, it controls pulse voltage, current, pulse duration, duty cycle, pulse
frequency and electrode polarity.
Dielectric system
• Ensure proper delivery, filtering and pumping of dielectric fluid.
• Dielectric functions → insulating, coolant and flushing.
Servo system
• Gets signal from power supply system by sensing the IEG voltage → maintains the IEG.
Electrodes (tool and workpiece)
• Tool determines the shape of the cavity.
• Machinable, low wear, electrically conductive, Cu and brass (high wear), graphite and Cu graphite.
Process Parameters Characteristics
Spark Current (0.5- 400 A) – • Tool and w/pc should be electrically conductive.
• Increase in current → high energy per spark → • Drilling, slotting, die sinking etc.
high mrr → high surface roughness. • Aspect ratio 100:1.
Spark frequency • Matt surface finish.
• Increase in spark frequency → more number of • Recast layer, HAZ.
spark → less energy per spark → reduced crater
size → improved surface finish. Applications
Pulse duration • Aerospace, tools and die making
• Increase in pulse duration → increased material industries.
removal → increased surface roughness • Machining of exotic materials.
Inter electrode gap • Thin and fragile component ex.
• Varies from 0.012 – 0.050 mm, smaller the gap Electronics component.
→ good accuracy with better surface finish.
Wire cut EDM Power supply system
• Provides comparatively high frequency of order of 1 MHz →
• Tool in the form of wire ( copper, brass, steel etc.
reduced crater size → better surface finish.
dia. 0.05-0.3 mm).
• Because of small wire dia, can not carry current more than 20A.
• Gap is maintained by computer - controlled
Dielectric system
positioning system.
• Suitable dielectric→ deionized water, low viscous → efficient
• To cut the through complicated contours.
flow, high cooling rate→ thin recast layer, Providers high tool
wear rate, high MRR and better surface finish.
Positioning system
• CNC controlled
• Operate in an adaptive control mode→ sense the IEG bridging
(by debris or wire approach to the w/pc) → move back to the
desired position.
Wire feeding system
• Supply fresh wire and keep wire always straight (tension).
Fig. Schematic diagram of WEDM process
Electric discharge grinding (EDG)

• Hybrid → EDM + Grinding.

• Electrically conductive wheel (graphite) as a tool.
• Rotating motion of wheel ensures the effective
flow of the dielectric and ejection of molten
material from IEG.
• No physical contact between the tool and
workpiece.
• Can be used for dressing of metal bonded diamond Fig. Schematic diagram of EDG process
grit wheel → removes the bond material by
melting instead of shearing.
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Working-
Vacuum → a potential difference is applied → increase in
cathode temperature (2500°C) → emission of thermo-ionic
electrons → travel towards the anode → attain high velocity
→diverging beam→ passes through the magnetic lens →
shapes electron beam into converging beam → passes through
the aperture → captures stray electrons → an electromagnetic
lens focuses the electron beam on the workpiece → also
passes through the deflector coil → proper alignment of the
beam to achieve a desired cut profile → impinge on the
workpiece (10-100 μm) → K.E of high velocity electrons →is
converted into heat energy → melting and vaporizing of W/Pc
Fig. Schematic diagram of EBM process
→ material removal.
EBM systems
Power supply –
Process Parameters
• Generate high voltage (150 KV) to accelerate the electrons.
Beam Current–
Electron beam gun
• Varies 100 μA to 1 mA and it governs the
• To produce the electron bean and focus it to the
energy/pulse supplied to the W/pc.
predetermined position.
Pulse duration
• It operates in pulse mode.
• Varies 50 μs to 10 ms, determines both depth and
• it has tungsten or tantalum filament which act as a cathode.
diameter of the hole being drilled.
• Create high repulsive force to accelerate electrons towards
• Affects HAZ and thickness of recast layer.
the anode.
Vacuum system Lens current
• Determines Working distance (between the focal
• To create the vacuum (10-2 mbar)
point and beam) and focused spot on the w/pc.
• Preventing the oxidation of cathode filament
• Prevent loss of energy of electrons as a result of collision
with air molecules.
Characteristics
• Both electrically conductive (Ni, Cu, Al) and non-conductive (leather, plastics) materials can be machined.
• Can drill high aspect ratio (15:1) holes.
• Since, no mechanical force is applied any fragile, thin, low strength materials can be easily machined.
• Very high temperature results in residual thermal stresses.

Applications
• Aerospace, insulation, food processing, chemical, Clothing, where hundreds to thousands of holes in a w/p,
complex-shaped, Difficult-to-machine material etc. Ex. Cooling holes in turbine blade, Metering holes in
injector nozzles.
Thermal non-traditional
machining processes
• MRR/SOD graph

• Kerf width
• Aspect ratio = H/D
(length/dia)
• Spark generation in WEDM –
similar to EDM, microsecond.
• Lens current- determines the
working distance and the
beam diameter.
Increase in Lens current
→reduced Focal distance &
Spot size

D
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

LASER (light amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation)-
• Under proper conditions, light of particular
frequency → stimulate the electrons in an atom
→ to emit the light of same characteristics
(wavelength, phase, direction, energy) as of the
stimulating source → laser light.
• Laser light- coherent (identical wavelength and
Fig. Interaction of photons and atoms to produce
frequency, constant phase difference ) Stimulated emission
monochromatic→ occupy narrow region of
spectrum (0.21μm - 11 μm), a single lens could
achieve small dia, high intensity laser beam.
Laser Setup
Lasing medium-
• Solid state (Ruby, Nd:YAG)→ light duty work (spot welding,
marking etc.),
• Gas (Co2, N2, H2) → high energy density (Cutting).
Energy source-
• Must be powerful enough to ensure that majority of atoms or
molecules are at higher energy level (population inversion).
Feedback mechanism-
• two mirrors, fully reflector and partially reflector.
• Full reflector- redirects the photons inside the lasing medium.
• Partially reflector –allows small part of the photons to exit the Fig. Schematic of laser components
system in the form of laser light.
Working- Characteristics
• Electric current→ stimulate gas atoms → feedback • All materials except high thermal
mechanism → laser beam → passes through simple conductivity and high reflectivity (Al and Cu)
lenses → highly focused → hit he workpiece → perform can be processed.
desired operation (depends on laser power density). • No physical contact no mechanical forces.
• Energy density and time of interaction
determines the type of operation – cutting
(1.5×106 – 1.5 × 108 W/cm2), welding
(1.5×104 – 1.5 × 105 W/cm2)

Applications
• Drilling, cutting, welding, heat treatment,
marking, cladding, coating.
Fig. Schematic diagram of laser beam machining
Chemical and Electrochemical
non-traditional machining
processes
Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)

Introduction

• Electrical energy → Chemical reaction → Material removal.

