UNIT-4

Grinding and Grinding Machines

 Material Removal Processes
• A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is
removal of material from a starting workpart so the remaining
part has the desired geometry.

Machining – material Abrasive

removal by a sharp Material Removal processes –
cutting tool, e.g., material removal
turning, milling, by hard, abrasive
drilling. particles, e.g.,
grinding.

Nontraditional processes -
various energy forms other than
sharp cutting tool to remove
material, e.g. electrochemical
and thermal energy processes.
 Machining Processes
Traditional Chip Removal Nontraditional Machining

• Turning  Sawing  Ultrasonic

• Milling  Broaching
 Electrical Discharge

• Drilling  Planing
 Electro-arc

•
 Optical Lasers
Boring  Grinding

•
Electrochemical
Reaming  Honing  Chem-milling
• Shaping  Lapping  Abrasive Jet Cutting
 Electron Beam Machining
 Plasma Arc Machining
 Abrasive Machining
 Material removal by action of hard, abrasive particles
usually in the form of a bonded wheel
 Generally used as finishing operations after part geometry
has been established by conventional machining
 Grinding is most important abrasive process
 Other abrasive processes: honing, lapping, superfinishing,
polishing, and buffing
 Why Abrasive Processes are Important

 Can be used on all types of materials

 Some can produce extremely fine surface finishes, to
0.025 m (1 -in)
 Some can hold dimensions to extremely close
tolerances
 Grinding:
Grinding is a process of removing material by abrasive action of
a revolving wheel on the surface of a work-piece in order to
bring it to required shape and size
The wheel used for performing the grinding operation is known
as grinding wheel
It consists of sharp crystal called abrasive held together by a
binding material or bond
The wheel may be a single piece or solid type or may be
composed of several segments of abrasive blocks joined
together.
 GRINDING WHEEL

Bonding Grinding
Abrasives
materials wheels
 Abrasive Material Properties
 High hardness
 Wear resistance
 Toughness
 Friability - capacity to fracture when cutting edge dulls, so a new
sharp edge is exposed
Wheel Materials

1. Abrasive: it is that material of grinding wheel which does the

cutting action
(a) Natural Abrasive:
The common natural abrasives are sand stone, emery (50-
60%crystalline Al2O3+iron oxide) corundum (75-90%
crystalline aluminium oxide + iron oxide), and diamond
The sand stone is used only for sharpening some wood-working
tool
Diamond is used for dressing the grinding wheel and acts as an
abrasive material for hard material
Artificial abrasive:
These are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed
electric furnaces in order to avoid the introduction of
impurities and to achieve the necessary temperature for
chemical reactions to take place
Example: Silicon carbide(Sic), Aluminum oxide(Al 2O3)

Artificial diamond:
The diamond produced through artificial means are quite
comparable to the natural diamond in their grinding
characteristics and give better result than the latter.
Advantages and use of artificial Abrasive

The artificial abrasives have lately superseded the natural

abrasive for following reason
1. The controlled conditions in the electric furnace enable
uniformly in the product
2. The quality of production and supply can easily be varied
according to the demands
3. They have largely abolished the dependence on natural means
to meet the growing demand of more abrasive material in the
modern manufacturing process

Bond is the substance that acts as a binder to hold the

abrasive grains together
Material to be ground Recommended abrasive
Cast Iron Silicon carbide
Soft brass and bronze
Glass and stone
Aluminium
Copper
Rubber
Leather
Plastics
Heat treated carbon and alloy Aluminium Oxide
steel
Malleable Iron
Hard brass and bronze
Mild steel and Wrought Iron
A bond is a substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains
together in the form of sharpening stones or grinding wheels.

Several types of bonding materials used for making grinding

wheels,
1-Vitrified bond
2-Silicate bond
3-Shellac bond
4-Resinoid bond
5-Rubber bond
6-Oxychloride bond

