CHAPTER:1

INTRODUCTION

Ghiyas-ud din Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Tughlaq dynasty. It is stated by some writers
that the Tughlaqs belonged to the race of Qarauna Turks and were a people of mixed breed.

The Sultanate at this time was suffering from unsettled political conditions and demanded
attention of the new ruler.

The administrative setup established by Alauddin was destroyed by his successors and Ghiyas-
ud-din had to address these problems urgently.

He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely
restricted under Alauddin. He succeeded in getting the support of the Turkish nobles on the basis
of his race. He resumed the grants that were revoked and allowed them to enjoy their privileges.
Ghiyas-ud-din succeeded in getting the support of the nobles and the people through these
measures.

Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage
agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic
condition of the cultivators. The state demand of revenue was fixed between one-fifth and one-
third of the produce.

He ordered the revenue to be increased only gradually and in no case could increase beyond one-
eleventh to one-tenth. The privileges of the previous Hindu rulers were restored. The practice of
measurement and survey of land was abandoned. The measures of Ghiyas-ud-din succeeded and
the area under cultivation increased and the condition of the farmers improved.

Ghiyas-ud-din continued the system of dagh and chehra instituted by Alauddin. However the
market regulations were also abandoned under him He insisted on paying the army better to
increase its efficiency. He was successful in increasing the strength of the army.

1
 CHAPTER:2

HISTORY OF TUGLAQ DYNASTY

The Khalji dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate before 1320. Its last ruler, Khusro Khan, was
a Hindu who had converted to Islam and then served Delhi Sultanate as the general of its
army. Khusro Khan, along with Malik Kafur, had led numerous military campaigns on behalf
of Alauddin Khalji, to expand the Sultanate and plunder non-Muslim kingdoms in India.

After Alauddin Khalji's death from illness in 1316, a series of palace arrests and assassinations
followed, with Khusro Khan coming to power in June 1320 after killing licentious son of
Alauddin Khalji, Mubarak Khalji. However, he lacked the support of the nobels and aristocrats
of the Khalji dynasty in Delhi. Delhi's aristocracy invited Ghazi Malik, then the governor in
Punjab under the Khaljis, to lead a coup in Delhi and remove Khusro Khan. In 1320, Ghazi
Malik launched an attack and killed Khusro Khan to assume power.

The first ruler of Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq (1321-1325) aka Ghazi Malik.
He was succeeded by Mohammad Bin Tughlaq in 1325. He was a man of ideas and famous for
his foolish adventures. His expeditions to Khurasan and China failed and reduced him to penury.
To raise the revenues, he increased taxes in doab region which in turn reduced farmers to
beggars. His idea to shift capital to Daultabad to keep control over wealthy Deccan backfired.

When his wisdom strikes back, he abolished all the oppressive taxes and sets up a Department of
Agriculture (Diwan-i-Kohi) and established a Famine Code to relive victims of famine.

To improve monetary conditions, he took the idea of paper money issued in China and allowed
Copper and Brass coins at par with Silver Tanka. However, this experiment also backfired
because of great coin piracy by artisans. The result was the public become rich and government
became poor. Ultimately, he repealed the edict of these token coins and gave order to bring
copper coins to treasury and exchange them with silver / gold. Due to these experiments of
Sultan, the discontent grew among people and revolts started appearing in sultanate.

2
In 1351 Mohammad bin Tughlaq died and was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq,
who ruled as third Tughlaq Sultan from 1351 to 1388 AD. Firozshah Tughlaq was half Muslim
{his mother was a Hindu}. To prove himself equal to pure Muslims, he ruled strictly as per
Shariat. He abolished all taxes {such as Octroi} which were not as per Shariat; and imposed
Jaziya on Hindus. He pulled down the temples, burnt a Brahmin alive for resisting to embrace
Islam, and imposed water tax on agricultural land irrigated from state canals.

His reign is also known for plenty of public works. He established cities such as Firuzshah Kotla
(Delhi), Hisar, Jaunpur (West Bengal), Fatahabad, Firozabad etc.

He moved one of the Asokan pillars from its original place and erected it in Delhi.

To support Hissar, he constructed a Double System of Canals from Yamuna to

Sutlej (called rajwahas in the Indo-Persian historical texts). This canal was later repaired during
times of Akbar. Firuzshah did close to 845 public works during his regime.

Firuzshah was gentle towards peasantry. He had destroyed all records of farmer debts
ceremoniously to give clean chit to farmers. This was one of the major reasons that he saw no
major revolt in 32 years of reign.

Death of Firuzshah brought an end to Turkish Sultans of Delhi. His successors were killed one
by one and none could sustain the throne.

In 1398, Timur attacked India and returned with thousands of slaves and 90 elephants laden with
treasure. Delhi lost its ascendency and charm for many decades thereafter.

The main achievement of the Tughlaq's was the introduction of a monetary economy in the
provinces (sarkars) and districts (parganas)that had been established and founded; a network of
market centers through which the traditional village economies were both exploited and
stimulated and drawn into the wider culture. State revenues remained based on successful
agriculture, which induced Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-51) to have village wells dug,
offer seed to the peasants and to encourage cash crops like sugar cane (Braudel 1984, 96f, 512ff).
The second Tughlaq Sultan moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, which proved very
unpopular and was subsequently reversed. After the sack of Delhi in 1398 during Timur's
invasion of India, law and order broke down and the dynasty could not sustain its rule.

3
 CHAPTER:3

TUGLAQ DYNASTY
 GHIYASUD-DIN-TUGLAQ

Ghiyas- ud- din Tughlaq laid down the foundation of a new dynasty known as the Tughlaq
dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of Sultan Balban and by serving the Sultans of Delhi, he rose to
a higher position. He was appointed as the governor of Dipalpur by Ala- ud- din Khilji. Ghiyas-
ud- din revolted against Khusrav, killed him in the battle and became the Sultan in 1320A.D. 

Ghiyas-ud-din faced internal and external problems when he ascended the throne. The
administrative set-up established by Ala-ud-din was destroyed by his successors while no steps
were taken to establish a new one. The nobles and the courtiers had become negligent towards
their responsibilities and engaged themselves pleasures and entertainment. The Sultan had lost
his prestige both among the nobles and the subjects. Ghiyas-ud-din faced these hurdles with
courage and succeeded in solving them.

The first task of Ghiyas-ud-din was to strengthen his position on the throne and for that he tried
to conciliate the nobles and the people. He pursued a policy of conciliation mixed up with
sternness towards the nobles. Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and
for that purpose, pursued the policy of encouraging agriculture and protecting cultivators. His
twin objects were to increase the land under cultivation and improve the economic condition of
the farmers. The practice of measurement and survey of land which was adopted during the reign
of Ala-ud-din was abandoned. Instead, the old system of sharing of the produce was revived. He
improved means of irrigation and plant-many gardens.

Ghiyas-ud-din improved the means of communication. Roads were repaired and improved.
Bridges and canals were also constructed. He improved the postal system. The judicial system
was also improvised by Ghiyas-ud-din. The practice of rigorous punishment and that of torture
for extracting truth was generally prohibited. Ghiyas-ud-din was a capable military commander
and was affectionate towards his soldiers. He looked after their welfare and paid them well. But
he was a strict disciplinarian as well. Within two years after his accession, Ghiyas-ud-din

4
succeeded in enhancing the strength of his army. Ghiyas-ud-din proved himself more aggressive
imperialist than Ala-ud-din. He frankly pursued the policy of annexation. He annexes the
territories of all those rulers who were defeated by him. He captured Telingana, raided Jajnagar
and conquered Bengal. 

Ghiyas-ud-din followed the principles of Islam honestly and respected religious men and saints.
His policies towards the Hindus were not liberal yet it was not that of oppression. He was a
powerful commander and under his leadership, the army of Delhi Sultanate once more became
effectively powerful and helped in the extension of the empire. Ghiyas-ud-din conquered Bengal
and a large part of South India and thus became the master of a more extensive empire than that
of Ala-ud-din Khilji. Ghiyas-ud-din was successful as an administrator as well. He followed a
middle path in administration which combined firmness with fairness. He established peace and
order in the kingdom and thus saved it from the anarchy which prevailed after the death of Ala-
ud-din. He rooted out dishonesty from the administration, looked after the happiness of peasants,
increased the area under cultivation, improved means of communication, transport and postal
system, constructed bridges and canals, developed gardens, increased the wages of his civil
servants so that they might remain free from petty temptations, and restored the privileges and
perquisites of his revenue officers. 

