Block-1 Managing Higher Education Institution A Perspective

'.
Managing Higher Education

Institution A Perspective 1
/
"ftrarr 11RCl <PT ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 3lT\Jf ~ <J1T
"Bill <ffi ("1'1 ifI (1 ;:;:t ct'r 'l1TCRT "'fIT 3lT'ClTX ~ ~ I \iPIl (f.?lT
3RT ~ ~ WFf \ifTfc1-crct ~ ~3IT <PT ~
m sq~ <PT ~ ~ WR BOTdr ~I"
- ~ 'lltfT
"Education is a liberating force, and in our

age it is also a democratising force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth
and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi
o
/
•
MES-046
1CfJ)1 !~~o~~
~ UNIVERSITY
Higber Education
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Education
Block
1
MANAGING HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION:
A PERSPECTIVE
UNITl
Higher Education: Historical Perspectives 7
UNIT 2
Globalisation of Higher Education 20
UNIT 3
Major Emerging Policy Initiatives 30
Expert Committee
Prof. B.N. Koul Prof. S. Y. Shah
Former PVC Group of Adult Education
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Sciences
JNU, New Delhi
Prof. c.R.K. Murthy
STRIDE Prof. Neerja Shukla
IGNOU, New Delhi NCERT, New Delhi
Prof. Nalini Puneja

Prof. Kalpana Mishra
NUEPA, New Delhi
Director, Planning Division
IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Sailja
Reader, Dept. of Education
Prof. G Natesan DU, Delhi
Head (Education), Distance Education
Madurai Kamaraj University Dr. Savita Kaushal
Madurai, Tamil Nadu NUEPA, Delhi
Course Team
Unit Writers Course Coordination
Prof. D. Mukhopadhyaya (Unit 1) Prof. C.B. Sharma
Professor of Education (Retired) School of Education
University of Kalyani IGNOU, New Delhi
West Bengal
Content Editing
Prof. C.B. Sharma
Ms. Roma Banerjee (Units 2 & 3)
School of Education
Independent Consultant
IGNOU, New Delhi
Social Development
Language Editing Unit Design & Format Editing

Ms. Roma Banerjee Prof. c.a Sharrna
Independent Consultant School of Education
Social Development IGNOU, New Delhi
Secretarial Assistance
Ms. Kamlesh
School of Education,
IGNOU
Material Production
Prof. N.K. Dash Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director, School of Education A.R. (Publication)
IGNOU, New Delhi SOE,IGNOU
October, 2015
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2014
ISBN: 978-93-85911-19-4
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained
from the University's Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l10068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by
Director, School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi. .
Laser Typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi.
Printed at: Raj Printers, A-9, Sector B-2, Tronica City, Loni, Ghaziabad (U.P.)
MES-046 HIGHER EDUCATION
Block 1 Managing Higher Education Institution: A Perspective

Unit 1 Higher Education: Historical Perspective
Unit 2 Globalisation of Higher Education
Unit 3 Major Emerging Policy Initiatives
Block 2 Structure of Higher Education

Unit 4 Higher Education Institutions; The Structural Basis at
Macro Level
Unit 5 Higher Education Institutions: Governance at University
Level
Unit 6 Higher Education Institutions: Governance at College
Level
Block 3 Management Process and Leadership

Unit 7 Emerging Leadership
Unit 8 Management Processes in Higher Education Institutions
Block 4 Contemporary Aspects on Institutional Management

Unit 9 Management of Infrastructure and Financial Resources
Unit 10 Management 'of Human Resources and Instructional
Planning
Unit 11 Management of Material Resources
Unit 12 Emerging Concepts of Management
MES-046 HIGHER EDUCATION
Course Introduction
Higher education (HE) has expanded in India at an unprecedented rate during
this century. One reason for this increase in demand for HE is the success of the
Educationfor All project. Many times more students were enrolled, retained and
passed the school and are now knocking the doors of HE institutions. HE was
not prepared to accommodate all the school passers. Many times more institutions
were required to provide a place to all those who passed the schools and wished
to pursue HE, however as there was no matching preparation all those who aspired
to go for HE could not be accommodated. A developing nation like India aspiring
to be a 'developed' nation would require many times more the professional and
technical work force it has at present. We have only about 12 percent of the
appropriate age group in HE. We need to increase it at least three to four times to
meet the national demand of intellectual and professional work force.
Every nation requires different types of human personnel to undertake different

types of jobs so that all school graduates may not be required to undertake the
same type of courses and degrees. Institutions are required to provide professional,
vocational as well as general degrees to the school passers so that they can go for
a course/degree matching each individual's capability and interest. In the absence
of an appropriate course or institution students go for a general or a professional
degree which often is not suitable for himlher. Efforts are being made to establish
more and more institutions public funded. as well as through private initiatives
so that the demand can be met.
We would require teachers and administrators to undertake the teaching as well

as administrative responsibilities to run the HE institutions. We have acute
shortage of personnel and in the coming years we are going to face more shortage.
Management of HE is different to management of other establishments and it
requires not only managerial capabilities but also intellectual achievement.
Learners in HE institutions listen to the principal, the vice-chancellor or the

director not because they occupy high offices but they often have high intellectual
achievement. Management and administration of HE institutions would require
learned personnel who can manage the youth to be prepared to take the nation
forward. After going through this course some of the expectations from you
would be that you should be able to:
• explain the needs and requirements of HE in the light of past developments;

• discuss the managerial, administrative, leadership and other requirements
and expectations from He personnel;
• understand the management concepts applicable to educational management;
• inform about the different types of institutions (i.e. general, professional,
vocational etc.) and difference in their management and administration;
• provide guidelines for a robust future of HE through case studies of successful
institutions in India and other parts of the world, and,
• mention and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the policy formulations
which have influenced the growth and development of HE in India.
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
This is the first block of the course on higher education. Through this course we
wish to make you aware of the many issues confronting higher education of our
country. Indian education has been influenced by various rulers and governments
as India has a tradition of education more than five thousand years old. India
boasts of a culture of education which gave the world texts like the Vedas. There
is no parallel in the world to the Vedas. However, we also receded to a stage
where we became a nation with the largest illiterates. To be able to present even
a synoptic view of Indian education since the ancient times would require many
volumes.
India, besides being an intellectually rich nation was also economically

prosperous. Unfortunately the plunderers and conquerors attacked India many
times and we fell prey to the foreign -invaders. We were ruled by people who
were neither of Indian origin n,or had interest and respect for our tradition and
knowledge resources.
Our intellectual resource was destroyed. Higher education, of which a mojor