• Works on the principal of electrolysis.

Working

• Electric potential (5-25 V) →across the electrodes submerged in

electrolyte→ chemical reaction→
• Cathode – Water molecules are reduced at cathode by taking the
electrons from cathode → form hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − = 𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻 −
• Anode- detach metal ions from anode → forms metal hydroxide Fig. Schematic of Electro chemical machining
in electrolyte → solid precipitates → insoluble.
𝑀 − 2𝑒 − = 𝑀 ++
𝑀++ + 2𝑂𝐻 − = 𝑀(𝑂𝐻)2
ECM Machine Tool
Power system
• Supply low voltage (5-25 V) and high current (up to 40000A).
Electrolyte
• Supplied between the IEG at the velocity of 20-30 m/s, acts as a
medium for current to flow.
• Removes reaction product from IEG, dissipation of heat.
Electrode (tool and workpiece)
• Shaped tool, moves towards the w/pc to maintain the constant
IEG (feed rate = MRR).
• Machinable, anti-corrosive, high thermal and electrically Fig. Schematic of Electro chemical machining
conductive.
• Aluminum, Brass, Cu, Bronze etc.
• Workpiece should be electrically conductive.
Process Parameters
Current density and IEG -
• Higher the current density→ high mrr, Low IEG→ High current density → high MRR.
• IEG varies from 0.025 to 0.76 mm, mostly used- 0.25 mm.

Electrolyte-
• Velocity- if low→ incapable of taking the reactions byproduct (Hydrogen gas bubbles and sludge)→ non-
uniform material removal.
• If high → cause cavitation → uneven removal.
• Temperature – selected temperature should be maintained.
• Change in temperature → change in electrical conductivity of electrolyte.
Characteristics
• Can machine only electrically
conductive materials.
• Removes material by atomic
dissolution→ good surface finish (0.1-1
μm).
• MRR is not dependent on mechanical or
physical properties.

Applications
• Die sinking, profiling or contouring,
grinding, drilling, micromachining etc.
Chemical Machining (CM)
Introduction
• Chemical etchant → applied on the w/pc → changes the metal into
metal salts → Removes material.
• Selection of etchant depends on the W/pc material, Fecl3 → Al, Cu,
Ni and their alloys, FeNo3→ Ag, HNo3→ tool steel.
• Also depends on the required surface, finish depth of penetration, etc.

Working-
• Clean the W/pc→ maskant (cut and peel, screen and photoresist
methods) → does not allow chemical to reach and react with
workpiece → expose the selected areas → chemical etchant → Fig. Schematic of chemical machining
dissolve material by chemical action.
• Chemical milling → Production of blind holes, channels, pockets etc.,
Chemical blanking→ Production of through cavities, slots hole etc.
• Material removal from both downward (depth of cut) and laterally
(undercut).
Etch factor = undercut/ depth of cut
• Total machined depth and undercut can be controlled by emersion
time in the etchant.
MRR

• Time
• Heat and agitate the etchant.
• Filtration, periodical addition of new etchant.

Applications-

• Chemical blanking: burr-free etching of printed-

circuit boards (PCB), decorative panels, thin
sheet-metal stampings, and the production of
complex or small shapes.
• Chemical milling: weight reduction of space
launch vehicles.
Machine Tool
Definition –
The power - driven machines, while
holding the cutting tools would be able
to remove material from the workpiece
in order to generate product of desired
shape and size.
Basic elements:
• Work holding- to hold the w/pc in the correct
orientation, ex. Chuck
• Tool holding- to hold the tool in correct position w.r.t
w/pc, ex. tool post.
• Tool and w/pc motion mechanism- to provide
required individual and relative motion to tool and
workpiece in order to generate the desired surface
profiles.
• Support structure- to support all the other
mechanism, maintain relative position, and allow
relative motions between various parts.
Classification based on production capability:
Shape and size production techniques:

Generating- Desired profile is

obtained by manipulating the relative
motions of the work piece and the
cutting tool edge. Example: straight
turning, taper turning, contour turning,
peripheral milling, and profile milling
etc.

Fig. Shape generation by (a) straight turning (b) taper turning (c)
contour turning (d) Plain milling (e) Profile milling
Forming: By impressing the
shape of the cutting tool upon
the work piece and so, the
cutting edge of the tool has the
reverse of the shape to be
produced on the part. Example:
Form turning, drilling,
broaching etc.

Fig. Shape forming by form turning and form drilling

 Machine Tools

Single point tool

Multipoint tool Abrasive wheels
Lathes, boring
Drilling, milling, broaching Grinding
machines, shaper, planer
Centre Lathe machine

• Head stock – contains power source,

power transmission, gear box and
spindle. Levers→ to change speeds
and feeds as desired.
• Tail stock – tailstock spindle to locate
the long components.
• Bed – Main structure to which all
parts are bolted. It includes
headstock, tailstock, carriage rails
and other parts.
• Carriage - located between the headstock and the tailstock and contains saddle, compound rest, cross slide

and tool post.

• This part of the lathe provide longitudinal motion to the cutting tool based on the rotation of the feed rod or

lead screw.

• Feed Rod - It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa.

• Lead screw - A large screw with a few threads per inch used for cutting threads.

• Cutting is done by linearly moving tool while workpiece rotates. The tool is typically moved parallel to the

axis of rotation during cutting.

• Suitable for low production work.