Ghiyasud-din Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. From an ordinary person, he rose
to the position of provincial governor of Dinapur under Mubarak Khalji. He repelled the Mongol
invaders several times. He killed Khurso Khan, the usurper, and became the Sultan, He was a
wise and generous ruler. Khusrau Khan, the last king of the Khilji dynasty was killed by Ghazni
Malik, and Ghazni Malik ascended the throne assuming the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. He died
in an accident and his sone Jauna (Ulugh Khan) succeeded him under the title Mohammad-bin-
Tughlaq. In 1323, he defeated the ruler of Warrangal and annexed his territory. A war of
succession was going on in Bengal. Ghiyas-ud-din took an advantage of such a situtation and
invaded Bengal. He suppressed the rebels and in this way Bengal also became a part of his
empire. After assuming power, Ghazi Malik rechristened himself as Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq - thus
starting and naming the Tughlaq dynasty. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq is also referred in scholarly
works as Tughlak Shah. He was of Turko-Indian origins; his father was a Turkic slave and his
mother was a Hindu

5
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ordered the construction of Tughlakabad, a city near Delhi with fort to
protect Delhi Sultanate from Mongol attacks. Above is the Tughlaq fort, now in ruins.

 Early Career

Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq rose to the high position by dint of his personal merits. He led many
expeditions against the Mongols and gave them such heavy punishments that they dared not
attack India during the reign of his master (Ala-ud-Din Khilji).

At the head of a strong army and accompanied by his son Juna Khan he marched against Khusro
Khan and after defeating him near Delhi he got him beheaded. Then Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the
throne with the title of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq. But it was not an easy throne for him because
confusion was prevailing all around and the distant provinces were trying to declare their
independence. But Ghiyas-ud-Din raised equal to the occasion and because of his wisdom,
abilities and strength he succeeded in maintaining peace and order.

 Conquests of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq

Taking full advantage of the confusion that prevailed in India after the death of Ala-ud-Din
Khilji, the distant governors tried to assert their independence. Soon after his accession to the
throne, Ghiyas-ud-Din had to pay his attention to this side also.

After the death of Ala-ud-Din, the ruler of Warrangal, Pratap Rudra Deva II, asserted his
independence; so two expeditions in 1321 and 1323 were sent against him. He was defeated in a
battle and his empire was annexed to the Delhi Sultanate.

In Bengal, a civil war was going on between the two grandsons of Bughra Khan. Taking full
advantage of this rift, the Sultan invaded Bengal and brought a great portion of that state under
his control.

On his way back from the Bengal expedition to Sultan defeated the Raja of Tirhut and annexed
his dominions.

6
  Death of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq in 1325 A.D.

But Ghiyas-ud-Din was not destined to enjoy a long reign. When he returned to Delhi from the
Bengal expedition he was cordially received by his son Juna Khan in the new pavilion that was
specially constructed for this purpose in Afghanpura, near his new capital Tughlakabad. But the
pavilion fell down and the Sultan was killed under it in 1325 A. D. There is a good deal of
controversy on the question whether the Sultan’s death was the result of some conspiracy or it
occurred by accident.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq rewarded all those maliks, amirs and officials of Khalji dynasty who had
rendered him a service and helped him come to power. He punished those who had rendered
service to Khusro Khan, his predecessor. He lowered the tax rate on Muslims that was prevalent
during Khalji dynasty, but raised the taxes on Hindus, wrote his court historian Ziauddin Barani,
so that they might not be blinded by wealth or afford to become rebellious.

He built a city six kilometers east of Delhi, with a fort considered more defensible against the
Mongol attacks, and called it Tughlakabad.

In 1321, he sent his eldest son Ulugh Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir
to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of Telangana). His first attempt
was a failure. Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his
son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again. This time Ulugh Khan
succeeded. Arangal fell, was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and
captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to Delhi Sultanate.

The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup
and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over
1324–1325 AD, after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his
army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign. As he and his favorite son
Mahmud Khan were returning from Lakhnauti to Delhi, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq's eldest son Ulugh

7
Khan schemed with Muslim preacher Nizamuddin Auliya to kill him inside a wooden structure
(kushk) built without foundation and designed to collapse, making it appear as an accident.
Historic documents state that the Sufi preacher and Ulugh Khan had learnt through messengers
that Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq had resolved to remove them from Delhi upon his return. Ghiyasuddin
Tughlaq along with his favorite son Mahmud Khan died inside the collapsed kushk in 1325 AD,
while his eldest son watched. One official historian of Tughlaq court gives an alternate fleeting
account of his death, as caused by a lightning bolt strike on the kushk. Another official historian,
Al-Badāʾunī ʻAbd al-Kadir ibn Mulūk-Shāh, makes no mention of lightning bolt or weather, but
explains the cause of structural collapse to be the running of elephants; Al-Badaoni includes a
note of the rumor that the accident was pre-planned.

 Administration of Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq

Administration of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was a success. Though he faced many problems

initially but with his effective administrative measures he was successful in overcoming them.
Ghiyas-ud-din faced both internal and external problems. The administrative set-up established
by Ala-ud-din Khilji was destroyed by his successors while no steps were taken to establish new
one. The nobles and the courtiers had become negligible towards their responsibilities and
engaged themselves in fun and frolic. However, Ghiyas-ud-din faced difficulties and succeeded
in overcoming them. The first task of Ghiyas-ud-din was to strengthen his position on the throne
and for that he tried to conciliate the nobles and the people. He pursued a policy of conciliation
with sternness towards the nobles. Ghiyas-ud-din was successful in getting loyalty of his subjects
by the administrative measures.

Ghiyas -ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and for that purpose, pursued the
policy of encouraging agriculture and nig cultivators. His twin objects were to increase the land
cultivation and improve the economic condition of the farmers. State demand of revenue was
fixed in between one fifth to one third of the produce. The practice of measurement of land
which was adopted during the reign of Ala-ud-din was abandoned. Instead, the old system of
sharing of the produce was revived. The government officers were asked not to be cruel to the
peasants but to look after their welfare. He also improved means of irrigation and plant-gardens.

8
These measures of Ghiyas-ud-din succeeded. The area under cultivation increased and the
condition of the farmers improved.

Ghiyas-ud-din improved the means of communication. Roads were repaired and improved.
Bridges and canals were also constructed. He improved the postal system. Runners or horsemen
were placed at a distance of two-thirds of a mile. The judicial system was also developed by
Ghiyas-ud-din. Torture for extracting truth was prohibited. It continued only in cases of thieves
or those who embezzled money of the state. Ghiyas-ud-din was a capable military commander
and he loved his soldiers as a father loved his sons. He looked after their welfare and paid them
well. But he was a strict disciplinarian as well. He strictly enforced the practice of keeping of the
soldiers and that of branding of the horses. Two years after his accession, Ghiyas-ud-din
succeeded in increasing the strength of his army. 

Soon after his accession to the throne the Sultan paid his attention towards the administration: –

Very able and honest officers were recruited and various reforms were introduced in the judicial
and police departments.

The land revenue which had been raised to 1/2 of the total produce during Ala-ud-Din’s reign
was reduced to 1/10 and the revenue officers were warned against any harassment of the
peasants.

Ghiyas-ud-Din carried out many works of public utility, Canals were dug, gardens were planted
and forts were built to provide shelter to the people against the thieves and robbers reduced
various military reforms.

The system of branding the horses and writing the descriptive rolls of the soldiers was revived.

The Sultan also patronized art and learning. Amir Khusro continued to receive the Sultan’s
favour. Ghiyas-ud-Din also built a new city of Tughlakabad near Delhi which still excites our
curiosity for its massiveness and simplicity.

9
  TOMB OF GHIAS-UD- DIN TUGHLAQ, MONUMENT OF DELHI

Tomb of Ghias -ud -din Tughlaq is a family mausoleum which was made up of stone edifice
decorated with choice marbles. Located on the southern part of the Tughlaqabad Fort, this
structure monument stood at the centre of a large reservoir which used to be filled with water.
While the Sultan of Delhi, Ghias- ud- din Tughlaq decided to fortify every corner of his territory
in order to save it from external attacks, he included his fort as well. This monument which is
located across the Bardarpur border reflects one of simplest form of architecture which existed
during the period of Delhi Sultanate. Though the reservoir is no more filled with water and the
bridge between the tomb and the fort is broken for building highways, yet this monument is
regarded as one of the significant historical models of Delhi.