These bonds may be used with either silicon carbide or aluminum

oxide.
1-Vitrified bonding process: vitrified wheels are made by
bonding clay melted to a glass like consistency with
abrasive grains.
• The clay and abrasive grains are thoroughly mixed with sufficient
water to make uniform mixture.
• The fluid mixture is then poured in to the mould and allowed to
dry.
• After cooling , the material trimmed to more perfect size and
shape.
• It is then heated in a furnace to a temperature 1260 deg C.
• When the burning proceed, the clay vitrifies --that is
it fumes and forms a porcelain or glass like substance that surrounds
and connects the abrasive grains.
• It gives good strength and porosity to allow high stock removal
• It is affected by heat, cool water or acids.
• Denoted by “V”
• 2-Silicate bonding process:
• Silicate bonding wheels are made by mixing
abrasive grains with silica of soda or water
glass.
• The mixture is packed in to moulds and allowed
to dry.
• The mould shapes are baked in a furnace at a
temp of 260 deg for several days.
• The silicate bonded wheels are water proof.
• Denoted by “S”
3-Shellac bonding process: shellac bond wheels are
also known as elastic bonded wheels.
• In this process, the abrasive and shellac are mixed
in heated containers and then rolled or pressed in
heated moulds.
• Later the shapes are baked at a temp 150 deg.
• The elasticity in this is greater than in other two
types and it has considerable strength
• It is not for heavy duty.
• Used for finishing chilled iron, cast iron and steel
rolls
• Denoted by “E”
4-Resinoid bonding process: resinoid wheels are
produced by mixing abrasive grains with
synthetic resins and other compounds.
• The mixture placed in moulds and heated at
about 200 deg.
• At this temp the resin sets to hold the abrasive
grains in wheel form.
• These wheels are used for purposes which
require a strong, high speed wheel.
• Denoted by “B”
5-Rubber bonding process: rubber wheels are
produced by mixing abrasive grains with pure
rubber and Sulphur.
• The mixture rolled in to sheets and wheels are
punched out of these sheets on a punch press.
• These are less heat resistant and more dense then
the resinoid wheels
• Denoted by “R”
6-Oxychloride bonding process: this process
consists of mixing abrasive grains with oxide and
chloride of magnesium.

• The mixing of bond and abrasive is performed

in the same way as for vitrified bond wheel.
• These wheels are used in making wheels and
wheel segments for disc grinding operation.
• Denoted by “O”
GRIT SIZE
Small grit sizes produce better finishes
Larger grit sizes permit larger material removal rates
Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to
cut effectively
Softer materials require larger grit sizes

Grit size is measured using a screen mesh procedure

Smaller grit sizes indicated by larger numbers in the
screen mesh procedure and vice versa Grain sizes in
grinding wheels typically range between 10 (very
coarse) and 250 (very fine)
• Size of grain grit is determined by sorting or grading the
material by passing through screens with the no. of
meshes per linear inch.
• The grain size influences stock removal rate and the
generated surface finish.
• The selection of grain size is determined by-
i. Nature of grinding operation
ii. Material to be grinded
iii. Material removal rate
iv. Surface finish required
SR. NO. SIZE TYPE APPLICATIONS

1. 10,12,14,16,20,24 Coarse Rapid material removal

2. 30,36,46,54,60 Medium Stock removal and finish

both

3. 80,100,120,150,180 Fine Less stock removal, high

surface finish

4. 220,240,280,320,400,500,600 Very fine Very high surface finish,

grinding hard materials
GRADE
The grade of a bonded abrasive is a measure
of its bond strength
The grade is also referred to as the hardness
of a bonded abrasive
A hard wheel has a stronger bond and/or a
larger amount of bonding material between
the grains than a soft wheel
Grade: The term "grade" as applied to a grinding wheel refers to the tenacity or hardness with
which the bond holds the cutting points or abrasive grains in place. It does not refer to the
hardness of the abrasive grain.
The grade shall be indicated in all bonds and processes by a letter of the English alphabet.
A denoting the softest and the letter Z denoting the hardest grade. The term "soft" or "hard" refer
to the resistance a bond offers to disruption of the abrasives. A wheel from which the abrasive
grains can easily be dislodged is called soft whereas the one which holds the grains more securely
is called hard.
The grades are denoted below.
Structure: Abrasive grains are not packed tightly in the wheel but are disturbed
Through the bond.
The relative spacing is referred to as the structure and denoted by the number of cutting edges per
unit area of wheel face as well as by number and size of void spaces between grains.

The primary purpose of structure is to provide clearance of chip and it may be open or dense.

The structure commonly used is denoted by numbers as follows.

Structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of its porosity
Specifying of grinding wheel

To maintain uniformity throughout the country in the system of

making grinding wheel, the Bureau of Indian Standard has
devised a standard system to be followed by all manufacturers
According to the system, the various elements and characteristics
of grinding wheels are represented on all the wheels in a
definite sequence as follows:

1. Abrasive 2. Grain size 3. Grade 4. Structure 5. Bond

Example:
A grinding wheel carrying the marking
125 x 25 x32 W A 46 L 4 V 17
125(mm)---wheel diameter
25(mm)--- Thickness of wheel
32 (mm)---Bore diameter
W---Manufacturer’s prefix to abrasive. It is optional.
A--- Abrasive(Al2O3)
46 ----Grain size(medium)
L ---grade (medium)
4 --- Dense structure
V --- Vitrified bond
17----it is the suffix denoting the bond type of the manufacturer
GLAZING AND LOADING,
THEIR EFFECTS, CAUSES &
REMEDIES
• Major and inevitable defects in
grinding are glazing of grinding
wheels.
• After the continuous use grinding
wheel becomes dull or glazed.
• Glazing of the wheel is a condition in
which the face or cutting edge
acquires a glass like appearance. That
is, the cutting points of the abrasives
have become dull and worn down to
bond. Glazing makes the grinding
face of the wheel smoother and that
stops the process of grinding.
Sometimes grinding wheel is
left ‘loaded’.
In this situation its cutting
face is found being adhering
with chips of metal.
The openings and pores of the
wheel face are found filled
with workpiece material
particles, preventing the
grinding action.
Loading takes place while
grinding workpiece of softer
material.
Dressing
The remedies of glazing and loading is dressing of grinding
wheels.
Dressing removes the loading and breaks away the glazed
surface so that sharp abrasive particles can be formed again
ready for grinding.
Different type of dressing operations are done on a
grinding wheel.
One of them is the dressing with the help of star dresser.
It consists of a number of hardened steel wheels with sharp
points on their periphery. The total is held against the face
of revolving wheel and moved across the face to dress the
whole surface.
Another type of wheel dresser consists of a steel tube filled
with a bonded abrasive. The end of the tube is held against
the wheel and moved across the face.
For precision and high finish grinding, small industrial
diamonds, known in the trade as bors, are used. The
diamond or group of diamonds is mounted in a holder.

The diamond should be kept pointed, since only the point

can be used for cutting.

This is done by the holder down at a 15° angle and using a

new surface each time the wheel is dressed.

A good supply of coolant should be used when dressing

with a diamond, as overheating can cause the diamond to
fracture or drop out of its setting. Very light cuts only may
be taken with diamond tools.
Truing
• Truing is the process of restoring the shape of
grinding wheel when it becomes worn and break
away at different points. Truing makes the wheel
true and concentric with the bore.
• Truing :
Truing is the process of changing the shape of the
grinding wheel as it becomes worn from an
original shape, owing to the breaking away of
the abrasive and bond. This is done to make
the wheel true and concentric with the bore, or
to change the face contour for form grinding.
Truing and dressing are done with the same tools,
but not for the same purpose
The only satisfactory method of truing a wheel
is by the use of a diamond tool in a similar
manner as explained before. In turning a
wheel with a diamond, the feed rate must not
exceed 0.02 mm, otherwise grooves may be
cut into the wheel
Selection of Grinding Wheel
1.Properties of the material to be machined i.e hardness,
toughness, strength
2. Quality of surface finish required
3. Grinding allowance provided on the work-piece i.e the amount
of stock to be removed
4. Dimensional accuracy
5. Method of grinding i.e wet or dry
6. Rigidity, size and type of machine
7. Relative sizes of wheel and job
8. Type of grinding to be done
9. Speed and feed of wheel
 Selection of Grinding Wheel
1.Type of metal on which grinding is required

Abrsasive

Metal of low tensile strength – Silicone carbide

Metal of high tensile strength- Aluminium oxide
Grain Size

Low cut /Better surface finish – fine grain

Rough cut/ deep cut- Coarse / Medium grain
• Grade
Soft metals- High grade
Hard metals – Low grade
• Structure
Soft metals- open structure
Hard metals – Dense structure
• Bond
high cut – vitrified bond
High finish – shellac bond
parting – resinoid / Rubber
2.Amount of metal to be removed
High cut – Rough / coarse – medium Grain
Low cut – Fine grain/ Dense structure

3. Accuracy of size & finish

- On grain size/bond
- Rough cut / low finish – coarse grain/ vitrified
bond
- High finish – Resonoid / shellac / Rubber bond
4.Area of contact
Greater area – Soft Grade
Smaller area – High grade / Soft grade

5. Types of machine
Heavy Machine – Low vibration – Soft wheel
Small machine – hard wheel
6. Speed of wheel
200m/s or lesser – vitrified bond
Higher speed – resinoid bond
 BALANCING GRINDING WHEELS
If wheels become out of balance through wear
and cannot be balanced by truing or dressing,
they should be removed from the machine
and discarded. Wheels should be tested for
balance occasionally and rebalanced if
necessary-Wheels that are out of balance not
only produce poor work but may put undue
strains on the machine. Small wheels may be
balanced by milling a short recess on the
inside of the flanges and filling with lead.
Large wheels should be placed on
a balancing stand and balanced by
moving weights around a recessed
flange.