Work holding devices:

Chuck- most common method of work holding and is mounted

on the end of main spindle.
• 3 jaw chuck (self centering) - Mechanism → Self centering
→Simultaneous radial motion of jaws. For holding
cylindrical w/pcs.
• 4 jaw chuck (Independent)→ all 4 jaws move independent to
each other. For holding of non-cylindrical w/pcs.

Face plate – For very complicated shapes.

Face Plate
• A Circular plate contains radial slots which facilitate the
bolting of w/pc to the face plate.
Collet chuck- Provide strong clamping
force by clamping the part all around.
Suitable for holding small length (50 mm)
parts.
Collets Magnetic Chuck
Magnetic chuck : to hold the thin part.
Centers – Suitable For Long w/pcs.
• live center and dead center - to hold the
w/pc from the head stock and tail stock
end respectively.
• Provision of a carrier plate and dog to
transmit the rotary motion from spindle
to the w/pc
Operations on centre lathe

• Turning : It is a form of machining which is used to create cylindrical surface by cutting away unwanted
material.
Taper turning on lathe
Using a compound slide-

• Compound slide is rotated at an angle as desired, and tool is

made perpendicular to w/pc surface.

• Suitable to generate the steep and short length taper.

Compound slide taper turning
Using form tool :

• Use special form tool, and feed is provided by plunging the

tool directly into the w/pc.

• Suitable for small tapers.

Form tool taper turning

Offsetting the tail stock:

• By offsetting the tailstock, the axis of rotation of the job is inclined by the half angle of taper.
• Facing : material removal from the end of the workpiece or a shoulder

• Knurling : Process of impressing a diamond shaped or cross lined pattern

on the surface of a workpiece to provide a better gripping surface.

facing

Knurling
• Parting : Parting uses a blade-like cutting tool plunged directly into
the workpiece to cut off the workpiece

• Drilling : to cut a hole of circular cross- section.

• Boring : Process to enlarge the existing hole

Parting

Boring Drilling
• Reaming : It’s an operation to enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. It removes a minimal
amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a
smoother internal finish.

• Tapping : An operation to cut internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by
the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.

Reaming Tapping
Threading - process of cutting a uniform helical groove.

• In one revolution of the spindle, carriage must travel

the pitch of the screw thread to be cut.
𝑁𝑠 𝑃𝑍𝑠 = 𝑁𝐿 𝐿𝑍𝐿

• Ns = number of spindle revolutions

• NL = number of lead screw revolutions

• Ig = gear ratio (speed ratio of spindle to lead screw)

• P = Pitch of the screw thread to be cut

• L = Pitch of the lead screw

• Zs = Number of start of screw thread to be cut

• ZL = Number of start of the lead screw

Threading
Machining time and MRR calculations for turning

𝐷o −𝐷f
• Depth of cut, 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚
2
𝐷f +𝐷𝑜
• Average diameter of workpiece, 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝐿+0
• Cutting Time, 𝑡𝐶 =
𝑓𝑁

𝜋𝐷02 −𝜋𝐷f2
• Metal Removal Rate, 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑓𝑁 = 𝜋𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑓𝑁
4
Turning
𝜋𝐷o 𝑁
• Cutting Speed, 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1000
Limitations of center lathe

• Large idle time in the setting and changing the tools in between the cuts.
• Large job setting time.
• Only one tool can be used at a time i.e one machining operation at a time.
• Precise movement of the tool at the desired place is difficult to achieve without proper care exercised
by the operator.
 Processing (Actual
cutting or chip
removal)
Semiautomatic Automatic
Machining operations • Turret • Single spindle
• Capstan • Multi-spindle
Handling (Loading,
unloading and clamping
of w/pc, advancing and
withdrawing the cutting
tools etc.)
Turret Lathe
• Medium production lathe.
• Tailstock is replaced with a hexagonal turret, that
can hold up to 6 cutting tools.
• These tools can be rapidly brought into action
against the work one by one by indexing the turret.
• Conventional tool post is replaced by a four-sided
turret that can index up to four tools into position.
• Hexagonal turret is mounted directly on the
saddle, and the entire saddle and turret assembly
reciprocates.
• Heavy duty machine, generally for components
with large diameters, such as 200 mm.
Capstan Lathe

• Turret moves on the saddle while

the saddle can itself be fixed at any
position on the bed.
• Too much overhang of the turret
when it is nearing cut.
• Light duty machine, suitable for
components of diameter equal or
less than to 50 mm.
Single spindle

Automatic cutting off machine

• Suitable for production of short work pieces of simple form.
• 2 cross slides are mounted on bed at front end of the spindle.
• The carriage movement is actuated by the CAM mechanism.
• The required length of W/pc is fed out up to stock stop.
• Machining is done by tools that are held in slides operating only in
cross- wise directions.
Automatic screw machine
• Suitable for production of small screws (12.7 to 60 mm
diameter).
• Capable of producing the complex internal and external
surfaces on the parts made of bar stock/ separate blanks.
• 2 cross slides for cross feeding and vertical cross slide for
parting is provided.
• Bar stock is held in collet chuck and advanced after each
piece is finished and cut off.
• All movements of machine is actuated by cams mounted on
cam shaft.
• At the end of each cut turret slide is withdrawn
automatically and indexed to bring the next tool to position.
Swiss type automatic screw/ Sliding head screw
• In this machine headstock is moveable and tools are fixed.
• Suitable for machining of long parts of small diameter (4
to 25 mm).
• All longitudinal feeds are obtained by cam mechanism
which moves entire headstock.
• Rotating bar stock is fed in centre of tool head.
• Usually tool head consists 5 cutting tools placed radially
around the w/pc.
• Tools are controlled and positioned by the cams that brings
tool in as needed to turn, face, form, cut off the w/pc.
Multi spindle

• High production machines, have multiple (2, 4, 5, 6, 8) spindles.

• Unlike single spindle m/c, in multi spindle machine tools on all faces of the turret engages with all
spindles at the same time.

Parallel action

• Spindles are housed in headstock one above another.