function is to create new knowledge cannot function in isolation. Higher education
will obviously be affected by the processes adopted for providing school education
and the quality of school education. Mahatma Gandhi in his speech in London in
1931 had mentioned that the British education policy in India had reduced the
literacy percentage by more than half. This statement created ripples. As the
indigenous system of basic education in India was so scientific that a large pool
of intellectual resource automatically accumulated.
In the first unit of this block we have tried to present a synoptic view of the
developments in education but you will have to pursue other sources for learning
more about each of the periods of Indian education. In a globalized world no
nation can survive in isolation, especially as education has become a tradeable _
commodity. You may be interested in reading more about globalization of
education and the role of different agencies in education today ..
The second unit deals in detail on different aspects of globalization. Even though
India had always considered education as a resource woth sharing without a
price but in the modem day we have to learn the new rules as we need to suvive
in a 'commercial world'.
We hosted learners from all parts of the wolrd and shared without a price but
today we have to pay heavily to learn from other nations. In the second unit we
have discussed different aspects related to globalization of edcuation.
All sectors of a nation are influenced by the type of policies the nation develops.
Our recent policies which influence our present day education system heavily,
starts with the British policies .
In the third unit we have once again tried to touch upon various policies but
becuase of the paucity of word limit we have not been able to deal with the
different policies in detail. It is expected that the content provided in these units
/
will develop an interst in you about our policies and you would take interest in
the policy formulation with regard to education in India. We have not been able
to make a very laudable achievement in education neither during the last few
centuries nor since independence. Our learners also do not feel proud of belonging
to the Indian tradition. Our education system has failed to make us proud Indians.
This block has raised a number of issues and hopes you would get interested in
different areas of edcuation and contribute to a better education system and
especially higher education .system.
UNIT 1 IDGHEREDUCATION: HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Higher Education - The Concept
1.3.1 Education and Higher Education
1.3.2 The Concept of Higher Education
1.4 Historical Perspectives of Higher Education
1.4.1 Global Scenario
1.4.1.1 Women in Higher Education
1.4.2 Indian Scenario
1.4.2.1 Ancient Age .
1.4.2.2 Medieval Age
1.4.2.3 Colonial period
1.4.2.4 After Independence
1.5 Higher Education in the Modem Social Context
1.5.1 .HE for the Development and Perfection of the Individual
1.5.2 HE for the Fulfillment of the Growing Demand of the Society
1.6 Key Players in the Higher Education in India in the 21 sr Century
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Activities
1.9 Suggested Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
History of Higher Education (HE) is important for the students of higher learning
systems as well as for learners and scholars who are engaged in research activities
to know about Higher Education (HE) systems. In this sense it occupies a special
position in the history of education system. HE is the super structure of the
education system because the total education system and its quality depends on
it. The nation also depends upon planning of HE for future manpower planning
and economic enhancement. So it is important to understand the past to plan for
the present and future.
In 1993, UNESCO formed a commission to review the education systems of the

world in the 21 st century. A renowned educationist and social thinker, Jacques
Delor was the Chairman of the Commission. The Commission published its
report in 1996. The report was known as The UNESCO report of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty first Century or popularly known as th
Delor's Report. At one place of the report (p. 130), the commission made its
observation on HE as follows:
"Higher education is at one and the same time one of the driving forces of
economic development and the focal point of learning in a society. It is both
repository and creator of knowledge. Moreover, it is the principal instrument for
7
Managing Higher passing on the accumulated experience, cultural and scientific, of humanity. In
Education Institution: A
Perspective
a world where resources of knowledge will increasingly predominant over
material resources asfactors in development, the importance of higher education
and of higher education institutions can only grow. Moreover, the effect of
innovation and technological progress means that economies will increasingly
demand competencies that require high level studies. "
So the expectations and demands of the society from HE are many and different
for different times, countries and situations. In this unit we have discussed the
development of HE in these different perspectives,
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept and purpose of HE;
• Analyse the evolutionary nature of HE in India and abroad; and
• Identify the role of HE in different historical and social perspectives.
1.3 HIGHER EDUCATION - THE CONCEPT

You may, perhaps, know that the history of education is as old as the history of
human civilization. Education existed even in the primitive days, but forms and
systems were completely different. Education system has gone through a lot of
changes and has evolved a lot over the years. Earlier education was imparted to
children in order to pass on the moral values and skills required by them to earn
their livelihood and live in the social set up of that place. At that time, education
was non-formal in nature: There were no levels of education as exists now-a-
days. Education was the natural response of early civilisations for the struggle
for surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society
in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and pass on to the next
generation. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic
skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, then
formal education and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense
was already in place in Egypt and India between 3000 BC and 500BC.
Eric Ashby, an educationist, social thinker and a prolific writer, has written many
books on HE.
Ashby (1967) states four revolutions in education and those revolutions gradually
change the education system and different levels of education develop according
to the age and capacity levels of the learners:
1) The first revolution was adults' role in the society and the task of educating
the young was shifted from parents to teachers and from home to school.
2) The second revolution 'was the use of the written text instead of oral
instruction in the classroom only.
3) The third revolution came with the invention in printing process and the.
wide availability of books.
4) The fourth revolution is the development in electronics e.g. radio, computer,
tape-recorder etc.
8
In the present day we are heading for another revolution in education, especially Higher Education:
Historical Perspectives
in the HE system. It is the revolution of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). The development of ICT has transformed the old education
system, its delivery mode and management of the total education system.
1.3.1 Education and Higher Education

There are many approaches to education. They vary from state to state and country
to country. Even a few decades ago we had not heard of so many types and
systems of education which exist today. We were not much familiar with Distance
Education (Dlij.flexi-Iearning and virtual education etc. At that time, we had no
computers, no Internet systems. There were very few telephone users but a vibrant
postal system. Simply stated, and in the words of Thomas Briggs, the new concept
proposes that "education should attempt to guide young people through
experiences that will maximally develop each one to do better than the otherwise
would or could those desirable things that he will do anyway." Whatever may it
be, education responses the following questions:
What prepares one for effective living? What is fundamental to the development
of the whole man? What is essential to personality growth and social growth?
1.3.2 The Concept of Higher Education

Education is a broad term and includes all modes of transformation of knowledge
and skills. In this sense travelling, drawing, singing, painting etc are all included
in education. For clarifying an example may be given. Perhaps, you have heard
the name of Maxim Gorky, a famous writer, dramatist and political activist of the
erstwhile Soviet Union (now Russia). This author had written an autobiographical
book, My Universities (Autobiography Part Ill, 1923), where he had described
his relationship with people, culture, situations, family etc. These are not learnt
from any educational institution, yet these are also considered as education.
Now, let us come to the development of higher education. Higher-learning

institutions date back to ancient times, give learning an institutional framework.
These institutions were not like the educational institutions of the modern days,
yet they are also considered as educational institutions and such types of
institutions can be found in many cultures all over the world, though ancient
centres of learning were typically institutions for teaching philosophy and
theology.
HE is only a part of the total education system. Before going on to discuss the
history of Higher Education, let us try to understand what the higher education
IS.
Higher education is an institutionalised system of education and is an educational

level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education,
such as a high school, secondary school etc. Tertiary education and sometimes
vocational education is also considered as HE. Colleges, universities and technical
or vocational institutes are the main institutions that provide tertiary education.
9
Managing Higher
Education Institution: A Check Your Progress 1
Perspective
Write the answers of the following questions in your own words in the
space provided below (in 50 words each)
1) Discuss the different major changes in the education system from the
early stages.
2). State and explain the different sources of education other than schools,
colleges and universities.
1.4 - HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER

EDUCATION
You have understood the concept of higher education. Now let us see the
development of higher education system in India and abroad. History of higher
education has its roots in religion but has seen many changes through the decades
and centuries. It is called higher education because it is the highest stage of
formal education. People can get higher specialisation degrees at this level.
From prehistoric era, societies have faced different changes and thus have also
witnessed changes in the education system, though it was not formal in nature.
Education at that time was general and informal. But societies grew more complex
due to the growing intellectual abilities of human beings. Thus formal education
came into existence and education was growing as institutionalised system more
and more. Specialised training and new and advanced knowledge was required
for the systematisation of societal demands. All the knowledge and information
was not required for all the people and thus clear cut content was developed
slowly and this was the beginning of the curriculum development. In this way
specialised people were engaged for specialised training and imparting specialised
knowledge and information. Thus formal schools were developed and teachers
were entrusted to deliver methodological and systematic information to the
learners.
10
/
1.4.1 Global Scenario Higher Education:
A modern university of the present day is an institution of higher education and
research that awards academic degrees. The Guinness Book of World Records
recognizes 'The University of Al Karaouine' in Fez, founded in 859 by the princess
Fatima al- Fihri, as the oldest degree-granting university in the world. But there
were evidences that universities were established long before that.
There is debate a about exactly where history of higher education began. However,
according to some scholars the oldest institutions of higher learning was started
on the island of Cos, Greece, in about the sixth century B.C. These schools
taught medicine along with other subjects and covered topics concerning the
nature of humanity and the universe.
A group of people, called the Pythagorean School, were the followers of the
Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (c. 580-500 B.C.). They also
started schools of higher education in Italy. They taught philosophy and
mathematics in Greek. The Greek philosophers Socrates (470-399 B.C.), Plato
(c. 428-348 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) carried on this tradition in these
institutions. The medieval Islamic world awarded degrees and diplomas in
medicine and various other subjects. The Al-Azhar University founded in Cairo,
Egypt, in 970 A.D. and offered a variety of degrees in graduate and postgraduate
programmes, including theological seminary, law and jurisprudence, Arabic,
astronomy, philosophy and logic. Some other universities of that time (9th century
A.D.) are: University ofSalerno, University of Constantinople, Preslav Literary
School and Ohrid Literary School in Bulgaria. The first formal degree-granting
university in Europe was the University of Bologna (established in 1088). It was
followed by the University of Paris (c. 1150), University of Oxford (1167), and
the University of Cambridge (1209). The Roman Catholic Church was responsible
for the development of a lot of medieval universities in Western Europe. In Europe,
students preceeded to university when they completed their studies of the trivium
(the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic) and then the
quadrivium (study of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). There were
also many notable institutions that were providing education and conferring
degrees even outside Europe, for example the famous Hanlin Academy
(established in 618-907 AD) in China.
By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals, and by
the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. Their
models of education were renowned across the globe. Universities mostly
concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries, and they started to become
accessible to the masses after 1914. Until the 19th century, religion played a
significant role in university curriculum. However, the role of religion and courses
related to it began to diminish in the 19th century in most of the universities and
colleges, and the German university model was adopted by most higher education
institutes.
1.4.1.1 Women in Higher Education

You will be surprised to know that the history and development of higher
education in the western countries is not very old. The history of higher education
for women began in the middle 18th Century with the establishment of female-
only primary and secondary schools. In course of time some of these schools
11
Managing Higher were transformed into colleges with the focus on training unmarried women to
Perspective
become teachers.
The first boarding school for women was established in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
in 1742 by members ofthe Moravian denomination. This school became known
as the Bethlehem Female Seminary and was granted a charter in 18.63 to award
baccalaureate degrees. Oberlin College (1837) in Ohio was the first college to
allow women to attend classes equally with men. The first state college to accept
women was the University of Iowa (1855), which was quickly followed by several
other colleges in Western states.
The University of Wisconsin went coeducational in 1865, followed by the

University of Kansas (1869). Boston University made every class available to
women except theological programs in 1870. The University of Chicago opened
as a coeducational institution in 1892.
But still then many universities did not allow women until the mid- to late 20th
century. Harvard University allowed women into the classroom on an equal
basis with men in 1943. You will be surprised to know that the first woman
entered Yale University as an undergraduate in 1969 and the University of Virginia
did not become fully coeducational until 1970.
1.4.2 Indian Scenario

In the previous section' we have discussed about the development of HE in the
world. In the following sections we shall discuss the structure and growth of
education in India.
In this section you will get some knowledge about the development of HE in
India. Education in India has always been valued more than mere considering it
as a means towards earning a good living. Education system in India has changed
from different stages and actually it takes its shape according to the political
scenario, social structure, needs and demands of the society. All along the ages,
the influence of education on the society was tremendous but in early days it was
limited for a few. Quality of education was valued most. Naturally, there was
only vertical development in education. Ancient India considered knowledge as
the third eye that gives insight into all affairs. Education was available in
Gurukulas, Agrahars, Viharas and Madarasas, throughout the country.
In Ancient India there were no separate higher education systems, but learners
once got admitted to the Gurus came out as the learners of the highest order in
quality. This is also found in the writings of Max Muller. Max Muller was a
German philologist, ideologist and a Sanskrit scholar. He was one of the founders
of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative
religion. He translated the complete Rig Veda in Sanskrit. Max Muller wrote:
"If I were asked under what sky the human mind has most fully developed some
of its choicest gifts, has most deeply pondered on the greatest problems of life,
and has found solutions to some of them which well deserve the attention of even
those who have studied Plato and Kant, I should point to India" (India, What
can it Teach Us? 1883).
12
/
If we categorise different changes in the Indian society, we will find clearly four Higher Education:
different stages:
1) Ancient India or Pastoral India,
2) Mediaval India,
3) Colonial India, and
4) Independent India.
Categorisation is done here only to understand the changes in the education

systems in different periods. But you may do it in other ways according to your
perception. We will discuss the education system in those periods in the next
sections, but before that you may answer the following questions given below:
Check Your Progress 2

1) Define Higher Education and state its two important properties.
2) Why had Max Muller praised Indian education?
....................................................................... ,
, . .
1.4.2.1 Ancient India

This period is known as Ancient India or Pastoral India. In this period you can
get some information about the education system of that time from the Vedas
and the Upanishads. For example, you may find the following concept in the
Katha Upanishad (iii, 6):
"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must

have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer."
Thus it was considered that education can control concentration of mind and
other senses also. In the Vedic age, the central conception of education of the
Indians has been that it is a source of illumination by giving a correct lead in the
various spheres of life. Knowledge was considered as the.third eye of the people.
As per classical Indian tradition "Sa vidya ya vimuktaye" (that which liberates
us is education) was the main aim of education.
13
· Managing Higher The schools, colleges or universities were not structured as we find it in the
Perspective
present days. The learned persons or the Rishis, who lived at a distant place
away from the din and bustle of the urban life, took the charge of education. The
student had to search for a guru (teacher). The guru may accept or reject the
student. If accepted, the student or the shishya had to live with the guru. Learning
was mainly rote memory. No definite instructional systems were there but the
guru generally followed his own teaching method and system. The mode of
instruction was 'word of mouth' through 'face to face' (F2F) instructional system.
Individual learner's attention was given top priority. Management of education
totally depended on the teacher and the learner had to follow the Guru (teacher).
s
'Learner motivation' was very important. Once the guru accepted the shishya
in to his own fold, learning could be taken as granted.
1.4.2.2 Medieval India