Tomb of Ghias -ud -din Tughlaq is a very simple structure which is mainly designed as a
warrior's tomb. The tomb is made up of sloping red sandstone which has arch shaped gateway
decorated with beautiful latticework with white marble. The tomb is mainly white in colour
decorated with some inscription from the Holy Quran including some panels which are
decorated as borders on the walls of the tomb. It contains some lattice screens and 'lotus-bud'
edge which decorates the monument. Towards the left of the entrance in the corridor there is a
tiny grave which is said to be Sultan' s favourite dog which is different from the usual
conventions of the Muslim tombs. 

Tomb of Ghias -ud -din Tughlaq unlike other tombs is a family tomb which includes the grave of
sultan's wife Makh Dumai Jaan and his second son Mahmud Khan who died withy him unde the
pavilion. Near the northern side of the tomb there is another tomb which is octagonal in shape
and carries an inscription which states that there lies the grave of Zafar Khan. However the
identity of Zafar Khan is not known but it holds a lot of significance as this was the first tomb
which was initially located in that area and gave Ghias- ud -din, the idea of constructing tombs in
this part of the fort.

10
Thus the tomb of Ghias-ud- din Tughlaq has been one of the significant monuments of Delhi
which describes not only the excellent architecture of Tughlaqabad but also Adilabad forts which
carry the origin of Delhi Sultanate.

 MUHAMMAD-BIN- TUGHLAQ (1325-1351) 

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq is an interesting figure of medieval Indian history. He ascended the
throne of Delhi three days after the death of his father in 1325 A.D. He was the most educated of
all Muslim rulers who ruled Delhi. The character and achievements of Muhammad Tughlaq have
evoked a large scale controversy among historians. His ambitious schemes, and their successes
and failures have been regarded creative and surprising. He inherited a vast empire from his
father and extended it further so much so that no other Sultan of Delhi ruled over such vast
territories as he did.1

Muhammad Tughlaq was an ambitious ruler and he had a fancy for new policies or innovations
both in foreign and domestic affairs. In Foreign affairs, he desired to conquer not only the entire
Indian but also outside its boundary. In domestic policy, he tried certain innovations in diverse
fields of administration which, though attempted with best intentions, affected unfavourably the
fortunes of the state and his subjects.

 Religious Policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq believed in the absolute power of the Sultan and did not allow anyone
to interfere in his administration. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq took his own decision regarding the
matters of religious policy. The Sultan did not even consent the Ulema class to get in the way of
his administration. During his reign the Ulema class enjoyed domination over administration of
justice. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq broke up that monopoly and appointed Qazis outside this class
of people. He used to modify the decisions of Qazis whenever he found them unfair and
discriminating. If a religious man was found accountable of dishonesty or revolt, he was
punished like any other common person. Thus nobody was above the laws of the land. 

1
http://www.indianetzone.com/4/muhammad_bin_tughluq.htm

11
  Revenue Reforms of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq carried out many measures for the improvement of the administration
of revenue. One of his measures was preparation of a register in which income and expenditure
of all the princes were recorded. All provincial governors were asked to submit the reports of
income and expenditure of their concerning provinces to the centre for this purpose. Nothing
advantageous came out of the scheme. 

 Taxation in Doab

Taxation in the Doab was increased during the initial years of the reign of the Sultan. The taxes
were increased at the time when there was a famine in the Doab owing to the failures of the rain.
The peasants instead of paying taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The
tax collectors continued to collect taxes by oppression which resulted in widespread revolts.
Thus this scheme of the Sultan failed severely. 

 Agricultural Policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq had set up a separate department of agriculture and appointed a
minister to look after it. The main object of the department was to increase the land under
cultivation. Though the government spent an exorbitant sum of money but this experiment failed
and the scheme was abandoned after three years. The corruption of the officer, inferior quality of
land chosen for farming and lack of interest of cultivators who were assigned land under
government administration were accountable for the failure of the scheme. 

 Transfer of the Capital by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

12
Muhammad Tughlaq attempted to transfer the capital from Delhi to Devagiri which was renamed
Daultabad. Several reasons have been citied for such a measure to be adopted, such as the desire
of safeguarding the capital from the Mongol invasions from the north-west, the necessity of
consolidating the empire in the south and the temptation to utilise the rich resources of the south
were primary considerations for the transfer of the capital. The entire population of Delhi was
ordered to leave and it was laid waste. Every thing was destroyed and the journey from Delhi to
Daultabad was an extremely tormenting experience for the people of Delhi. This scheme of the
Sultan failed massively.

 Introduction of Token Currency by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq introduced beautiful and various types of coins during his reign and
fixed up their relative values. . The remarkable feature of the coinage system was the
introduction of token currency and issue of copper and brass coins. The Sultan made these token
coins legal tenders and kept their value at par with gold and silver coins. He established mints in
the cities like Delhi, Lakhnauti, Salgaun, Darul-I-Islam, Sultanpur, Tughluqpur, Daulatabad, etc.
He launched the coins without taking any precaution against forgery. The market was flooded
with fake coins. In this situation Sultan withdraw all the copper coins, which caused a huge loss
to the royal treasury. This scheme of the Sultan also failed miserably. 

 Extension of Empire by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq like his father pursued the policy of annexation. Whatever territories he
conquered, he annexed them to the Delhi Sultanate and, thus extended its territories to the extent
which no other Sultan of Delhi had even attempted. The Sultan conquered Peshawar and Kalanor
after the return of the Mongols. The fort of Nagarkot was in Kangra district in Punjab. No
Muslim ruler had conquered it by then and it was in the hands of a Hindu king. Muhammad
Tughlaq conquered it though he restored it back to its ruler after his acceptance of suzerainty of
Delhi. His plan to conquer Khurasan and Iraq failed miserably. His greatest achievement was in

13
the south. He set out to end Hindu rule in south. He tried to enlist the service of 'Ulema', the
Muslim clerics. Muhammad Tughlaq captured Kondhana or Singharh from Nag Nayak. It was in
the vicinity of Devagiri. Therefore, its conquest was necessary for the Sultan. Muhammad
Tughlaq, thus, conquered greater part of south India and annexed it to the Delhi Sultanate.
Muhammad failed to get any success in Rajasthan. He largely succeeded in carrying out his
series of conquests. Of course, he failed at few places, yet his Empire was more extensive than
any other Sultan of Delhi. The authority of the Sultan was acknowledged all over India, save
Kashmir, Orissa, Rajasthan and a strip of Malabar Coast, and he established an effective system
of administration over this vast empire.

 Revolts and Downfall of Tughlaq Empire

Though Muhammad Tughlaq succeeded in extending his empire he failed to keep it intact for
long. A large part of it was lost by him during the later years of his reign. There were several
reasons which led to the downfall of the Tughlaq Empire. One of the major reasons is the
occurrence of quite a few revolts during the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. A few of them
were attempted by his ambitious nobles. But, most of them were either the outcome of his
tyrannical policy or because of his failure to keep state affairs under his power. A few of the
revolts succeeded and, thus, led to the disintegration of his empire. In 1327-28 A.D. Bahram
Aiba alias Kishlu Khan, governor Uch, Sindh and Multan, revolted against the Sultan. There was
a revolt in Bengal in 1327-1328 A.D. Revolts occurred in Sunam, Samana,
Kara, Bidar, Gulbarga and Multan as well. 

No ruler in medieval India has aroused so much controversy concerning his character and policy
as Muhammad Tughlaq. He was a well educated man and there was hardly any branch learning
in which he had not achieved excellence such as literature, history, philosophy, poetry, logic,
mathematics, medicine, astrology and calligraphy. He knew both Persian and Arabic languages,
and was interested in fine arts particularly music and patronised arts. Muhammad Tughlaq was
extremely generous and distributed rewards, gifts and presents with open heart to deserving
individuals. He was a capable commander and a daring soldier. He proved his military talents
when he fought against the Mongols. Even when he became the Sultan, he himself participated

14
in important battles of his reign and thus spent his life mostly in battle-fields. Muhammad
Tughlaq himself was primarily responsible for the conquest of the south. He faced many
rebellions at the time of his reign but wherever he went he largely succeeded in suppressing
them. 

As a ruler, Muhammad Tughlaq was devoted and extremely laborious. But, he proved a failure.
He gained no success in any field of administration during twenty-six years of his rule. All his
policies of internal reform failed and each of them taxed the resources of the empire, brought
misery to his subjects and ruined his reputation among them. The failure of the Sultan as an able
administrator is not only because of his own weaknesses but also because of certain
circumstances and non-cooperation of his subjects who were backward and prejudiced against
him. 

Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, ascended the throne on the death of his
father, Ghiyas-ud-din. The character and achievements of Muhammad Tughlaq has evoked a
large scale controversy in the medieval history of India. He tried to introduce many
administrative reforms. But most of these failed due to his impatience and lack of judgement.
One of his early measures was to improve the revenue depart ment (1326-1327). He ordered the
compilation of a register of revenue and expenditure of the provinces of his kingdom. His next
measure was to increase taxation in the Doab with a view to augment his resources.

This step was unpopular with the people and the famine which had occurred at that time added
fuel to the fire. The step had to be withdrawn in face of a revolt. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq had
advanced ideas about agricultural improvement and he approached it in a scientific way. He
created an agricultural department called diwan-i-kohi. Its main objective was to bring the
uncultivated land under cultivation by giving direct finan cial support from the state treasury. But
it failed on account of the Sultan’s faulty method of giving effect to it.

Another important political measure which he undertook was the transfer of the capital from
Delhi to Devagiri, which was renamed Daulatabad. This move caused a lot of human suffering.
The reasons for the transfer were: (i) to have a centrally located capital; (ii) it was not near the
north-west frontier which was constantly under Mongol attacks; (iii) to establish stability in the
Deccan which was a recent conquest; (iv) to cement his relations with the people of the South

15
which he found was a rich region. Ibn Batutah says that Muhamrnad-bin-Tughlaq was disgusted
with the popu lation of Delhi and thus wanted to punish them. But most of the historians do not
agree with Ibn Batutah.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq carried out several monetary experiments and has been called a ‘Prince
of Moneyers’. In 1329-30, he ordered vast quantities of copper coins to be made with the same
value as silver coins. The idea failed as he had done nothing to curb its private and unauthorised
issue and thus every house became a mint. He led expedi tions to conquer Khorasan and
Quarajal. But both of these proved a failure.

Muhamrnad-bin-Tughlaq was cruel but generous, reli gious but free from bigotry, proud but
merciful. For these reasons he is called a ‘Mixture of Opposites’.

A learned man, he knew both Arabic and Persian. He was at home with philosophy, astronomy,
logic and math ematics. He was also a good calligrapher. He built the fortress of Adilabad and
the city of Jahanpanah. He main tained good relations with foreigners, and received an envoy
from the Chinese ruler, Toghan TImur (1341), who carne to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist
temples in the Himalayan region which were destroyed during the Quarajal expedition. He, in
turn, sent Ibn Batutah to the Chinese emperor in 1347.

Ibn Batutah was a Moorish traveller. He carne to India in 1333 and was appointed chief qazi of
Delhi by Muhamrnad bin-Tughlaq. He has left an invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq’s reign. In his old age, Ibn Batutah recorded his adventures in a book called
Safarnamah. In 1334, Madurai and then Warangal broke free of the Sultanate. In 1336,
Vijayanagar and in 1347, the Bahmani kingdoms were founded.

 Conquests of Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Conquest of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was widespread. He extended his territories to the extent
which no other Sultan of Delhi had even attempted.  Conquest of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was
widespread. He extended his territories to the extent which no other Sultan of Delhi had even
attempted. During early years of his reign, Muhammad Tughlaq planned to conquer Khurasan

16
and Iraq. The unstable political condition of Central Asia inspired the Sultan to undertake this
project. The Sultan raised a huge army of three lakh and seventy thousand soldiers for this
purpose. But very soon the condition of Central Asia changed and the Sultan realised the futility
of his scheme. Therefore, he abandoned the scheme and the army was dispersed. 

The fort of Nagarkot was in Kangra district in Punjab. No Muslim ruler had conquered it by
then and it was in the hands of a Hindu king. Muhammad Tughlaq conquered it though he
restored it back to its ruler after his acceptance of suzerainty of Delhi. In south India, Ghiyas-
ud-din Tughlaq had annexed Telingana and a large part of Malabar Coast. Muhammad Tughlaq
made fresh annexations in the south. Muhammad Tughlaq captured Kondhana or Singharh from
Nag Nayak. Muhammad Tughlaq, thus, conquered greater part of south India and annexed it to
the Delhi Sultanate.

Muhammad failed to get any success in Rajasthan, but largely succeeded in carrying out his
series of conquests. Of course, he failed at few places, yet his Empire was more extensive than
any other Sultan of Delhi. The authority of the Sultan was acknowledged over India, save
Kashmir, Orissa, Rajasthan and a strip of Malabar Coast, and he established an effective system
of administration over this vast empire.

 Religious Policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Religious Policy of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was stern. He broke up the monopoly of the Ulema
and appointed the Qazis.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq took his own decision regarding the matters of religious policy. The
Sultan did not even permit the Ulema class to interfere in his administration. During his reign the
Ulema class enjoyed monopoly over administration of justice. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq broke up
that monopoly and appointed Qazis outside this class of people.

During early period of his reign, he neither sought recognition of Khalifa nor inscribed his name
on his coins. The Sultan did nothing against Islam nor did he desire to flout the principles
of Islam but he was not prepared to accept the interference of religion or that of any religious
class in his administration. He used to change the decisions of Qazis whenever he found them

17
unjust and discriminating. If a religious man was found guilty of corruption or rebellion, he was
punished like any other ordinary person. Thus nobody was above the laws of the land. This is the
reason why the Ulema class became antagonistic to Muhammad Tughlaq and spread
discontentment against him.

Muhammad Tughlaq had to compromise with the Ulema during later years of his reign. He
inscribed the name of Khalifa on his coins, sought recognition of his office from him in 1340
A.D. and invited Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad, one distant relative of the Khalifa of Egypt, to his
court. Muhammad Tughlaq was tolerant towards his Hindu subjects. He was the first Sultan
of Delhi who distributed respectable offices to the Indian Muslims and the Hindus. In this field,
he was ahead of his time.

With his entire liberal attitude, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq failed to get admiration and sympathy
of his subjects. But the reason was not his attitude but the failure of his schemes and oppressive
measures of his policies. 

 Revolt in Tughlaq Dynasty, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Revolts in Tughlaq dynasty occurred during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq which
eventually led to the disintegration of the empire.
Many revolts took place under the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. A few of them were
attempted by his ambitious nobles but most of them were either the results of his oppressive
policy or because of his failure to keep the state affairs under his control. A few of them
succeeded and eventually led to the disintegration of the Empire.
The first revolt was that of Bha- ud- din Gurshasp in 1326 A.D. He was defeated and ultimately
captured in 1327 A.D. In 1327-28 A.D. Bahram Aiba alias Kishlu Khan, governor Uch, Sindh
and Multan, revolted against the Sultan. He was the guardian of the north-western frontier of the
empire. Therefore, rebellion was a serious affair. He was a friend of the late Ghiyas-ud-din and
even Sultan Muhammad respected him. But he refused to send his family to the new capital viz.,
Daultabad and killed the messenger of the Sultan. The Sultan who was in Deccan at that time
hurriedly advanced against him. Bahram Aiba fled away but was captured and killed. His head
was hung up in the gate of the city as a warning to others. 

18
There was a revolt in Bengal in 1327-1328 A.D. Ghiyas-ud-din Bahadur who was taken
to Delhi as captive by the late Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was released by Muhammad and sent back
to Sonargaon to rule jointly with Bahram Khan but he revolted after three years. However, he
was defeated and killed by Bahram Khan. After the death of Bahram Khan, the officers in
Bengal began to quarrel among themselves. One of the loyal nobles, Ali Mubarak captured
Lekhnauti and requested the Sultan to send somebody as governor. But the Sultan neglected his
request and eventually Bengal became independent by 1340-41 A.D.
Revolts occurred in Sunam, Samana, Kara, Bidar, Gulbarga and Multan as well. However, the
Sultan was successful in suppressing them all. In 1334-35 A.D. Sayyid Ahsan Shah, governor of
Malabar, declared himself as an independent ruler. The Sultan marched against him in person,
but the news reached him that there was a revolt in Lahore. Therefore, he retraced back and
Malabar became an independent kingdom. During the same time the Hindus succeeded in
establishing an independent kingdom at Telingana and Kanchi and foundation of the strong
kingdom of Vijayanagara was laid down by Harihara and Bukka in 1336 A.D. 