Now-a-days, grinding wheel

mounts are provided with devices
to enable balancing to be done
whilst the wheel is running and
between grinding operations
 COMMON DEFECTS (FAULTS) IN GRINDING AND THEIR REMEDIES

Fault Symptom Caused by Remedies

Chatter marks Intermittent Wheel out of balance Re-balance the
sparking Uneven wheel
sound.
Glazing of wheel Incorrect grade of Change the wheel
wheel
Work piece (or) work Secure both properly.
holding device loose.
Wheel in correctly Re-dress the wheel
dressed.
Loose pulley on Tighten the pulley.
spindle.
Uneven cutting Feed too coarse. Decrease the feed
and irregular rate.
sparking.
Machine vibration. Improper bedding Report to your
down. supervisor.
Fault Symptom Caused by Remedies

Scratched Incorrect grain size of Change to correct

surface. wheel. grain size

Dirty coolant. Clean the tank and

replace.

Poor Surface finish. Surface Incorrect wheel grade Fit a correct wheel
burnished.
Feed too coarse. Reduce the feed.

Cut too deep. Decrease the depth

of cut.

Insufficient coolant. Increase the supply

of the coolant.
Fault Symptom Caused by Remedies
Ridges Wheel damaged/not Change the wheel if
properly dressed. necessary or dress
the wheel

Wheel wearing Wheel size reduced Wheel is too soft Use harder wheel.
out
Grinding wheel speed Increase the wheel
lower than that speed to the
recommended. recommended
speed

Wrong rate of traverse Reduce the rate of

or work speed. traverse and work
speed and.
decrease slightly the
depth of cut
CUTTING FLUIDS

Recommended cutting fluids

Soluble mineral oil and pure water are mixed in the ratio of 1:40 or
50 (depending upon the grinding wheel) and is used for grinding
the following materials.
oCast iron or hardened steel
oSoft steel
oConnected carbide tools (using silicon wheel)
In India we use IOC Servocut oils as cutting fluid.
There is a special grade oil manufactured by IOC for grinding
alone. It is called Servocut - clear.
Important points to be noted while using
cutting fluids
•Always add pure water to soluble oils
•Always the coolant should be kept clean
Periodically clean the coolant tank.
•Do not allow soluble oil to mix with other oils.
•Always mix water to the oil in correct proportion
and not oil to the water.
•It should be kept cool under normal temperature.
Use suitable splash guard so that the operator is
protected from the splash of the fluid.
 Grinding allowance

Machine parts are processed in different machines such as

lathes,
shaping machines, milling machines, etc.
in such a way that their final dimensions have some stock left,
which is finished during the grinding operation.
The amount of this stock left is called the 'grinding' allowance.
No definite value of the grinding allowance can be given as
a general rule because this depends upon too many variable
factors.
In general it varies from 0.2 mm to 0.50 mm.
Types of grinding Machine

Grinding machines according to quality of surface finish, may be

classified as
1. Rough /Non-precision grinding
2. Precision grinding
Rough/Non-precision grinding
To remove more stock than other grinding

a)Floor stand and bench grinders

(b)Portable and flexible shaft grinders
(c)Swing frame grinders
(d)Abrasive belt grinders
Floor stand and bench grinders

Used for snagging and off-hand grinding of various materials and

cutting tools in tool rooms, foundries and general repair shops
It carries a horizontal spindle having grinding wheels mounted on
both ends
It can be suitably bolted on a bench at convenient height
The floor or pedestal grinder is nothing but a bench grinder of the
above type mounted on a steel stand or pedestal of suitable
height
The horizontal spindle carrying the grinding wheel is normally an
extension on both side of the armature shaft of the motor
These grinders are also be used for polishing by replacing the
grinding wheel by polishing wheel
Precision grinders: according to the type surface
generated or work done they may be classified as:
• (a)cylindrical grinding machine
• (b) surface grinding machine
• (c) Internal grinding machine
• (d) Tool and cutter grinding machine
 Surface grinding machine
Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table

Vertical spindle and reciprocating table

Horizontal spindle and rotary table

Vertical spindle and rotary table

Four Types of Surface Grinding

•Figure (a) Horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b)

horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable, (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
Surface Grinder