With the passage of time, Pastoral society changed into a Feudal society. This
period is considered as the medieval period. The economic structure of the period
changed a lot and complexity of the society develops many times. Naturally it
has' its impact on the education system also. This period may be divided into
different stages. But for the present purpose we will confine our attention into
two stages only: i) Before the arrival ofthe Muslims: we consider it as the Feudal
India I and 11)before the arrival of the British: we consider it as Feudal India Il,
because in these two segments education system had different dimensions, aims
and objectives.
i) Feudal India I
During this period land was the main controlling part of economy. This had
also changed the educational system of the country. Expansion of know ledge
had helped to develop the traditional system of education. Slowly seats of
higher learning were established. These were established in the Gupta era.
The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning and they had established centers
of higher education at N alanda, Takshila, Ujjain, Vikramshila and Vallabhi
in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. Each university specialised their
students in a particular field of study. For example, Takshila specialised
students in the study of medicine, while Ujjain on astronomy. Nalanda,
being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge. During this
period India became a centre for higher learning and attracted scholars from
all parts of India and abroad. The aspirants of higher education, after
completing preliminary education, had to reach these institutions after a
long walk and had to face the 'Dwarpal' who were also great scholars:
'Dwarpals' conducted the admission test by asking questions. So the
motivation of the learners was a characteristic of the age. The HE system in
those universities had their own management systems and only specialised
teachers gave instructions to the students in particular theory and practical
field of studies.
ii) Feudal India 11

This period stared after the arrival of the Muslims in India and is characterised
by the establishment of Madrasas along with Pathsalas. In education ethics,
philosophy, astrology, astronomy, linguistics, languages were common to
both the education system but methods of instructions were different. The
characteristics of the age were the desire of the students to be in the high
14 social groups. Education was mainly religion based.
1.4.2.3 Colonial India Higher Education:
This period started after the arrival of the British in India. This is also known as
the modem era in education. The British totally transformed the education system
of the country and introduced Western method of education. English being the
language of the ruler, the medium of instruction became English and inputs from
the British culture was heavily included inthe Indian education system. Subjects
like physics, economics, chemistry etc. replaced traditional subjects. In the new
.era the demand for the upward social mobility of the people was growing rapidly.
This trend was so strong that people wanted to get education by paying fees and
thus private institutions, along with institutions of higher learning, began to grow.
The first such college to impart western education was founded in 1818 at
Serampore near Calcutta (modem Kolkata). The first college is known as
'Serampore College'. Over the next forty years, many such colleges were
established in different parts of the country like Agra, Bombay, Madras, N agpur, .
Patna, Calcutta, Nagapattinam etc. These institutions were privately managed
and established, generally, by the Missionaries. At that Period the objective of
education of the British government for India was to produce a class of
intermediaries between the ruler and the ruled and also "the main aim in starting
of the schools for children as well as the institution of higher learning in the 18th
century was to propagate Christianity, to have competent scholars in the Muslim
and Hindu Law, and to train the British civilians in Indian languages, Indian law,
and Indian history" (Altbach: 2006).
A new management system in Universities and other education institutions

developed after Sir Charles Wood's Dispatch of 1854. This had led to (i) the
creation of a separate department for the monitoring of education in each province,
(ii) the founding three universities in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras In 1857 and
(iii) the introduction of grants-in-aid system in education. At that time, existing
27 colleges were affiliated to these three universities. Later more universities
were established. At the time of Independence in 1947, there were 19 universities
and several hundred affiliated colleges (CABE : 2005).

1) Why can education of the Medieval India be divided in two parts?
2) What are the special features of the education of the Colonial India?
.15
Managing Higher 1.4.2.4 After Independence
Perspective
After independence, there were 370 general colleges, 208 professional colleges
and 27 universities and in 2004 -2005 these numbers went up to 10377, 3201
and 364 respectively. TIlls rise is no doubt massive but inadequate when compared
to the needs ofthe country. After 1980's of the last century, outlook ofthe policy
makers changed. Gradually 'universalisation of education' and 'equality of
educational opportunity' became popular concepts. It was expressed in the Indian
Constitution too.
The demand of education had further increased with the increase in population,
respect for democratic values, development of trade and commerce and expansion
of information systems.
1.5 HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE NEW GLOBAL

CONTEXT
In the previous section you have learnt about the development of higher education
in India. In this section you will know about the development of higher education
in the present changing social context.
During the last quarter of the Twentieth Century higher education has become a
priority area in most of the nations. This is because human resource development
cannot really happen without development of intellectual capital. As per the
observations made by the World Bank, scientific and technological progress and
enhanced productivity in any nation is closely linked with the investments made
for improvement of human capital and quality of economic environment (World
Bank -2006). This has made several problems within the nations. The UNESCO
report (1996) has identified the following tensions:
• The tension between the global and the local,

• The tension between the universal and the individual,
• The tension between tradition and modernity,
• The tension between long term and short term considerations,
• The tension between the need for competition and concern for equality of
opportunity,
• The tension between the extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human
capacity to assimilate it, and
• The tension between the spiritual and material :
(Source :Learning the Treasure Within, Delor-1996)
So Higher Education has to face the above challenges in this area of liberalisation,
privatisation and globalisation and it should be considered in this context.
1.5.1 HE for the Development and Perfection of the Individual

The University Education Commission (1948) chaired by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(a renowned philosopher and academic who later became the President of India)
mentioned:
16
/
"If India is to confront the confusion of our times, she must turn for guidance Higher Education:
not to those who are lost to the exigencies of the passing hour but to her men of
letters and men of science, to her poets and artists, to her discoverers and
inventors. These intellectual pioneers of civilisations are to be found and trained
in the universities, which are the sanctuaries of the minor life of the nation. "
Thus university is a place where right kind of leadership, for all walks of life, is
developed, gifted minds and creative people are identified. It helps the
development of people with physical fitness and high moral values. The
universities should also promote right kind of attitudes, eagerness for furthering
knowledge, rational outlook, and nurture scientific temper among the youths of
the society. University is a place where youth develops a dogma free mind. The
university education can develop youth to distinguish between right and wrong,
good and bad.
The report ofthe Education Commission (1964-66), Chaired by Dr. D.S. Kothari,
also m~ntioned that the universities are the dwelling places of ideas and ideals
and hence all the members, including the students,_ should require to develop
high standards so that they can contribute this in their own societies.
1.5.2 HE for the Fulfillment of the Growing Demands of the

Society
In the previous section you have read, how higher education helps in the
development and perfection of the individual. In this section you will know about
the need of higher education for the growing demands of the society.
Today's youth are the future leaders of the nation. So they should be trained to
know the demands of the society, because the future emerging world is opening
up very fast. Due to the ICT revolution, the world is becoming a 'Global Village',
the world communities are becoming our neighbours. Ithas enhanced different
demands of the society and the individuals in different ways. This has paved the
way to respond to structural changes that can determine the future of the society
and to meet the growing demands of the society.
For higher education, structural change is the result of the confluence of two
forces: one force is the information revolution, which is driving the shift from an
energy-based to a knowledge-based economy. The other is the management
revolution, which itself is being driven partly by changes in our capacity to use
information. But education is a very complex system and at the same time it can
influence the individual and the society in many ways. It also depends on many
other factors of the changing world. So, planners should make future plan of
education in general and of higher education, in particular, considering the future
emerging needs, factors and variables so that it can fulfill the needs and demands
of the new emerging society. It will help to develop a critical faculty among
students, i.e., the ability to question all propositions.
1.6 KEY PLAYERS IN THE·HIGHER EDUCATION