In Gujarat, the revolt was led by the foreign nobles. It had resulted in revolts in Malwa, Berar
and Daultabad. The first revolt in Gujarat was suppressed by naib vazir. But while the Sultan was
in Daultabad, another widespread revolt broke out in Gujaratunder Taghi who, probably,
commanded the sympathy of the people. The sultan himself marched towards Gujarat to suppress
the revolt. The Sultan brought about peace and order in Gujarat and then proceeded towards
Sindh to suppress the revolt there.
Thus there were a number of revolts which occurred under the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. He
was successful in suppressing few of them but these rebellions ultimately resulted in the
downfall of his vast Empire. 

19
  FIRUZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388) 

Firuz was born in 1309. He was Muhammad’s cousin. Firuz was at Thatta when Muhmmad-bin-
Tughlaq breathed his last in 1351. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.

Firoz Shah (1351-1388) was the third ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty of Delhi. He ascended the
throne of Delhi, on March 23rd, 1351, at the age of 45. When Firoz was seven years old, his
father died. Sultan Tughlaq considered Firoz as his own son. When Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-
1325) ascended the throne, Firoz got knowledge of all public business transacted by the Sultan.
Sultan Tughlaq was succeeded by his son Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1350), who was also
exceedingly kind and generous to his cousin Firoz. When Muhammad divided Delhi into four
parts he placed one part under the charge of Firoz. Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq had no sons
when he died. On his death bed, Muhammad nominated Firoz his successor. When Muhammad
died, a troop of Mughal rebels of Thatta plundered the country. The nobles then assembled in
council and placed Firoz Shah on the throne. Soon after his accession to the throne, Firoz Shah
sent his army against the Mughal invaders and defeated them.2

Great Builder of the Sultanate: Many beautiful buildings were erected during the reign of Firoz
Shah Tughlaq. 

 Foundation of New Towns:

Fatehabad (in Haryana): When his eldest son Fath Khan was born to him at Ikdar, Firoz Shah
founded a town there, to which he gave the name of Fatehabad.

2
http://www.indianetzone.com/47/domestic_policies_firoz_shah_tughlaq.htm

20
Hisar Firoza (1356), now known as Hisar (in Haryana): It took two and a half years to built the
city of Hisar Firoza. Formerly, there were two large and populous villages stood, which were
called Great Laras and Little Laras. The neighborhood of Great Laras greatly pleased Firoz and
he decided the build a city there. Hard stone was brought from the hills of Narsai, and was used
with strong quicklime and burnt bricks. A fort of great extent and height was commenced. Since
there was scarcity of water, he built two canals; one from Yamuna and the other from Sutlej. The
canal from the Yamuna was called Rajiwah and the other Alagh-khani. When it was built he laid
out many gardens and planted many trees including all sorts of fruit trees.

Firozabad (1354), now known as Firoz Shah Kotla (in Delhi. Firoz Shah Kotla remains next to
the Firoz Shah Kotla Cricket Stadium): On the banks of Yamuna, at the village of Gawin, five
kilometers distant from Delhi, Firoz Shah founded the city of Firozabad. Shams-i Siraj says that,
eighteen places were included in the city of Firozabad and one of them was the land of the tomb
of Sultan Raziya. There were also eight public mosques.

Jaunpur (in Uttar Pradesh): Firoz Shah built a new town on the banks of Kowa in memory of
Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, and as his real name was Fakhr-ud-din Jauna, he named the
place Jaunpur. Firozpur (in Punjab): On the banks of Sutlej river, Firoz Shah built a new city
which he called Firozpur.

Other Public Works: Firoz Shah brought many waste lands into cultivation. Public works
constructed during the reign of Firoz Shah include 50 Dams across rivers to promote irrigation,
40 Mosques, 30 Colleges with mosques attached, 20 Palaces, 100 Caravansaras, 200 Towns, 30
Reservoirs or lakes for irrigating lands, 100 Hospitals, 5 Mausolea, 100 Public baths, 10
Monumental pillars, 10 Public wells and 150 bridges. Many wonderful things were invented by
Sultan Firoz in the course of his reign, and among the most wonderful was the Tasi ghariyal (a
bell to tell the time), which was placed on the top of the darbar of the kushk in Firozabad. He laid
out many gardens, around 1200, at Delhi alone. In Salaura, he made eighty gardens and in
Chittor, forty-four. He transported two Asoka pillars to Delhi, one from Topra, in Ambala district
(now in Haryana) and the other from Meerut. One was erected in the palace at Firozabad, near
the Masjid-i jama, which was called Minara-i zarin and the other was erected in the Kushk-i
Shikar or Hunting Palace (You can see the first pillar at Firoz Shah Kotla and the second

21
pillar on the ridge near the Hindu Rao hospital at Delhi). He also built nearly 120 monasteries
and inns for the accommodation of travellers.

He repaired the tombs and many other historical buildings of former kings: He rebuilt the Jami
Masjid (Masjid-i Jami) of Qutub-ud-din Aibak, the Royal Tank of Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji (at
Hauz-i-Khas complex), Jahan-Panah of Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Sultan Ghari
Mausoleum and the Madrasa (college) of Sultan Shams-al-Din Iltutmish (and many other
monuments). He also repaired the top two stories of the Qutub Minar, which were damaged by
lightning in 1368. He founded an establishment called Diwan-i Khairat for the promotion of
marriages. He established a hospital which is known as the Daru-sh shifa or Shifa Khana.

Firoz Shah was very fond of collecting slaves. Altogether in the city there were 180,000 slaves
and he took especial care for their maintenance and attention. He bestowed villages and lands as
salary to his followers and office-bearers. In the words of Shams-i Siraj Afif, this method of
paying officials was introduced by Firoz Shah. He also made a law that army services should be
hereditary.

He abolished a number of unlawful taxes. He collected only four taxes according to the Islamic
Law. Those were the Kharaj or land tax, Zakat or tax collected from the Muslims for religious
purpose, Jizya or religious tax on the Hindus and the Khams of the booty looted during wars.
He imposed Jizya on the Brahmans for the first time. During his reign, a Brahman was burnt
alive for advising the Muslims regarding Hinduism. Firoz Shah encouraged the conversion of
Hindus to Islam. Many Hindu temples and idols were destroyed and mosques were
raised. He prevented severe punishments to men. He ordered that no Muslim woman should go
out on pilgrimage to the tombs. 

 Conquests:

Lakhnauti (now Gaur or Gauda) in West Bengal: During his first conquest in 1353-54, Firoz
Shah defeated Shams-ud-din of Bengal but didn't annex the State. In the second expedition in
1359-60, Sikandar Shah, son of Shams-ud-din, made his submission.

22
Jajnagar (now Jajpur) in Orissa: Adaya, the Rai of Jajnagar, submitted. Firoz Shah destroyed the
Jagannath Puri temple and carried the idol to Delhi.

Nagarkot (in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh): The Rai of Nagarkot also offered his submission to
Firoz Shah. The people of Nagarkot told Firoz that the idol which the Hindus worshiped at the
Jwalamukhi temple of Nagarkot was the image of Naushaba, the wife of Alexander the Great. In
this temple, there was a fine library of Hindu books consisting of 1300 volumes. Firoz ordered
one of those books, which treated of philosophy, astrology, and divination, to be translated into
prose in Persian by Eiz-ud-Din Khalid Khan and called it Dulayil Firoz Shahi.

Thatta (Sindh in Pakistan): He crushed the revolt of Jam and Babiniya.

 Last Days of Firoz Shah Tughlaq:

In 1375, Prince Fath Khan, his eldest and favorite son, died and the Sultan was greatly affected
by his death. When the Sultan was nearly ninety years (1387), Khan-i-Jahan, the wazir, got
absolute power of the kingdom. One day he represented the Sultan that Prince Muhammad Khan
(second son of Firoz Shah) had allied himself to certain nobles and was planning to raise a
rebellion. The Sultan ordered that they should be taken into custody. The Prince came before his
father, fell down at his feet and told him that the suspicions he had of him were worse than death
itself and he had come to receive his fate from the King's own hands. Firoz Shah now realized
that he had been deceived and authorized his son to act against the Khan-i-Jahan. The Prince
with his forces attacked the Khan-i-Jahan and beheaded several of his adherents. Khan-i-Jahan
was defeated and fled. Soon after these events, Firoz Shah, who was now old and feeble, gave
over to the Prince the reigns of the government and himself retired. Prince Muhammad Khan
then ascended the throne assuming the title of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud. During this time there was
a rebellion occurred in Gujarat. The Prince couldn't maintain the struggle. The rebellion was put
out only when Firoz Shah resumed his full authority. The Prince fled with his followers to the
mountains of Sirmor. Firoz Shah then placed Prince Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq (1388-1389), son of
Fatheh Khan, on the throne and retired.