• Cross slides are located at right- and left-hand sides of the
spindles.
• Same operation is performed
• W/pc is finished on each spindle in one working cycle.
• Number of workpieces produced is equal to the number of
spindles.
Progressive action
• Head stock carries a spindle carrier where all
spindles are mounted.
• The w/pc clamped in each spindle are machined
progressively in station after station.
• W/pc is moved from one station to another by
indexing the carrier plate with an angle.
• In one revolution of spindle carrier, number of
completed jobs will be equal to the number of
spindles.
Reciprocating machine tools

• SHAPER
• PLANER
• SLOTTER
 Shaper machine

• Clapper box→ to hold the single point

cutting tool.
• A flat surface is generated by the
relative single line cutting motion of
the tool and W/pc.
• W/pc is fed at right angles to the
cutting motion and is accomplished on
the return (non-cutting) stroke when
the tool has cleared the workpiece.
• Forward stroke - Cutting,
Return stroke – idle (no cutting)
Principal mechanism
• Quick return mechanism
• Return stroke has higher velocity while the
forward stroke has lower velocity.
• Rotary motion of the crank and slider is
converted in the reciprocating motion of the ram.
Planer machine
• Suitable to produce the vertical, horizontal and inclined flat surfaces on the large workpieces that could not
be accommodated on the shaper machine.
• Cutting speed is provided to the workpiece instead of the tool as in shaper.
• Feed motion → tool
Slotter

• A vertical shaper machine.

• Used for cutting grooves, keys and slots of
various shapes.
• Internal and external surfaces can also be
produced.
Unconventional Machining
Manufacturing Processes II (MCL231)

Kusum Meena
Department of mechanical energy
Email- Kusum@iitd.ac.in
Machining - Removal of material to get a specific geometry with desired accuracy and surface finish.

Conventional Machining

Sharp cutting edge

• Tool
Harder than the
w/pc material

• Relative motion

• Material removal in the form

of chips.
 Why unconventional machining processes?

• Inability to machine hard, brittle and strong

materials. Ex- Ti, W, nimonic alloys,
Ceramics etc.

• High cost of machining,

• Complex shapes,

• Machining of heat sensitive and fragile

materials,

• Geometrical features of tight tolerances and

Micro size holes
fine surface finish. Ex- Making holes of large holes of large aspect ratio
aspect ratio or of micro size hole.
Unconventional or non-traditional machining processes

• Conventional tools are not employed. Classification

• Energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical or in

combination) in its direct form is applied.

• Material is removed at the atomic or molecular

level.

• Have distinct features therefore selection of an

appropriate process for a given situation is
important.

• Useful in aerospace, automobile, tool, die and

mould making industries.
Ultrasonic machining

Transducer
• It converts high frequency electrical signal into high
frequency linear mechanical motion or vibration.

Tool holder or Horn

• Transfer ultrasonic vibrations to the tool.
• Its function is to increase the tool vibration amplitude
and to match the vibrator to the acoustic load.
• It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic
properties.

Tool
• Tools should be constructed from relatively ductile
materials.
Material removal mechanism

• Between the tool and workpiece, the machining

zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles
generally in the form of a water-based slurry.
• Tool vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25
kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50 μm.
• The abrasive particles act as the indenters and
receive the KE from the impact of the tool and
consequently indent both the work material and
the tool.
• Crater formation occurs and as indentation
progresses the cracks would propagate due to
increase in stress and lead to local brittle fracture
of the work material.
Characteristics

• To machine the hard and brittle materials (both electrically conductive and non-conductive).

Ex. glass, quartz, ceramics, carbides etc.

• Tool material- Ductile and machinable. Ex. brass, steel

• Tool shape is made converse to the desired cavity.

• No direct contact between tool and workpiece, suitable to machine heat sensitive thin and

fragile work materials.

• Capable to machine the intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials.

Milling
Indexing or dividing head -
• Suitable for machining the flutes of a milling cutter,
cutting the teeth of a gear, milling curved slots etc.
• Indexing - The operation of rotating the job through
a required angle between two successive cuts.
• Dividing head - is a specialized tool that allows a
workpiece to be circularly indexed.
• The index plate consists of several holes around
various circles.
• Also provided with a crank and pin.
Brown and Sharpe indexing plates-
• Plate 1 – 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes.
• Plate 2 – 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes.
• Plate 3 – 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes.

Cincinnati and Parkinson dividing heads -

• Side 1 – 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes.
Different indexing plates
• Side 2 – 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes.
Simple or plain indexing -
• The index crank drives the main spindle through a worm
gear (40 teeth).
• 40 full revolutions of the crank result into 1 revolution of
the workpiece.
• N = 40Τ𝑇
• Ex – 24 teeth to be cut on a gear blank

Plate 1 – 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes

Plate 2 – 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
Plate 3 – 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
Q. Indexing of 28 divisions ?

Plate 1 – 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes

Plate 2 – 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
Plate 3 – 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
Q. If the index crank of a dividing head is turned through one complete revolution and 10 holes in
a 30 hole circle plate, the work piece turns through (in degrees)?
Milling Time and MRR calculations

𝜋𝐷𝑁
• Cutting Speed, 𝑣 = mm/min
1000

𝐷 2 𝐷 2
• Approach and overtravel, 𝐴/𝑜 = − −𝑑 = 𝑑 𝐷−𝑑
2 2
Plain or slab milling
• D = cutter diameter, d - depth of cut , A – approach distance, O - overtravel

𝑙+𝐴+𝑜
• Cutting time, 𝑇 = minutes, f = feed per tooth, Z – no. of teeth
𝑓𝑧𝑁

• Metal Removal Rate, 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑤 × 𝑑 × F

w = width of cut (mm), d = depth of cut, F = feed mm/min (f × z × N)