IN INDIA IN THE 21ST CENTURY
In the previous section you have learnt about the higher education in the changing.
global scenario. In this section you will know about the different controlling
17
Managing Higher authorities of higher education in India in the 21st century, because this is important
Perspective
to know the development of higher education in India. This has been discussed
in detail in the other block of this course. So we will give you only a synoptic
idea about it here.
The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is not only the lone grant
giving agency in the country, but also responsible for coordinating, determining
and maintaining the standards in institutions of higher education. Apart from the
UGC, other key players of professional organisations for recognising courses
and promoting professional institutes are: All India Council for Technical
Education, Distance Education Bureau, Indian Council for Agriculture Research,
Bar Council of India, National Council for Teacher Education, Rehabilitation
Council of India, Medical Council of India, Pharmacy Council of India, Indian
Nursing Council, Dentist Council of India, Central Council of
Homeopathy, Central Council of Indian Medicine and so on.
1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have got a detailed knowledg~ and information about the
development of HE system in India and abroad. In the first part we have tried to
explain the concept of HE. In early days education was non-formal in nature. It
was the natural response, of early civilizations, for the struggle of surviving and
thriving as a culture. The history of HE has its roots in religion but has seen
many changes throughout the ages. It is a long and old history which dates back
from 580 to 500 B.C.
In India, there was no separate system of HE but learners achieve knowledge up

to the highest level. The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning and they
established centers of higher education at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, Vikramshila
and Vallabhiin the seventh and eighth centuries A.D.
Systematic HE developed during Colonial Period for the benefit of the rulers,
but it helped the Indian population in subtle ways. The growth of higher education,
after Independence, is quite high but not according to the needs and demands of
the growing population. There is miss-match between the increase of population
and expansion of education. But HE is important for the promotion of the society
and the nation as a whole. To improve the quality and quantity of higher education
different measures have been taken for different sections of HE.
1.8 UNIT END ACTIVITIES'

1) Discuss the growth and importance of higher education in the first half of
the Medieval period.
2) Discuss the importance of education in the Colonial India, keeping the
historical perspectives in mind.
3) Explain the status of higher education in modem India.
4) Mention the key players in Indian Higher Education and briefly mention the
functions of anyone of them.
18
Higher Education: .
1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS Historical Perspectives
1) Ashby, Eric and Mary Anderson (1966): Universities - African. British,

Indian, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
2) Altbach, Philip G. (2006): 'The Private Higher Education Revolution: An

Introduction'in University News. January 2-8, 2006. Vol. 44, No.Ol.
3) Delors, J. (1996): Learning the Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the

International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century.
UNSECO Publishing, Paris.
4) IGNOU (1994): "ES-313: Student Support Services," Post Graduate Diploma

in Distance Education, STRIDE, New Delhi.
5) Keer, C. (1966): The Uses of the University. New York: Harper and Row.
6) Naik, J. P. & Nurullah, Sayed (1974): A Students History of Education in

India: 1800 -1976, New Delhi: Macrnillian.
19
UNIT 2 GLOBALISATION OF HIGHER
EDUCATION
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Understanding Globalisation
2.3.1 Internationalization of Education
2.3.2 Collaboration Resulting into Brain Drain
2.3.3 Supporting Foreign Students Abroad
2.4 Educational Service under GATS
2.4.1 . Primary Education Services
2.4.2 Secondary Education Services
2.4.3 Higher (Tertiary) Education Services
2.4.4 Adult Education Services
2.4.5 Othe rEducation Services
2.5 Managing Multicultural Institutions
2.5.1 The European Initiatives
2.5.2 Knowledge Vs. Digital Divide
2.5.3 Content of Education
2.5.4 Content Translation
2.5.5 Secular Vs. Religious Content
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Suggested Readings
2.1 INTRODUCTION
, The character of higher education institutions is fast changing. The demand for-
higher education has substantially increased because of the successful expansion
of school education. The number of eligible candidates knocking the doors of
higher education has grown more than twice during 2000 - 2010. Similarly other
developing nations have witnessed enhanced enrolment, retention and success
in school education. The higher education sector has been caught napping not
only in India but in other developing nations as well. In most countries neither
the infrasture nor the faculty has been prepared to handle the swollen demand.
The demand has suddenly shot up many times. Interestingly during the same
period the foreign education providers have also become interested in establishing
and/or collaborating with local institutions. Well established and globally known
institutions of higher education have shown interest in collaborating with
instituions in developing world and also in establishing campuses in the
developing countries. Globalisation would require learning the technique of
managing colalboration and content, managing quality, sharing profits and so
on. Higher education institutions in the Developed countries have long experience
of managing international students as well as faculty but institutions in the
Developing world do not have the experience of either hosting foreign students
or foreign education providers.
20
This unit examines a few issues that will affect management of higher education Globalisation ofHigber
Education
institutions in a globalised education situation. As globalisation has come about
as a consequence of the GATS this unit also examines the outcome of the Uruguay
rounds of WTO on education sector. '
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the concept and process of 'globalization';
• Explain the process undertaken to make educational services globally
available;
• Participate and develop norms and standards for participating in education
globally, and
•, Explain the various issues related to globalization e.g. curriculum, cross-
border education and so on.
2.3 UNDERSTANDING GLOBALIZATION

Before we examine the implications of globalisation it is important to understand
the concept of globalisation in the educational context. In fact the contemporary
context of globalisation is much influenced by the 'market forces' which sees
studentsllearners as 'consumers' and the discussion on globalisation often turns
into number of students and profits/viability. But the concept of 'globalisation'
of education is really not new. A number of writers have mentioned that in many
cultures including Indian, education has been seen as a resource worth sharing
and not selling. It is no wonder that the fees of education, especially the
government run institutions is nominal.
The modem system of education especially higher education has developed in

the West and the less,de,:eloped nations have largely replicated the system
developed in the West and of late in the USA. The Western unversities have for
many decades been attracting foreign students. But the fees that the home students
have been paying has been much less than the overseas students. It has also been
mentioned that the education of home students has been subsidised at the cost of
overseas students. The universities, especially in the United Kingdon since the
mid 20th Century and the US universities during the late 20th Century attracted
students from the developing, poor nations. The cost of establishing and running
good institution is high and the developing nations neither had the resources nor
the expertise to establish world class universities. The option left with the affluent
and those parents who could afford to spend for the education of their children
was to send their children to the universities in Europe or the US.
Many scholars trace the beginning of globalization of education in the travel of

students baroad since the middle of the twentieth century. But some scholars
have also opined that the early travellers like Fa Hien who came to India and
stayed for nearly six years, during the rule of ChandraGupta 11(375-415) and the
visit of Hsuan Tsang during the rule of Harshawardhan (606-647) to research
and write on the life and preachings of Gautama the Buddha as the earliest
instances of globalisation of education. The great Indian and Chinese civilizations
had already initiated the process of globalization of education much before the
21
Managing Higher concept got currency in the rest of the world. However in the modem day context
Perspective
'internationalization' of education has been the concept, which we will discuss
below.
2.3.1 Internationalization of Education