Firoz Shah was the last powerful ruler of the Tughlq Dynasty of Delhi. After 38 years of reign,
he died at the age of 90 and his tomb is located in the Hauz-i-Khas complex at Old Delhi.

23
After his death in 26th September, 1388, Malwa, Gujarat and Jaunpur Kingdoms broke away
from the Sultanate and the Tughlaq dynasty virtually came to an end (The Tughlaq dynasty was
completely disintegrated at Timur's invasion in 1398). His soldiers and his subjects were equally
happy under his administration. Elliot has described him as the "Akbar of the Sultanate".
Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi is the Autobiography of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq. In this little work, he
had written about his "victories". Firoz Shah ends his "Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi" thus, "Men will be
judged according to their works, and rewarded for the good that they have done".

Firuz was of a merciful and pious disposition, and he preferred peace to the glories of conquest.
He was a true friend of the peasants and he cancelled the loans which had been advanced by his
predecessor. He reduced taxation to the limits prescribed by the Quran. Agriculture was devel
oped by the reclamation of waste lands and by providing irrigation facilities. Firuz mitigated the
severity of the criminal law by abolishing torture and mutilation as forms of punishment. His
other measures included the establish ment of a charitable department in Delhi (diwan-i-khairat).

Firuz re-introduced the system of jagirs or grant of land with its revenue to his military officers
in lieu of cash salaries. He decreed hereditary succession to iqta. Firuz Tughlaq was an
enthusiastic builder and is famous for his enlightened public works. He built a new capital at
Delhi and named it Firuzabad. Its ruins are the Kotla Firuz Shah. He also founded the cities of
Hissar, Fatehabad, Firuzpur and Jaunpur. Firuz Tughlaq constructed the Yamuna canal to supply
water to the cities of Firuzpur and Hissar. He built the Kali Masjid and Lal Gumbad. He had two
of Asoka’s pillars brought to Delhi; one from Khizrabad and the other from Meerut. Barani and
AsH wrote noteworthy historical works in his reign. Firuz Shah himself authored the Fatuhat-i-
Firuz Shahi. He got several Sanskrit works translated into Persian. Firuz is also credited with
organising the institution of slavery into a system. He took special care to maintain and educate
the slaves, and utilise their services as soldiers, bodyguards and artisans.

Firuz declared his principle of levying taxes strictly according to the Shariat. As such, he insisted
on the payment of jaziya by all non-Muslims. He was the first Muslim sultan to strictly impose
jaziya on the brahmans who had so far been allowed to escape the tax. Surprisingly for a man of
humanitarian actions, Firuz was intolerant towards non Muslims especially in his later years;
within the Muslim community, Firuz accepted only the Sunnis not the Shias or Ismailis. He is

24
reported to have demolished Hindu temples. He is also supposed to have publicly burnt a
brahman for preaching to Muslims. He got the painted murals in his own palaces erased.

Firuz Tughlaq is largely held responsible for the down fall of the Tughlaq dynasty. His revival of
the jagir system and establishment of a slave system proved ruinous for the kingdom. On top of
this, his intolerant religious policy alienated the Hindus and Shias. His death was followed by
succession wars and only a small area around Delhi remained with the Tughlaqs.

 Domestic Policies of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Shah Tughlaq paid great attention towards the domestic affairs of his state. During the last
years of the reign of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, the administration had disrupted and the
subjects were dissatisfied, and also there was a breakdown of the economy. The Muslims were
also dissatisfied with the policy of the Sultan. Firoz Shah concentrated his efforts to improve
these matters. He adopted a number of measures in the field of finance, education, irrigation,
army and administration and succeeded in all of them.3

Firoz Shah Tughlaq strived to reinstate confidence among his subjects, restore financial
prosperity of his subjects and the state and win over the confidence of the Muslim subjects. He
largely succeeded in achieving these objectives. Though Firoz Shah himself was not a very good
administrator but he was endowed with good judgmental skill and possessed wisdom to select
subordinates and assign them powers. He ruled for thirty seven years and was successful in
increasing the prosperity of his subjects.

 Financial Policies of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Shah's financial policies were aimed at the growth and prosperity of his state. He imposed
only four types of tax on his subjects and abolished nearly twenty four taxes which were,

3
Supra note 1

25
undoubtedly, intense on the people. He abolished several internal trade taxes which resulted in
lessening of prices of goods and improvement of trade. He also adopted measures for the
development of quality of cultivation and better crops. Firoz increased salaries of his officers,
gave them jagirs, abolished the practice of extorting truth by torture and also the practice of
offering presents to the Sultan so that they might not pressurise the peasants. The peasants were
freed from return of Taqavi given to them by the state. The measures of Firoz Shah were
successful and resulted in the rising prosperity of both the subjects and the state. There was all
round prosperity among people; and, there was no famine during the reign of Firoz Shah
Tughlaq. 4

 Administrative Policies of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Shah's administrative policies of justice were based on the laws of Islam. This restored the
privileges of the qazis. He was in favour of mild punishment and had his own court for
administering justice. Firoz Shah had keen interest for the development of education in his state.
He was a scholar himself and patronised several writers in his court. He established a fine library
in the temple of Jwalamukhi which consisted of three hundred volumes of Sanskrit texts. A few
of those texts were translated into Persian. The army organisation of Firoz Shah was
comparatively weak. There was no standing army kept at the center and the Sultan had to depend
on the forces of the provincial governors at the time of war.5

 Public Utility Works of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Shah is attributed of founding three hundred towns which included those villages which
were left desolated by the people but were again repopulated because of the facilities provided
by the state during his reign. The important among them were Fatehbad, Hissar, Firozpur,
Jaunpur and Firozabad. He generally lived in Firozabad, near Red fort of Delhi, which was his
favourite city. He is also credited for the construction of many dams, colleges, palaces, caravan
sarais, towns, hospitals, mausoleums, public baths, wells, bridges and several pleasure houses.

4
Supra note 1
5
Ibid

26
He established a charitable hospital called Dar- ul- shafa near Delhi. Firoz Shah repaired many
historical buildings such as the Jama Masjid of old Delhi, the mausoleums of
Sultan Iltutmish and the Qutub Minar. Firoz Shah distributed a large quantity of wealth and
land among saints and other religious people. An employment bureau was set up by Firoz shah,
which arranged for the employment of the unemployed. He had set up a separate department
which cared for the orphans and widows. Thus, Firoz Shah had done many works of public
utility.6

Firoz Shah constructed five canals for the purpose of irrigation. The first one was one hundred
and fifty miles long and carried the waters of the Yamuna River to Hissar. The second was
ninety six miles long and carried water from Sutlej River to the Ghaghara. The third started
from the Sirmaur hills and ran up to Hansi. The fourth ran from Ghaghara to Firozabad and the
fifth ran from the Yamuna River to Firozabad. He also built several tanks and dams to store
water for irrigation. These irrigation facilities resulted in the extension of area under cultivation,
enhancement of trade and also income of the state.

Thus, though there were several flaws in the domestic policies adopted by Firoz Shah Tughlaq,
but eventually he succeeded in achieving his aim of attaining peace and economic prosperity in
his state and among his subjects. 

 Religions Policies of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

 Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the first Sultan of Delhi whose religious policies were based on the pre-
eminence of Islamic laws. Other Sultans supported Islam and were prejudiced against the Hindus
but none of them accepted Islamic laws as basic means of governing their administration. Firoz
Shah Tughlaq proved an exception and accepted Islamic laws as basic principles in
administering the state. Firoz Shah depended on the Ulema for interpretations and thus the
religious policy remained intolerant towards people of every faith except the Sunnis. 7

Firoz Shah was intolerant towards the Shiahs, the Sufis, the Ismaili group of Shias and also other

6
Supra note 1
7
http://www.indianetzone.com/47/religions_policies_firoz_shah_tughlaq.htm

27
sects. He remained fanatically intolerant towards the Hindus. He encouraged the Hindus for
conversion. His biography gives a clear impression that regarded the rulers of the Muslims only.
He destroyed the temple of Jvalamukhi in Kangra and one of the prime aims in
attacking Puri was to destroy the Hindu temple so that, like Mahmud of Ghazni, he could claim
to be an Idol breaker. He imposed Jizya on Brahmanas who were either left from this tax or
neglected while collecting it by all previous Sultans. Thus, Firoz Shah practiced severely
intolerant policy towards the Hindus. 