Face milling operation

𝜋𝐷𝑁
• Cutting Speed, 𝑣 = mm/min
1000

D
• Approach allowance, 𝐴 or O = 2 Face milling

• D = cutter diameter, d = depth of cut

𝑙+𝐴+𝑂
• 𝑇= , T – time in minutes,
𝑓𝑧𝑁

• Metal Removal Rate, 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑤 × 𝑑 × 𝑓

w = width of cut, d = depth of cut, f = feed

Q. A block of length 200 mm is machined by a slab milling cutter 34 mm in diameter. The depth of cut and
table feed are set at 2 mm and 18 mm/ minute, respectively. Considering the approach and the over travel of
the cutter to be same, calculate the minimum estimated machining time per pass.
Q. A C50 steel flat surface of dimensions 100 mm × 250 mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling
machine. An HSS slab mill with a 100 mm diameter and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. The
milling cutter has 8 teeth. Calculate the machining time assuming that entire stock can be removed in one
depth of 2 mm.
Given, Feed, f = 0.13 mm/tooth, Cutting speed, V = 20 m/min.
 Machine Tools
Manufacturing Processes II (MCL231)

Kusum Meena
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Email- Kusum@iitd.ac.in
Hole making operations
Drilling - Process of cutting a hole of circular
cross section.

• A rotational and linear feed motion is provided

to the tool to cut the material.

• Two parts- body (cutting edges, flutes) and

Shank (for holding purpose).
Drilling
• Two cutting edges and two opposite spiral
flutes cut into its surface.

• Flutes serve to provide clearance to the chip

produced at the cutting edges and allow cutting
fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Face – is the part of flute surface
which is adjacent to the cutting lip.
Flank – the surface on the drill,
which extends behind the cutting lip
to the following flute.
Cutting lip – the edge formed by
the intersection of face and flank.
Land – is the cylindrically ground
body surface between the flutes.
• Lands provide the torsional
strength to the drill.
• Reducing the land width
increases chip space but reduces
strength.
Margin – The cylindrical portion of the land
that is not cut not away to provide the
clearance.
• Also known as cleared diameter or body
clearance.
• Prevents excessive rubbing and friction.
• Single margin – creates least amount of
rubbing and friction with minimal support
in the hole.
• Double margin – creates more friction,
provides additional stability and reduce the
possibility of chatter.
Lead – distance between the corresponding point
on the leading edge of the land in one complete
revolution.
Chisel edge – edge formed by the intersection of
the two flanks.
It connects two main cutting edges.
It doesn’t perform any cutting action, rather it
exert pressure and friction for entering the
material.
Web – thickness across the base of flutes. It
determines the rigidity and chip racking
performance of the drill.
• Thin → small cutting resistance, low rigidity,
suitable to machine the soft or easily
machinable materials.
• Thick → large cutting resistance, high rigidity.
Suitable to machine high hardness material.
Lip angle or point angle – angle between
two cutting lips of when it is projected on a
plane parallel to the axis.
Normally – 118° HSS for soft materials, 130
– 140 ° carbide drills, machining of hard
materials.
Lip clearance angle – angle formed by the
portion of the flank adjacent to the land and
a plane at right angle to the drill axis
measured at the periphery of the drill.
• clearance must be given to both cutting
edges allowing them to enter into the
workpiece to do the cutting.
• General purpose drills have a clearance of
8° to 12°.
Helix Angle – it is inclination of the flute
w.r.t the axial direction of the drill.
• 3 types – slow 12 - 22°, regular 28 – 32°,
fast 34 – 38° spiral helix.
• High helix spiral – Weaker, provides
greater lifting power for chips.
• Suitable for drilling the deep holes.
• Slow helix spiral – stronger, have less
lifting power for chips.
• Limited for shallow holes.
Drilling Machines
Vertical or pillar type
Radial Arm type
Gang drill
Multi Spindle drill
Drill Press

• Simple and less expensive

• Suitable for low production.
• Motion → rotational and feed in the
linear direction.
• Drill is mounted into the spindle and the
workpiece is clamped on the table using
the suitable clamping devices.
Radial drilling

• More versatile than the drill press.

• The drill head can move along the
radial arm to any position
• Radial arm itself can rotate on the
column and can reach any position in
the radial range of the machine.
• Suitable for drilling of large
workpieces which can not be moved
easily from one place to other.
Multiple spindle drilling

• Suitable for large volume production of

identical parts.
• Multiple spindle→ can carry multiple drill
tools → simultaneous operation → capable of
producing large number of holes in short time.
• Each spindle derives power from the same
spindle.
Gang drilling/ progressive action type multiple spindle drilling
• Suitable for volume production
• Number of spindles mounted on the single table in
parallel fashion.
• Can hold different drill or other hole making tools.
• Each spindle can have independent cutting speed
and depth of cut.
• Suitable to drill the number of holes of different
sizes on the same workpiece.
• Reaming, tapping, counterboring can also be
performed. → have different drill or other hole
making operation tool → fixed in sequence.
• Workpiece move from one station to other, with
each completing hole making operation.
Drilling time :
𝛱𝐷𝑁
• Cutting speed - 𝑣 =
1000

V – cutting speed, m/min

D- diameter of twist drill, mm
N – rotational speed of the drill, rev/min

• Cutting time – 𝐿
𝑇=
𝑓𝑁

T– cutting time, min

𝐷
L – total length of tool trave, mm C=
N – rotational speed of the drill, rev/min 2 tan 𝛼 𝛼 = 590
f - feed rate, mm/rev
𝐷
𝛱𝐷2 C=
Material removal rate - 3.3286
𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑓𝑁 𝑚𝑚3/𝑚𝑖𝑛
4
Q. D = 40 mm (drill diameter), l = 50 mm (depth of hole), V = 65 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev (feed rate)
T ? and MRR? For mild steel component.
Reaming

• Reaming – is an operation of
removing the small amount of
material from the surface of an
existing hole.
• Purpose – is to provide the smooth
surface and to bring the more exact
size of an existing hole.
• Multi-tooth cutter → has many
flutes, which may be straight or in a
helix are used.
• Provided rotary and linear
movement.
• The reamers are termed as left hand or right hand,
depending upon the direction in which they are moved,
looking from the shank to the cutting portion.
Left -hand reamer - Suitable for machining of through holes.
• It pushes the chips out at the other side of the hole. This
reduces the chances of scarring the work-piece and reduces
the chance of damaging the reamer by previously cut chips.
Right hand reamers - is suitable for blind holes.
• A right-hand spiral reamer pulls the chips towards the
outside of the hole → prevent the chips from getting
packed into the bottom of the hole → reducing the chance
of damaging the reamer and the work-piece.
Boring : Operation of enlarging the existing hole.