As mentioned above the most common form of global coperation (during 20th
Century) in education has been of admitting students from foreign countries in
the courses offered by the institutions. The learners had to travel abroad and stay
in the host (foreign) country during the period ofthe course. The cost of travel as
well as stay has been, for most learners exorbitant. The course fee often has been
beyond the reach of most learners, especially as the foreign students have been
charged many times more fees compared to the home students. Only the most
affluent have been able to avail of this option as most learners could not manage
such finances. In spite of the high cost a large number of students belonging to
the elite and the affluent have managed to travel abroad and obtain higher degrees.
Students normally travelled only to obtain higher (tertiary) degree and that too in
areas in which higher education has not been available e.g. Law. This has been
knnown as 'internationalization' of education.
The flow of students has been from poor to the rich countries. It is a dichotomy
that the learners from poor nations, who could ill afford such finances travelled
to the rich nations. The flow of students has been from nations like India, China,
Pakistan to nations like UK, USA, Australia. It is also found that a large number
of institutions in the rich nations are sustained on the fees collected from the
students from the poor nations. The quantum of money transferred is substantial
and could be enough to sustain many universities in the poor nation.
However many countries spent large sums and established 'world class'
institutions but the products of these institutions also did not serve those nations.
We will discuss with this phenominon commonly known as ' brain drain' below.
2.3.2 Collaboration Resulting in Brain Drain

Many nations during the early post-colonial phase established 'world class'
instituions with the financial and know-how proivided by the advanced countries
within the country. In India the Indian Institutes of Technology were established
to train technocrats. The best of the nation were selected and educated and trained
in these institutions. Their education was highly subsidised through public
funding. However the products graduationg from these institutions mostly
travelled abroad to get better jobs and also good quality life.
Financial and intellectual support has also been an established form of

internationalization of education. The IITs were established with the help of the
USA, Germany and other nations. For some periods the faculty members also
stayed in these institutions to initiate the processes and lay the foundation of
good traditions. However we fmd that this also resulted in the best minds educated
and trained through public money also did not stay within the contry. The poor
nations were not only deprived of the best minds but also of the funds they spent
on training the selected few.
With time perhaps we are witnessing a reversal of the process. A large number of
Indians who migrated a few decades back after studying in thses elite institutions
22 are now returning. With them are also coming their children who have got good
education abroad and who would be able to contribute to the national Globalisation of Higher
Education
development. We also find that a substantial number of gradutaes of these
institutions are now staying back in the country. Even foreign students are now
travelling to fast progressing Developing nations like India. In the nest section
we will examine 'scholarships as an established mechanism of internationalisation
of educaiton.
2.3.3 Supporting Foreign Students Abroad

Students who could support their studies abroad travelled to foreign countries to
obtain higher degrees but rich nations have also supported students from the less
developed countries through various scholarship schemes. Countries like the
UK, USA, Germany, France have offered scholarships to students from less
developed countries to travel to those countries for pursuing higher degrees.
Many a times these scholarships are for pursuing a subject ofthe student's choice
but sometimes these are restricted to subjects which these countries want to
promote. A large number of scholarships offered by France and Germany are for
pursuing French and German language courses.
Such scholarships have been of great suppport to individual learners as they

could get opportunity to study in the best instituions and on return to their
respective countries they could excel. However, some critics have also seen
scholarship schemes as continuation of 'colonialism'. Education transforms minds
and scholars educated abroad carry the legacy of the country they are trained in
all their lives. Foreign educated scholars often take an approach which perpetuates
the processes followed in those countries. However this a debatable issue. You
need to discuss with your peer group and also examine existing literature to
form your stand. In the next section we will examine the developments since the
General Agreement in Trade and Tariffs (GATT) changed to General Agreement
in Trade in Services (GATS) more popularly known as the Uruguay Rounds of
discussion.
Collaboration for Profit

Various reports mention that the government's education budget of various
European countries is shrinking and institutions have to find ways to 'generate
resources. Similar is the case with developing countries. Obviously maintaining
the number of participants and increasing the number, if the institution intends
to expand its research activites, becomes the first priority. The fees of the home
students has to be kept low because of the political pressure. Most European
institutions have been charging differential fees to non-home students. In fact
. foreign students have contributed. enormously to the growth of may European
universities. Obviously, the most handy method of generating funds is attracting
more international students. Before going to the next section answer the questions
given in the box to assess your understanding.
-/

1) What should be the main concern in forging an educational
collaboration?
....................................................................... ;-,:.: .
23
Managing Higher
Education Institution: A 2) What has been the major criticism of scholarship schemes for studies
Perspective abroad?
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• "'"1 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
2.4 EDUCATION SERVICES UNDER GATS

Since ethe Uruguay rounds the World Trade Organisation included education as
a service and educational services came under the gambit of tradeable service.
Just as the industrial products are classified educational services were also
classified by the WTO for the ease of trade. The educational services are broadly
divided into four categories namely;
Primary Education Services,

Secondary Education Services,
Higher (Tertiary) Education Services, and
Adult Education Services.
Education not covered within the four broad areas have been put under a separate
categoy of Other Education Services.
We will briefly discuss how these educational categories have been defined.
2.4.1 Primary Education Services

The Primary education services includes preschool, and other primary education
services but excludes child care services. The child care is included in the 'social
service' . The preschool or the pre-primary education service which are at present
provided by the nursery schools, kindergartens or such establishedments attached
to primary sections of the schools. These establishments prepare children for the
school environment, are now included in the educational services under the GATS.
2.4.2 Secondary Education Services

Secondary education services includes education of the 14+ what in India is now
covered by the Rastriya Madhyamik ShikshaAbhiyan (RMSA), which includes
the IX to XII classes, in other words the secondary and the senior secondary
levels. However the GATS includes the technical and vocational seconday
education with a separate category for the vocational and technical education for
the handicapped students of this age group.
The secondary education services is visualised as a continuation of the basic

programmes imparted at the primary level but with more specialisation and
concentration on subject specific content. Education during the secondary level
will bifurcate the clientele for the technical or vocational education which will
be more skill oriented and university education which will be more content
oriented. A special mention has been made of the education of the handicapped.
24
2.4.3 Higher (Tertiary) Education Services Glebalisatien of Higher
Education
Two major areas namely the post-secondary technical and vocational-education
services and other higher education services are included in the higher (tertiary)
education services. Post-secondary education refers to sub-degree technical and
vocational education and the vocational education services refers to education
leading to a university degree or equivalent, which put more emphasis on teaching
of practical skills, without compromising on the theoretical knowledge of the
area.
Education under other higher education services are typically provided by the
colleges and universities in India which primarily emphasize theoretical
instruction, but also involve in research training with the objective of preparing
students for generating new knowledge and contributing to the corpus of
knowledge.
The 'branch campuses' established by institutions abraoad are mainly in this

area of education.
2.4.4 Adult Education Services

There is rampant illiteracy in the Developing countries and more than half the
illiterates are in South Asia. It is unavoidable for nations like India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and many countries of Africa to take up education of the adults on
priority. Adult education would not only include the literacy programmes but all .
those who are not served by the regular institutions also mid-career updation
including acquiring higher degree.
Educational provisions for those who are not.in the regular institutions is covered
by the adult education services. For this group modem means of communication
. ,
like the radio, television ate, provided direcltly at home or at any other designated
places beyond the regular hours as per the convenience of the clientele group,
has been mentioned. Regular school or college buildings may be used for
extending education to the adults.
Distance mode and material especially prepared for this group (i.e. self
instructional material) has been empahsised in the OATS document, under the
adult education.
2.4.5 Other Education Services