Firoz got recognition of his title of Sultan from the Khalifa. He called himself the Naib of the
Khalifa and inscribed his own coins. He did all this because he wanted to capture the loyalty of
the Ulema and reactionary group of Muslims who all supported him in capturing the throne. The
religious policy of Firoz was reactionary in principle and did positive harm to the state in
practice. The Hindus who constituted the majority became disloyal to the state way, and his
religious policy also participated in bringing about the disgrace of the Tughlaq Empire. 8

Thus, the religious policies adopted by Firoz Shah were certainly the weak part of his
administration which in a way resulted in the downfall of his empire. 

 Successors of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Successors of Firoz Shah Tughlaq were all incapable and incompetent. None of them deserved to
be the Sultan of Delhi. Firoz Shah was succeeded by his grandson, Tughlaq Shah, son of his
elder son Fateh Khan. Firoz Shah's third son Prince Muhammad made an effort to capture the
throne but failed. But Tughlaq Shah was pleasure loving and proved completely incapable to be
the Sultan. 

Abu Bakr, son of Firoz's second son took advantage of the situation, conspired against the Sultan
and succeeded in dethroning him with the help of some dissatisfied nobles in 1389 A.D. but he
was challenged by Prince Muhammad, who declared himself Sultan at Samana and with the
support of a few power nobles attacked Delhi. Prince Muhammad captured Delhi in 1390 A.D.
8
Supra note6

28
and assumed the title of Nasir- ud- din Muhammad Shah. He died after six weeks and was
succeeded by his younger brother Nasir- ud- din Mahmud Shah who was the last ruler of his
dynasty. 

The rulers who followed Firoz were completely incompetent. The throne was contested by many
princes of the family and the nobles and the governors freely participated in the question of
succession. It reduced the honour of the Sultan and also led to the disintegration of the Empire.
By the time Mahmud Shah ascended the throne, the Delhi Sultanate had practically lost
everything like the entire south India, Khandesh, Bengal, Gujarat, Malwa, Rajasthan and
Bundelkhand. The final blow on the Tughlaq Empire was the invasion of Timur. 

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 CHAPTER:4

ARCHITECTURE DURING TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

Architecture during Tughlaq dynasty flourished in India when Ghazi Tughlaq came to power in
1321 in Delhi defeating the Khalji rulers. The period of Tughlaq dynasty in history has been
marked as the time of elation and rediscovery for Islamic architectures. Master builders were
hired for a new Sultan to construct a new empire full of creativity in Indo-Islamic style. The
Indo-Islamic style dominated the pattern of architecture during Tughlaq dynasty. The Indo-
Islamic style of architecture was the amalgamation of Islamic architecture as well as Hindu style
of architecture. This amalgamation happened during the invasion period of the Muslim rulers;
they used to build their mosques with the ruined materials of the Hindu or Jain temples and few
temples itself were modified into mosques. The fusion created the new Indo-Islamic style of
architecture in India that gradually developed into a great architectural significance during the
Tughlaq dynasty. 

The Tughlaqs belonged to the Turkish origin of Muslim family and were in power at Delhi for
nearly a hundred years. Architecture during Tughlaq dynasty was flourished in the hands of three
rulers. They were the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq who ruled from 1320 to
1325, his son, Mohammed Shah Tughlaq, ruled from 1325 to 1351, and the most creative of all
in his building projects, Firoz Shah Tughlaq who ruled Delhi from 1351 to 1388. Feroz Shah
Tughlaq was a great patron of Islamic architecture. He built the fifth city of Delhi, named as
Ferozshah Kotla. Apart from Ferozshah Kotla, several building arts like Tughlaqabad the third
city of Delhi, the Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din and Khirki Masjid represents the major development
of architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty. 

Each ruler added architectural creativity to his own capital city whilst making architecture during
the Tughlaq dynasty to stand apart. The influence of the three above mentioned rulers in the

30
Islamic architecture is therefore noteworthy. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq's Tughlaqabad depicts the
saga of the glorious days of architectural developments of the Tughlaq dynasty. The great palace
was made of golden bricks. The architecture of the Tughlaqabad city was based on Roman
fashion and was divided into two parts, one part consisted of the fortress corresponding to the
castle of the Occident and the other part was the city, which extended out for the residential and
military requirements of the times. The walls were made up of sun-dried bricks. The huge outer
walls had sloping, extended to the large area of the southern Delhi ridge. Semi-circular bastions
with eyelets were present at regular intervals to look down at the enemies.

Among the major architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din is almost
perfectly preserved. Originally the tomb was constructed in an artificial lake, which was
connected with the citadel by an eminent path. However, at present the arched causeway has
been replaced. The Ghiyas-ud-Din's tomb is in the form of a self-contained fortress in miniature
with the sloping walls of circular bastions with eyelets for archery; on the other hand it may also
have been intended as a fortified central tower.

The outer portion of the fortress-tomb is designed in the form of an irregular pentagon with a
spreading bastion at each angle. Its length which is less than three hundred feet is the unique
feature on the small rocky island on which it was built. The courtyard within the tomb is
unsymmetrical. The tomb-building is constructed diagonally at its widest part resembling it into
the correct orientation with Mecca. The major portion of the tomb-building is made with red
sandstone, including the dome, made of white marble. The most attractive part of its construction
is the slope of the outer walls, as these are inclined at an angle of seventy-five degrees, indicates
the converging sides of a pyramid. Each side consist a tall pointed archway, three of which are
doorways, while the fourth one is closed to provide accommodation for the mihrab in its interior.
The architecture of the tomb's exterior portion resembles that of the structure of the Alai
Darwaza constructed earlier. The similarity lies in the treatment of the pointed arches also. It
consists of its spear-head "fringe" however; the horse-shoe shape tomb has been customized into
one of a more "Tudor" outline with a slight decorative double curve at the crown. The typical
style of combining of the arch and the beam in the tomb was used for the first time in the
architecture during the Tughlaq dynasty. The tomb not only represents the development of the
Islamic architecture during the Tughlaq dynasty, it also signifies the beginning of the phase of a

31
regal style of architecture. 

Mohammed Tughlaq the son and successor of Ghiyas-ud-Din also played an important role in
the development of architectures during Tughlaq dynasty. His major contributions were the
fourth city of Delhi, fortified walls named Jahan-Pannah or the World Refuge, a double storied
bridge of seven spans named Sath Pul, Bijai Mandal, the presumably part of a "Palace of a
Thousand Columns," and several other buildings. However, the city was deserted and desolate
during the year 1340 due to the unpredictable policy of Muhammad Tughlaq to change the
capital from Delhi to the city of Daulatabad. The skilled workmen compelled to migrate
elsewhere which affected the development of the Islamic architecture. Later, Firoz Shah Tughlaq
the successor of Muhammad Tughlaq revived the style and reconstructed Delhi as the capital and
was responsible for constructing a large number of important building projects. Each of these
buildings echoed his innovative artistic sense.

The architectural characters of the Firozian period were different from its predecessors and had
the reflection of the conditions that prevailed at the seat of the government at this particular
stage. He covered his creations with plastic ornamentation in a rich and varied order. The
appearance of the building art represented the suppression of the indigenous impulse. Feroz Shah
Tughlaq was a great patron of architecture and during his reign architectural developments of the
Tughlaq dynasty reached the zenith. . His major creations were, Ferozshah Kotla, the fifth city of
Delhi, three other fortress cities named as Jaunpur, Fathabad, and Hissar, Khirki Masjid and the
Begum-puri mosque at Jahanpanah, Kali Masjid, another mosque in the Dargah of Shah Alam at
Timurpuri and the Kalan Masjid at Shahjahanabad. From the architectural point of view, Khirki
Masjid is immense and is a great example of Islamic architecture while showcasing the immense
architectural development during Tughlaq dynasty. It is closed on top which makes it unique and
different from others. It is a small quadrangle-shaped mosque and is covered entirely by a roof,
which is an unusual thing for building of mosques. The presence of several domes on the roof
along with the wonderful latticework or jali on the windows represents the typical Islamic style
of architecture. 

The colossal structures of the Tughlaq dynasty, the sheer finesse of the lattice work, the grandeur
of the colorful marbles and stones which were abundantly used in the architectures not only

32
reflect the architectural developments during Tughlaq dynasty, but also whispers the saga of the
glorious Islamic architecture in India. 