Vertical boring machine

• Works on the same principle as a lathe
but has a vertical axis.
• this machine rotates the workpiece and
applies continuous, linear feed motion
to the tool.
• Linear feed motion can be either at
right angles to the axis of workpiece
rotation or parallel to it.
Horizontal boring machine
• Main spindle is orientated horizontally.
• workpiece remains stationary during machining, and all the generating motions are applied to the tool.
Machining time and MRR calculations for boring

𝐷o −𝐷f
• Depth of cut, 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚
2
𝐷f +𝐷𝑜
• Average diameter of workpiece, 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝐿+0
• Cutting Time, 𝑡𝐶 =
𝑓𝑁

𝜋𝐷02 −𝜋𝐷f2
• Metal Removal Rate, 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑓𝑁 = 𝜋𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑓𝑁
4

𝜋𝐷o 𝑁
• Cutting Speed, 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1000
Other hole-making operations
• Counter boring - Counter boring is the operation of
enlarging one end of an existing hole concentric with
the original hole with square bottom. It is done to
accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
• Spot facing – it is similar to the counter bore except
only small amount of material is removed around the
existing hole. It provides a smooth seat for a nut or
for the head of a cap screw.
• Counter sinking – is a process that creates a V-
shaped surface at the one end of the hole. It allows
the head of a countersunk-head screw to sit flush.
Q. D = 40 mm (drill diameter), l = 50 mm (depth of hole), V = 65 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev (feed rate)
T ? and MRR? For mild steel component.
Milling
Milling

• Milling – is the process of material

removal, to generate the more versatile
surfaces.
• Can produce regular and irregular
surfaces, making slots or ribs of various
sections, slitting and parting, helical
surfaces (drill flutes), contouring like
cam profiles, cut gears etc.
• Milling cutter (multipoint cutting tool),
workpiece.
• Rotational motion → Milling cutter,
Reciprocating motion → Workpiece.
Characteristics
• Milling is the cooler operation as compared to the turning operation → allows for larger
material removal rates.
• Interrupted cutting – In one rotation of the cutter, one cutting edge is removing the
material while other edges have time to get cool before removing the material.
• Large material removal – though the size of chips is small, material removed by
multiple cutting edges is large. Ex. – for a giving depth of cut, turning → multiple
passes, milling→ one pass.
Milling Methods
• Up milling or conventional milling
• Down milling or climb milling
Up Milling (conventional milling)
• Workpiece is fed against the rotating milling cutter.
• Chip thickness is minimum at the start of cut and
maximum at the end of cut.
• Cutting forces varies from zero to maximum per
tooth movement of the milling cutter.
• Cutting forces tend to lift the workpiece → require
stronger holding of job.
• Feed marks are present → poor surface finish is
obtained.
Down milling (climb milling)
• Workpiece is fed in the direction of rotating milling cutter.
• Cut starts with the full chip thickness and reduces to the
zero → eliminate feed marks → better surface finish.
• Lower power consumption, since there is no need to drive
the table against the cutter.
• Workpiece is forced against the table → Suitable to
machine the thin and hard-to-hold parts.
• Not suitable for machining castings or hot rolled steel,
since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.
Milling Machines
Knee and column type
Horizontal, Vertical, Universal
Production type
Simplex, Duplex, Triplex
Plano millers
Special type
Knee and column type
• Most flexible and commonly used, general purpose machine.

Principal machine parts –

• Base - is a foundation member for all the other parts. It carries
the column at its one end.
• Column – vertical supporting member which houses all the
driving mechanism for the spindle. The front vertical face is
provided with guideway for supporting the knee.
• Knee - is a horizontal member which houses the feed
mechanism of the table, and different controls to operate it. It
can also slide up and down on the vertical ways of the column
face.
• Saddle – mounted on the top of the knee and
provides guide-ways for the table to slide.
• Spindle - It is situated in the upper part of the
column and receives power from the motor and
transmit it to the arbor.
• Arbor - It is an extension of the machine spindle
on which milling cutters are securely mounted
and rotated.
Horizontal milling machine –
• Spindle orientation - horizontal direction.
• Milling cutter is mounted on the arbor which is
supported by the overarm.
• Worktable movement – along the X and Y and
Z axis.
• Example - Slab mill (heavy cutting of large
and flat surfaces), side and face cutters (cutting
edges on the periphery and sides of the teeth
suitable for cutting shoulders and slots),
slitting saws (for deep slots or parting off) etc.
• Suitable to cut the heavier and deeper slots.

Slab mills Side and face cutter Slitting saws

Vertical milling machine –
• Spindle is mounted in the vertical direction.
• Spindle head may be swiveled at an angle
allowing milling cutter to work on angular
surfaces.
• Spindle can be adjusted up and down relative to
the workpiece.
• Suitable for using the shank mounted milling
cutters such as end mills, T-slot cutter etc.
• More flexible and suitable for machining complex
cavities such as die cavities.
Universal milling machine -
• Similar to the horizontal milling machine.
• Additionally, It has the table which can
be swiveled in horizontal plane about 45°
either to left or right.
• Suitable for cutting the spur, helical,
worm gears and cam profiles.
Bed - Type milling machine
• Large, heavy and rigid machines, designed for
increased material removal rates.
• Conventional machines are subjected to
chattering for increased depth of cut.
• Table is directly mounted on the fixed bed and
subjected to the longitudinal motion.
• Cutter can move vertically on the column and
spindle may be adjusted horizontally to provide
cross adjustments.
• Simplex - with single spindle.
• Duplex – double spindles.
• Triplex – three spindles.
Planer type milling machine
• Heavy duty large machines, similar to planing
machine where the single point tools are
replaced by one or a number of milling heads.
• Similar to the bed type milling machines, it
allows wider range of milling actions.
• Generally used for machining a number of
longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously.
Special milling machine
• Designed for individual milling operations.
• used for only one job.
• Completely made automatic for mass production
of single part.
• CNC milling machines – cutter path is
controlled by numerical data.
• Suited to profile, pocket, surface contouring.
 Machine Tools
Manufacturing Processes II (MCL231)