To cover all other areas and services not covered by the four major areas OATS
has put' other educational services' as a separate category. For example the 'child-
care services' has been put in this category.
It will be apparent from the five broad categories mentioned above that any
agency of any country can now offer to serve in ay other country. It will depend
upon the country concerned how they regulate the sector and which countries do
they get in collaboration with. We will have to wait to see how the provisions of
OATS are implemented.
In the next section we will discuss the process through which these are to be
provided, but before you read the next section attempt the self assessment
questions to find for yourself how well you have understood the content discussed
above.
25
Managing Higher
Education Institution: A Check Your Progress 2
Perspective
3) How old is the concept of 'globalization' of education? And what was
the motive of globalization?
4) Which are the major areas covered by the GATS under educational
services?
2.5 MANAGING MULTI CULTURAL

INSTITUTIONS
Globalisation necessarily brings in stake holders from diverse cultural and socio-
economic backgrounds together. It is never easy to satisfy learners
Besides the agreements made through the GATS guidelines there have been other
similar group formations on regional basis. In the European Community, which
was initially formed to make economic cooperation, but educational coperation
has become very effective. Amongst the major efforts made are:
Bologna
Cooperation involves exchange of students and teachers but untimately resulting
in exchange of ideas. This phenomenon is not new. Migration of students and
teachers have been taking place between instituions and ideas also get carried.
During 1167-68 students from Paris, who were in fact expelled joined Oxford.
The mass migration took place because the students from Paris were expelled
because Henry 11banned English speaking students from attending University
of Paris. they held strong views about religion which were in contrast to the
existing university administration. This group influenced the contemporary
debates in Oxford and have been guiding ideology of Oxford University.
Also, the practice of affiliating colleges to the university came with the students
who came from Paris.
2.5.1 The European Initiatives

In May, 1998 ministers in-charge of four countries namely France, Germany,
26 Italy and the United Kingdom met at Sorbonne to jointly forge afuture for the
European higher education known as the Sorbonne Declaration. The committee Globalisation of Higher
Education
mentioned that Europe not only stood for Euro and the economy but for a
knowledge society and that they must work together to strengthen the higher
eduction in the Europe. This initiative ultimately fruitioned in the signing of the
Bologna Declaration on 19 June 1999. Twenty nine countries signed the
declaration and now there are more tha 47 countries part of the collaboration
known as the European Higher Education Area.
2.5.2 Knowledge Divide Vs. Digital Divide

Most of the contemporary research in done in the Western universities and those
who have access to the latest knowledge tend to excell. We often talk of digitital
divide but perhaps more important is the knowledge divide. One of the gains of
globalization can be sharing of latest knowledge but most developing world
learners have a suspicion that in spite of paying high fees would learners of off-
campus centres get the same access and learning opportunities that home learners
would get.
Ninety percent of the net connection is in the developed world where only ten
percent of the world population resides. Of the ninety percent population has
only ten percent of the net connection. How would the treatment be equal to all
learners -locationally, and economically. The question which remains unanswered
is would globalization increse or decrease the divide between the ric and the
poor, the urban and the rural.
In this process besides the poor women would be most hit. Two thirds of the
world's women population is illiterate so they would be doubly deprived as they
first do not have education and even those who are educated do not have access
to technology supported knowledge sources.
Most of the prestigious institutions are in the towns and cities. India is a country
of villages and still majority of the people are dependent on agriculture andlive
in rural areas. Institutions which show interest in establishing a campus should
be persuaded, may be through statutory provisions to serve the rural masses
without forcing learners to migrate to the towns and cities. This provision should
also become mandatory for-the Indian agencies which establish institutions for
profit.
2.5.3 Content of Education

A major issue in globalisation of education is the content of education or the
curriculum. Institutions are responsible forteaching content which would produce
a generation which feels proud of its past i.e of its ancestory. Curriculum often
include content about great personalities. Learners feel motivated to imitate those
personalities. There might be contradictions in the curriculum of two different
countries, e.g. General Dyer's life history may inspire British children but would
not inspire Indian children. Similarly Gandhi is considered the father of nation
in India and the person who brought Independence to the nation but learners in
the neibouring country Pakistan may feel the same about Zinnah.
Besides institutions also keep in mind the areas in which human resources may
be required, which deciding on starting courses and degrees. Universitiesin India
may put more emphasis on eradicating caste and social disparities like
27
Managing Higher untouchability but European nations may not have these as their concern in
Perspective
designing courses. In fact the experts may not.even have the feel of the social
realities existing in countries like India.
2.5.4 Content Transaction

There are three most important componets of any good institution - the students,
the teachers and the infrastructure. In the case of global institutions i.e. institutions
established by foreign providers the building would be erected by them but how
would the library and the laboratories be created in a short time. The students
would be pulled from the local population-but from where would the teachers
come. The more popular institutions are known by the faculty on their rolls, but
would the same group of teachers teach. the off-shore students? As the living
conditions in the Developing countries- is not so good the teachers do not want to
migrate to less-developed nations to teach, however the situation in the Developed
countries in not so. Scholars prefer tolive in the Developed countries and teach
there. According to:one report in '20 16 th~te were students from 139 count(ies_in
Oxford, df which 14 percent werefuil_ti~e undergradute students and 6Jpercent
were fulltime graduate.students. Amongst the teaching and research staff 28
percent and amongst the research only staffA3 percent were overseas nationals.
A proper mix of students, researchers and staff makes an institution's community
global. Just offering degree of a foreign instituion would not make a difference.
While deciding on the modalities it must be kept in mind that the learners must
get access to identical support that students of home institution get otherwise
globalisation may become a tool of collecting fees and awarding sub-standard
degrees.
2.5.5 Secular Vs. Religious Content

India is a secular nation besides being a mutilingual and multi ethnic nation, so a
major concern of educational institutions while designing curriculum is the secular
ethos of our Constitution. There are nations which subscribe to one or the other
religious views and the views of a particular religion largely influences the
curriculum of those nations. In globalizing education nations would have to keep
the curriculum under strict scrutiny. We have seen instances where a few
expressions or examples given in texts with religious overtone or obliquely
decrying religious faiths have stirred masses and raked up massive agitations.
Institutions establish a reputation over decades and centuries. Universities like

Paris (estd.), Oxford (estd.), Cambridge (estd. ) have strived hard to establish the
reputation that they now command. If foreign institutions do not have long term
stake in the welfare and development of the nation they may just admit students
without proper scrutiny and also award degree without ensuring 'learning
achievement' of students. Such institutions may not have long term stake and
'fly by night' after amassing large sums of money through student fees.
2.6 LET US SUM UP

We have tried to provide ideas about various processes followed in globalizing
education since the Ancient times. The process of globalisation has undergone
many stages and so has been the terminology. The cover term today is
'globalisation' but the terms used for the same phenomenon has been
28
'internationalization' 'collaboration' and so on. You should be able to-understand Globalisation of Higher
Education
the difference between these terms and also the difference in the processes during
different periods.
2.7 SUGGESTED READING