 Tughlaqabad Fort, Delhi

Tughlaqabad Fort is a ruined fort located in Delhi. Stretched across 6.5 km it is one of the largest
forts in India. The fort has been built by Ghiyas- ud- din Tughlaq in 1321. He was the founder
of Tughlaq Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. He had also built the fortified town of Tughluqabad,
the third city of Delhi. The fort also lends its name to the Tughlaqabad residential-commercial
area as well as the Tughlaqabad Institutional Area. Tughlaqabad Fort is still open for the tourists
to visit. However, some of the parts remain closed and there are different remnants that can still
be found in the area.9

 History of Tughlaqabad Fort

The Tughlaqabad fort was built Ghazi Malik. He was slave to Mubarak Khilji. Once during a
walk with his Khilji master, Ghazi Malik suggested him to construct a hillock in the southern
portion of Delhi. The king then joked that Malik himself should build a fort if he ever became a
sultan. Malik eventually become Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the first ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty.
He would then build the fort in 1321. He also drove away the Khiljis. He soon began the
construction of his fabled city. The fort was however, abandoned in 1327. It is said that once
Ghiyas Ud Din Tughlaq had become so obsessed with the construction of the fort that he issued
an order that all labourers in Delhi must work on his fort. This affected the work of Hajrat
Nizamuddin Auliya as many labourers were then engaged in building his baoli (well). The
enraged saint confronted the king and cursed him. Once the emperor was occupied in a campaign

9
http://www.indianetzone.com/62/tughlaqabad_fort.htm

33
in Bengal and was on his way to Delhi. Eventually, Tughlaq died when a canopy collapsed on
him. His successor then abandoned the fort and built a new one.10

 Mausoleum of Ghiyas Ud Din Tughluq

The 'Mausoleum of Ghiyath Ud Din Tughluq' is located on the south across the main entrance of
Tughluqabad. The tomb can be entered by a high gateway and is made up of red sandstone. It is
inlaid with inscribed panels and arch borders of marble. It also has a flight of steps. It remains
connected by a causeway to the southern outpost of the fortification. The tomb of Ghiyath Ud
Din Tughluq is made up of a single domed square tomb that rests on an octagonal drum and is
enclosed within high walls. The walls of the tombs are surmounted by parapets. The tomb thus
retains some of the characteristics of Khilji architecture.

There are three graves inside the mausoleum. The main grave belongs to Ghiyath Ud Din
Tughluq and the other two are believed to be those of his wife and his son and
successor Muhammad Bin Tughluq. An inscription can be seen over its southern entrance that
states the fort houses the remains of Zafar Khan. Another octagonal tomb of similar style is
visible in the north-western bastion of the enclosure wall with pillared corridors.

 Architecture of Tughlaqabad Fort

The Tughlaqabad Fort covers an area of about 6.5 km. It consists of massive stone fortifications
and features wall that are at least ten to fifteen meters in height. The walls are surmounted by
battlemented parapets and supported by circular bastions of up to two stories height. The stone
fortifications enclose the ground plan of the city. The city of Tughlaqabad had been divided in
two parts, the first unit is formed of the citadel and palaces along the southern walls and the other
part is formed of the city to the north. The citadel as well as the walls of palaces can still be seen.
The city is, however, in ruined state. Only the alignment of some of its streets can be discerned.
The city walls are rubble built which is a characteristic feature of the monuments of the Tughluq
Dynasty. Earlier the city had as many as 52 gates but now only 13 gates remain. The fortified

10
Supra note 9

34
city contained seven rainwater tanks. Traditional stones are used for building of the fort to make
it strong and tough. 11

A large city spot can be seen around the gates of the Tughlaqabad Fort. There are a number of
remnants of houses around the fort. However, the city remains inaccessible due to dense thorny
vegetation that has grown due to the lack of use of the area. Some spots that had artificial lakes
and other bodies of water can also be seen here. In these empty spots water was stored for use of
people around the fort. There was a vast artificial water reservoir within the premises of the
Ghiyath Ud Din Tughluq's Tomb. It has been well maintained till date and connects the fort by
an elevated causeway.

The Bijay Mandal is another famous structure located around the area. It is a towering structure
has a proportioned square dome. The huge structure has been originally built by Ala-ud-din
Khilji. The massive structure, octagonal in shape is located in the in the middle of a large area
surrounded by a wall. It is said that Tughluq conducted the administration of his vast empire
from here. According to historical records the entire structure was built gradually over a period
of nearly a century, with the dome shaped building being the last addition. 

11
ibid

35
 CHAPTER:5

DOWNFALL OF TUGHLAQ EMPIRE

There were several reasons which led to the downfall of the Tughlaq Empire. The Tughlaqs
established most extensive empire among the Delhi Sultanate. Ghiyas- ud- din took advantage
of the conquest of the south and annexed larger part of it. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq contributed
most towards extension of the Empire both as a prince and a Sultan. But the process of
disintegration began during his reign. The annexation of the south, the failures of Muhammad
Tughlaq, the weakness of Firoz Shah Tughlaq, the incompetence of his successors, the
incompetence and demoralization of the nobility and the invasion of Timur were the chief factors
responsible for the downfall of this vast Empire.

Ghiyas- ud- din Tughlaq adopted the policy of annexing the conquered territories of the south
which was led to perfection by Muhammad Tughlaq. But this measure was against the
permanent interest of the Empire. Due to the lack of proper means of transport it was difficult for
the rulers of the north to keep the south under his control for long. Thus the south became
independent during the later period of Muhammad Tughlaq. The conquest of the south brought
no advantages to the Tughlaqs. On the contrary, it adversely affected the resources and the
strength of the Empire. 

Muhammad Tughlaq failed both in his internal and foreign policy. While Bengal and the south
regained independence and the hold of the Delhi Sultanate became weak over Gujarat and
Sindh, no significant territory could be added to the Empire permanently. All the schemes of
Muhammad Tughlaq failed miserably and brought economic ruin to the Empire. Besides, his

36
policies and severe measures resulted in widespread revolts at several places which taxed further
the energy and resources of the empire.

Firoz Tughlaq succeeded in restoring the economic prosperity of the Empire and did many useful
works for public welfare. But his imprudent generosity, relaxity in administration, slave system,
policy of intolerance towards the Hindus, restoration of prestige and influence of the Ulema and
the negligence to build up military strength of the Empire went against the interests of the state.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq failed to restore the prestige and power of the Delhi Sultanate. 

There were no competent successors after Firoz Tughlaq and no one deserved to be the Sultan of
Delhi. His third son Muhammad was pleasure loving and was devoid of his reign to the throne.
Firoz nominated Tughlaq Shah, son of his late eldest son as his successor. Prince Muhammad
fought both against Tughlaq Shah and his successor Abu Bakr. Though he succeeded but
conflicts between royal princes gave chance to nobles at the court and the governors of provinces
to increase their powers and influences at the cost of successive Sultans. Thus the later Tughlaqs
proved incompetent and ineffective in matters of the state and Sultan Nasir- ud- din Mahmud, the
last ruler of the dynasty met an ignoble death.

Nobles and provincial governors of latter Tughlaqs took advantage of the incompetence of the
rulers. Those who were ambitious and competent established independent kingdoms out of the
ruins of the Empire and those who were incompetent were struck to the court engaging
themselves in corruption and luxuries. None of them were capable and whosoever was
competent was disloyal to the Sultan and therefore worked against the interest of the Delhi
Sultanate. 

The final blow to the power and prestige of the Tughlaq Empire was given by Timur. He
destroyed the Delhi Sultanate and the dynasty of the Tughlaqs. Though Tughlaq dynasty had
lost its prestige prior to the invasion of Timur but after his invasion it was thoroughly destroyed
forever. 

Thus different factors participated in bringing about the downfall of the Tughlaq Dynasty. The

37
process of disintegration started with the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq in his own
way contributed towards it and during the period of the later Tughlaqs it completed itself.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:

38
 1. Tughlaq Dynasty by Lambert M. Surhone

2. History of Education in India By Ram Nath Sharma

3. History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. By Radhey Shyam Chaurasia

4. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughla by Manazir Ahmad

5. History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad

6. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India By Upinder Singh

7. Cultural History of Medieval India by Meenakshi Khanna

8. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India By Farooqui Salma Ahmed

9. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II By Satish Chandra

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