Kusum Meena
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Email- Kusum@iitd.ac.in
Milling
Milling cutter nomenclature
• Body - The part of the cutter to which the teeth are
formed or attached at its periphery.
• Cutting Edge - Edge formed by the face and the
circular land.
• Face - The surface adjacent to the cutting edge on
which the chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
• Gash - Gash or flute is the chip space between the
back of one tooth and the face of the next tooth.
• Fillet - The curved surface which joins the face of
one tooth to the back of the tooth immediately ahead.
• Land - The part of the back of the tooth which is
adjacent to cutting edge. it never touches the w/pc
surface.
• Lip Angle - Included angle between the land and the
face of tooth is called lip angle.
• Primary Clearance - It is the angle of the land surface
of each tooth and a tangent to the periphery at the
cutting edge. It is necessary to prevent the back of the
tooth from rubbing against the work. For most of the
cutters the clearance of 5º is provided.
• Secondary Clearance (Relief) Angle - generally
ground at back of the land to keep the width of the land
within the proper limits. because after several
sharpening of the cutter, the width of the land increases
to a point where it begins to interfere with the work.
• Rake Angle - The angle between face of the
cutter and a radial line passing through the tooth
of cutting edge. It facilitates removal of chips.
The radial rake angle usually ranges from 10º to
20º.
• Larger angles are adopted for milling soft
materials and smaller angles for harder material.
Carbide tipped cutters are provided with a
negative rake angle which varies from 10º to 15º.
• Helix Angle - The angle between the tangent to
helical cutting edge and the axis of cylindrical
cutter (or line parallel to axis) is called helix
angle. Standard helical cutters have a helix angle
of 20º to 30º
Milling Cutters
Classifications of milling cutters
Profile sharpened cutters – where the Form relieved cutters – where the job profile
geometry of the machined surfaces are not related becomes the replica of the tool form,
with the tool shape, • Form cutters
• Slab or plain milling cutter
• Gear (teeth) milling cutters
• Side milling cutters
• Spline shaft cutters
• Slotting cutter
• Tool form cutters
• Slitting or parting tools
• End milling cutters
• T-slot cutters

• Face milling cutters • Thread milling cutter

Profile sharpened cutters
Slab or plain milling cutter –
• Simplest form of the milling cutters.
• Milling cutter surface is parallel to
the machined surface and used for
generating the flat surfaces.
• Generally hollow and made of HSS
with 4-16 equally spaced straight or
helical cutting edges.
Plain or slab milling cutter
• Suitable to mount on the arbor of
horizontal spindle milling machine.
Face and side slot milling cutters –

• Arbor mounted disc type cutters.

• Cutting teeth are equally spaced on the periphery and
each tooth has a peripheral cutting edge and another
cutting edge on one face in case of single side cutter
and two on both the faces for double sided cutter.
• One sided cutters are used to produce one flat surface
or steps comprising two flat surfaces at right angle.
• Both sided cutters are used for making rectangular
Single and double side slot milling cutter
slots bounded by three flat surfaces.
• Slotting is also done by another similar cutter having
only one straight peripheral cutting on each tooth.
Slitting saw milling cutter –
• Arbor mounted cutter.
• It is similar to the saw blade in appearance as
well as in operation.
• Small thickness and usually suitable for
cutting off operation or for deep slots.
• It has only one straight peripheral cutting edge
on each tooth.
Slitting saw milling cutter
• Made from a single piece of HSS or its teeth
may be of carbide blades brazed on the
periphery.
End milling cutters or End mills
• Shank mounted cutters, suitable to be used in vertical
spindle milling machine.
• The end mill have cutting edge running through the length
of cutting portion as well as on the face radially up to a
certain length.
• Suitable to mill the slots, keyways and pockets where
other types of milling can not be used.
• Mostly made of HSS 4 to 12 straight or helical teeth on
the periphery and face diameter ranges from about 1 mm
to 40 mm.
End milling cutter operations
Face milling cutters
• Large in diameter (80 to 800 mm) and heavy.
• Suitable to machine only flat surfaces in different
orientations
• Can be mounted directly in the vertical and / or
horizontal spindles Face milling cutter
• Generally used for high production machining of
large jobs.
Special form cutters – form of the tool is exactly
replica of the job-profile to be made
• The teeth of the form milling cutter have a shape which
corresponds to the profile of the surface to be produced.
• Used for making irregular shapes and 2-D and 3-D
contour surfaces.
Form cutters milling operations
Angular milling cutter –
• Machining of a flat surface at an angle, other than a right
angle, to the axis of revolving cutter.
• Suitable for milling of angular cuts like V-notches and
grooves, serrations and angular surfaces.

Single and double angular milling

Gear teeth milling cutters –
• The form of these tools conform to the shape of
the gear tooth-gaps.
• Can be used for producing teeth of straight and
helical spur gears and worm wheels as well as
straight toothed bevel gears.

Spline shaft cutters-

• Designed to cut the slots of external spline Gear milling cutter Spline shaft cutter

shaft having 4 to 8 straight axial teeth.

Tool form cutter –
• Used widely to cut the slots or flutes of
different cross sections of cutting tools.
example – flutes of twist drill, reamers etc.

Thread milling cutter –

• Thread cutters made of HSS or carbide
Cutting of drill flutes by form cutter T – slot milling
have thread like annular grooves are
suitable for production of threads, bolts and
screws.
T-slot cutter – for milling of T-slots sections.
Woodruff key milling cutter – specially
made for milling the woodruff key seats.
Thread milling Woodruff key milling
Straddle milling –
• Is an operation for milling of two parallel
vertical surfaces at a definite distance.
• Two separate milling cutter are mounted on
the horizontal arbor the desired distance.
Straddle milling

Gang milling –
• Is an operation of milling the complex
contours of flat or curved surfaces.
• Desired combination of cutters are tightly
mounted on the horizontal arbor to produce
the desired surfaces.