Figure 25.8 Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and

reciprocating worktable (most common grinder type).
Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder
Cylindrical Grinders

The workpiece is hold on centre by a chuck or in a suitable

holding fixture, rotating it about its axis and feeding a fast
revolving grinding wheel
If the work surface to be ground is longer than the face width of
the grinding wheel, the work is traversed past the wheel or the
wheel past the work.
Traversing of wheel or work is done either by hydraulic or
mechanical power or by hand
Feed is given to the work or the wheel at the end of each
traversing movement
 Cylindrical Grinding

•Figure 25.9 Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external,

and (b) internal.
In case of width of wheel face is more or equal to the length of
work surface to be ground, the wheel may be fed in with no
traversing movement of it or that of work.
This is known as Plunge Grinding
The simplest and quite commonly used type of cylindrical grinder
is tool post grinder used on lathe
When wheels of large diameters are used, they can be mounted
directly on the motor shaft
For mounting small wheels, an auxiliary shaft is provided, which
runs at a relatively much higher speed than the motor
Both external and internal cylindrical grinding can be done on
lathe by this equipment
Types of cylindrical grinding:
1. Plain cylindrical grinding
2. Universal cylindrical grinding
3. Centerless grinders
Centerless Grinders

Here the work is supported by a combination of grinding wheel,

regulating wheel and a work rest blade
The relative movement of work-piece and two wheels shown in
figure
It is used for both external as well as internal grinding

Many hollow cylindrical and tapered workpiece, like bushes,

pistons, valves tube and balls etc either do not or cannot have
centre are best ground on centerless grinder
It carries a heavy base and two wheel heads, one carrying the
grinding wheel(large one) and the other regulating
wheel(smaller)
The workpiece rests on the blade of the work rest between these
two wheel
Each head carries a separate wheel trueing mechanism for the
wheel it carries
A housing is provided on one side of the machine body to house
the main driving motor
There are two control panels on the front
The left hand panel carries controls for speed adjustments of two
trueing mechanism and the infeed grinding mechanism
The right hand panel carries control for hydraulic mechanism,
speed adjustment of regulating wheel, automatic working
cycle switch, start and stop switch etc
In operation, grinding operation is performed by grinding wheel
only while the function of regulating wheel is to provide the
required support to the work piece while it is pushed by
cutting pressure of grinding wheel
It helps the work-piece to remain contact with the grinding wheel
At the same time, required support from bottom is provided by
work-rest as the work-piece while rotating rests on the blade of
worksheet
The regulating the wheel essentially carries rubber bond and
helps in the rotation of work-piece due to friction
The methods used for feeding the work are:
I. Through feed
II. Infeed
III. End feed
Through feed
The work-piece is supported and revolved as described above but
simultaneously given an axial movement also regulating wheel
and guides so as to pass between wheels
The axis of the regulating the wheel is inclined at 2 to 10 degree
with vertical
The amount of stock to be removed determines as to how many
times a workpiece has to pass between the wheels
The actual feed(S) can be calculated by the formula
S=πdn. sinα
S=feed in mm per minute.
n=revolutions per minute.
d=diameter of the regulating wheel in mm.
α=angle of inclination of wheel.
 Infeed
• This method of grinding is used when the workpiece
is of headed, stepped or taper form. In this case
there is no axial movement of the workpiece as the
length of grinding has to be controlled.

• The only movement occurring during the process is

the rotating movement. During the process the
workpiece is placed on the work-rest against an end
stop and then the control wheel is advanced
towards grinding wheel by some lever arrangement,
and grinding continued till the workpiece is reduced
to the required diameter.
• The regulating wheel is given a slight inclination of the
order of 1/2° in order that the workpiece may remain tight
against the end stop. If this inclination is not given to the
controlling wheel, then there are chances that workpiece
may fall down during the process. The length of the
workpiece that can be ground is limited to 30 cm. By this
process form grinding can also be done.
 End-Feed
• This process of centerless grinding is used for headed
components which are too long to be ground by the infeed
method, i.e. when the length of workpiece is greater than
the width of the grinding wheel.
• The work is fed as in case of in-feed method and after a
certain portion of length of workpiece has been ground, the
axial movement takes place until the whole of length has
been ground.

• It is also used for tapered work. Usually both grinding

wheel and regulating wheel are trued to obtain the required
taper.
Internal grinders

Used for grinding internal surface of different holes, cylindrical,

tapered etc
Types:
1. Plain internal grinders
2. Universal internal grinders
3. Chucking internal grinders
4. Planetary internal grinders
5. Centerless internal grinders
Plain internal grinders

It carries an individual driven wheel-head mounted on a cross-

slide
The workhead either carries a chuck or face-plate to hold the
work or latter can be mounted on a fixture attached to the
workhead spindle
The work can be swiveled to the grind tapered holes
Universal internal grinders

Here the work head is mounted on a cross-slide which enables a

cross feed to the workhead
The work head can be swiveled though 90 degree
It is used to grind cylindrical and tapered holes, flat surfaces,
outside the cylindrical surfaces, convex and concave
surface
Centreless internal grinders
The work-piece is supported between three rolls known as
pressure roll, supporting roll and a regulating roll
These rolls while supporting the work-piece also rotate the same
All rolls rotate in same direction while the work-piece and
grinding rotate in opposite direction
The grinding wheel remains contact with the internal surface of
the work-piece at the horizontal centerline of regulating wheel
It ensures that a uniform wall of thickness of the work-piece and
therefore concentricity of the ground internal hole with the
external surface
The pressure roll is so mounted that it can be swung to a slide to
allow loading and unloading of the work-piece
The wheel head is mounted on a slide and can be given a
reciprocating motion by hand to feed the grinding wheel in
and draw it out of the operation
Planetary internal grinders

To grind holes in large, irregular shaped and heavy work-piece

The work-piece remains stationary, which is mounted on a
slide
The wheel head carries a mechanism due to which the axis of
rotating grinding wheel travels along a circular path
around the axis of hole in the work piece
The longitudinal traverse obtained by
1) By reciprocating movement of the grinding wheel spindle
2) By moving the slide forward and backward on which work-
piece is mounted
The spindle of the grinding wheel is given a radial infeed after
completion of each planetary circle to increase the depth of cut
 Other Abrasive Processes
 Honing
 Lapping
 Superfinishing
Honing: it is an abrading process mostly used for polishing bored
and reamed holes and also cylindrical surfaces using bonded
stones(called hones)
Lapping: It is finishing process and is done after grinding
Super-finishing: it is mostly done for obtaining high quality
surface finish along with an almost complete absence of
defects layers.
 Honing
• Abrasive process
performed by a set of
bonded abrasive sticks
using a combination of
rotational and
oscillatory motions.
• Creates a characteristic cross-hatched
surface that retains lubrication.

• Grit sizes range between 30 and 600.

Figure 25.16 The honing • Surface finishes of 0.12 m (5 -in) or
process: (a) the honing tool better.
used for internal bore surface.
 Honing
• Common application is to finish the
bores of internal combustion engines.
 Lapping
• Uses fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles
between workpiece and lap (tool).
• Lapping compound - fluid with abrasives, general
appearance of a chalky paste.
• Applications: optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces,
gages.

Figure 25.17 The lapping process in lens-making.

 Superfinishing
• Similar to honing - uses bonded abrasive stick
pressed against surface and reciprocating motion

Differences with
honing:

* Shorter strokes
* Higher frequencies
* Lower pressures
between tool and
surface
* Smaller grit sizes
Figure Superfinishing on an
external cylindrical surface.
 Broaching
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed
tool, called a broach ,to remove material.

A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting

tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other; its
cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper.
 Basic Difference between Shaping and Broaching

• In shaping, attaining full depth requires a

number of strokes to remove the material in thin
layers step – by – step by gradually in feeding the
single point tool.
• Broaching enables to remove the whole material
in one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of
the cutter called broach. The amount of tooth
rise between the successive teeth of the broach
is equivalent to the in feed given in shaping.
 Broaching machines are generally
specified by

• Type; horizontal, vertical etc.

• Maximum stroke length
• Maximum working force (pull or push)
• Maximum cutting velocity possible
• Power
MATERIAL OF BROACH
Based on cutting tool material properties.

Mostly made up of HSS. Ceramic are not used as

low speed.

Cemented carbide segments or replaceable

inserts are also used specially for CI and steels.
TiN coating provide high life.
PRODUCTS OF BROACHING
 USES of Broaching

• Very high production rate (much higher than

milling, planing, boring etc.)
• High dimensional and form accuracy and
surface finish of the product .
• Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the
same cutter .
 Disadvantages

Design, manufacture and restoration of the broaches are

difficult and expensive.

• Defects or damages in the broach (cutting edges)

severely affect product quality.

• Only through holes and surfaces can be machined.

• Economic only when the production volume is large.