Gang milling milling

Abrasive Machining
Grinding - is the process of removing fine material by using
a grinding wheel which is made up of abrasive grains (Al2O3,
SiC, CBN etc.).

Grinding Machines – based on the type of surface produced.

• Cylindrical grinding – for generating cylindrical surfaces.

• Surface grinding – for generating flat surfaces.
• Centerless grinding – for generating axis symmetric shapes.
Cylindrical Grinding -
• Suitable for generating the outer cylindrical surfaces.
• Similar to lathe machine, w/pc is held between the
centers and grinding wheel is mounted independently
like the tool post.
• Both grinding wheel and workpiece are provided rotary
motion.
• Traverse grinding - if the workpiece to be ground is
wider than the wheel → either w/pc or wheel is fed in
the traverse direction.
• Plunge grinding – if the part to be ground is equal to or
less than the width of the wheel.
Surface Grinding -
• Suitable for generating the flat surfaces.
• Machine are similar to the milling machine in construction as well as in motion.
• 4 types - Depending upon the spindle direction and table motion

Vertical spindle and rotating table –

• Suitable for machining of small workpieces in large quantities.
• Grinding wheel cuts on its face and covers the machining
surface completely.
• Both work and wheel rotate and feed into each other vertically
up and down.
Vertical spindle and reciprocating table –
• It is similar to face milling on vertical milling machine.
• The face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or segmented
wheel) is used on the flat surface.
• Wheel cuts on its face rather than on its periphery.
• The work is fed by reciprocating motion of the table.
• Generally, the wheel diameter is wider than the w/pc→
no traverse feed is required.
• Large production machine, can remove large amounts
of material in single pass.
Horizontal spindle and rotating table –
• Grinding wheel cuts on its periphery while spindle
traverse from the edge to the center of the table.
• Feed is provided by providing the vertical up motion
to the work mounted table.
• Due to circular motion of the worktable and the
wheel, finished surface depicts the pattern of
intersecting arcs.
• Suitable for machining of round flat parts.
• By swiveling the worktable, concave or convex or
tapered surface can be produced on individual part
Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table –
• Most common grinding machine found in tool rooms.
• The grinding wheel cuts on its peripheral surface.
• Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out in
this machine
• The wheel head is provided cross feed motion at the end of
each table motion.
• Grinding wheel traverse in straight pattern → superior
finish and high precision.
Centerless Grinding -
• The workpiece is not held between centers as is generally the
case for conventional.
• Two wheels contact the workpiece, while being supported by
a rest blade.
• Material is removed by the grinding wheel, which rotates at
similar speeds to conventional cylindrical grinding.
• The regulating wheel, which is usually rubber bonded, rotates
at slow speeds and causes the workpiece to rotate slowly so 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜋𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑟 sin 𝛼𝑖

that the whole of the outside cylindrical surface is machined. 𝑑𝑟 = diameter of regulating wheel

• The axis of the regulating wheel is inclined at a small angle, 𝑛𝑟 = rotational speed of regulating wheel

αi, to the axis of the grinding wheel. This induces an axial 𝛼𝑖 = 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

feed velocity, Vf .
• This is particularly useful for the continuous
machining of short cylindrical parts.
• Ex- machining of rollers for bearings and piston
pins are final ground in this way, with high
productivity.
• The time to machine each part is -

rollers for bearings

𝐿𝑤
𝑡𝑚 =
𝑣𝑓

piston pin
Internal centerless grinding –
• the workpiece is supported by two supporting rolls,
with the grinding wheel machining the inside
diameter and the regulating wheel contacting the
outside diameter of the part.
• Automatic through feed is not achievable with
internal centerless grinding because of the need to
support the workpiece.
• close concentricity achieved between the inner and
external surfaces. Ex. roller bearing races
Creep feed grinding –
• The entire depth of cut is completed in one pass only using
very small in-feed rates.
• It enables single pass grinding of a surface with a larger down
feed (1-30 mm) but slower table speed (1- 0.025 m/min).
• MRR’s are mostly in the same range as of conventional,
however, the idle time (stopping wheel/ table reversal) gets
reduced.
• Use of soft ad open wheel with continuously dressing to
accommodate the large volume of chips.
• Large mrr can be achieved by employing the diamond dresser
wheel.
Finishing Operations
Lapping–
• Final finishing operation, to achieve super-flat surfaces and tight tolerances.
• The two surfaces are rubbed together with a slurry of abrasive particles and
vehicle material between them.
• Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many
reach 0.08 to 0.1 mm in certain cases.
• Cast iron is the mostly used lap material. However, soft steel, copper, brass,
hardwood as well as hardened steel and glass are also used.
• Abrasives - Al2O3 and SiC grain size 5 ~100 μm, Cr2O3 grain size 1 ~ 2 μm,
Diamond grain size 0.5 ~ 5 μm.
• Vehicle material – machine oil, rapeseed oil, grease.
• Parameters – pressure, abrasive grain size, concentration of abrasives in the
vehicle, speed of lapping.
Honing–
• Finishing process, to improve the geometry of a part,
readjust the alignment of features such as holes or bores,
• The honing stones are built with an abrasive grain held
together with adhesive.
• The tool is subjected to a combined rotary and
reciprocating motion while the workpiece does not
perform any working motion.
• Combined rotary and reciprocating motion produces a
cross hatched lay pattern.
• Stroke length must cover the entire work length.
• Parameters – linear and rotational speed, length and
position of the stroke, honing pressure.
Super finishing–
• Final finishing operation, to refine the surface
finish with exceptionally low roughness average.
• The abrasive stone is oscillated and rotated while
the workpiece is rotated in the opposite
direction, produces cross-hatching pattern.
• Increases the life of the part by decreasing wear
and tear. It can also be performed to achieve a
tighter tolerance and better sealing capabilities.