1) Sharma, Chandra B. and S.v. S. Chaudhary (2001), Institutional
Collaborations in Distance Education: Development and Delivery http://
www.col.org/knowledge/pdflks_institutional.pdf.pdf
2) Sharma, Chandra B. and Amayo Tom Mboya (2001), 'Internationalising

Education: A proposal for Kenya-India Collaboration' (2001), in Staff and
Educational Development International. Vol. 5, no. 3, p.p. 307-317.
3) Shanna, Chandra B. (2001), 'Globalising Education in an unequal world'

in Indian Journal ojOpen Learning, vol. 10, no. 3, p.p. 309-317.
4) Shanna, Chandra B. (2001), 'South Asian Virtual Knowledge Collaboration:

A Proposal' (2001) in Perspectives in Education published by the Center of
Advanced Studies in Education, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara:
CASE, pp. 130-134.
29
UNIT 3 MAJOR EMERGING POLICY
INITIATIVES
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Educational Initiatives in Independent India
3.3.1 Nehru's Vision of Education
3.3.2 Education under British Rule
3.4 Policy Formulation in Education
3.4.1 Quality Assurance in Indian Education
3.4.2 The Mudaliar Commission
3.5 Elementary Education Policies at a Glance
3.5.1 First NPE and Kothari Commission
3.5.2 2nd NPE and Ramamurti Commission
3.6 Impact of Global Goals on Elementary Education
3.6.1 World Conference on Education for All
3.6.2 World Education Forum
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Suggested Reading
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The state of Indian Education can be summarized by saying that it is yet to find
the direction it deserves. Before the independence in 1947, the British Education
Policy was obviously planned to serve the government and the people not India
and the Indians. There was a constant tug of war between the government and
the small elite intellectual group which may be called the Congress to wrestle a
system which could be in the interest of the people of this country. The interest
of the government was to gear the system in a manner which could serve the
British people and the nation. Those who could penetrate into that system and
equip themselves through the process of British education could understand the
importance of modem education and pleaded for a pro-Indian system of education.
All said and done the education system available was to serve a small minority
who could serve the foreign interest.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you should be able to:
• able to critically assess and analyze various policies;
• comment on the major policies and plans undertaken after independence;
and
• know about various plans and policies related to education and be able to
make a critique of the policies.
30
Major Emerging Policy
3.3 EDUCATIONAL INITIATIVES IN Initiatives
INDEPENDENT INDIA
Since India gained independence it was a concern to reduce illiteracy across the
states of the country. The era of educational reconstruction took priority in the
wake of social and economic reconstruction by the National Government. Since
1947 education was regarded as the chief instrument for a significant
reconstruction and transformation of the new born nation. It was therefore
important to take appropriate steps in the direction of educational reconstruction
that took place through the appointment of a series of commissions to survey,
study, review and recommend ways to bring about improvements in the different
sectors of education. To achieve this, the first education commission in the form
of University Education Commission (1948-1949) was appointed by the
Government of India under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. This was
taken up in pursuance of the recommendations of the Central Advisory Board of
Education (CAB E) and also of the Inter-University Board (IUB). Out of the
various recommendations, the commission focused on improving the standard
of university education in the country. It also introduced the three-year degree
course as the first university degree, emphasized on greater use of tutorial system
of instruction, discovering new educational aims, stressed on developing
knowledge and promoting critical thinking rather than mechanical clearing of
examinations, creation of rural universities and introduction of moral education
emerged as some of its salient recommendations. The Commission also brought
to light the the importance of Intermediate Colleges in the Indian educational
systems, which the system lacked. To harmonize University Education in the
country, it also recommended the establishment of the University Grants
Commission. This is when the Commission came into being. Simultaneously
the government also adopted a Resolution on Scientific Policy that supported
the development of high-quality higher education institutions, by setting up the
Indian Institutes of Technology (UTs).
3.3.1 Nehru's Vision of Education

After independence, it was expected that those at the helm of affairs would design
and develop a system which would serve the masses and not only the elite. India
achieved independence on the democratic grounds and there was strong faith
that the system would be pro-people and for the masses. However, if we look at
the scenario during the first four decades after independence we find that there
was an over emphasis on developing a strong higher education system including
technical education. The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit lawaharlal Nehru
was a towering personality and a person with strong ideas. No wonder the initial
decades are known as Nehruvian Era. All policies and plans not only in education
but in other sectors as well were influence by Nehru's ideas. Nehru very strongly
believed that India should become self-reliance in the production of heavy
machinery and so that we could start producing our own industry with our own
machines so that we did not have to import heavy machinery. The impact of his
idea was that we establish premiere technical institutions by the name of Indian
Institutes of Technology and also Regional Institutes of Technology (now known
as the National Institute of Technology). Time has proved Nehru's ideas have
borne fruit and the UTs and the NITs have produced not only quality technocrats
considered the best in the country but also globally. It may be said that because
31
Managing Higher the lIT graduates were too good for the nation and as such most of them migrated
to the affluent Developed nations. However, the 'reverse brain drain' compensates
Perspective
to a great extent our loss in the initial decades of these institutions. Similarly,
establishment of 'expensive institutions of higher education like the University
of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and also through private initiatives by the people
like, Madan Mohan Malviya, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan of institutions like, the
Banaras Hindu University and the Aligarh Muslim University and others created
a small circle once again to serve a microscopic minority. Higher education had
maximum participation of two to four percent of the relevant age group. No
nation can develop into a progressive nation with that sort of a participation in
higher education.
3.3.2 Education under British Rule

What were the reasons that our planners for nearly half a century were happy
with a small higher education infrastructure and a participation of a small select
group? In the school sector, the policy of the East Indian Company to permit the
Missionaries to establish schools to spread British education and also serve the
underdogs had provided a fairly good school system for those who understood
education, in other words, the most under privileged as well as the most privileged.
The most under privileged were brought into the fold so that could adopt
Christianity and the most privileged so that they could be Baptized into the
Christian faith without formally adopting the religion. For a half a century this
worked because those who walked the corridors of power were served well.
Every time the demand for expansion of education was raised the issue of paucity
of funds was put forward. We could never spare enough funds to provide
education, at least Elementary Education to all in spite of the fact that the
Constitution of India promised elementary education to all its citizen.

1) What do you think was the reason for the poor literacy level in India 7
2) What was the policy adopted during Nehru's era with regard to
education?
32
,
3.4· POLICY FORMULATION IN EDUCATION Initiatives
The policy since 1947 was definitely lopsided and without a vision. No higher
education can produce quality graduates unless and until the school system is all
encompassing and competitive. There was practically no competition in a school
education and every child, from an educated family who went to school had a
place reserved in the higher education institutions. The first generation learners
were mostly 'pushed out'. With the introduction of District Primary Education
Programme (DPEP) in 1990 and later Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the
participation in the elementary education system increased and so did competition.
Now, suddenly there were a large number of students demanding secondary and
senior secondary education. Once again the nation was caught unawares. There
were not enough seats in the secondary schools to accommodate all those who
graduated from the elementary schools. The Government was caught napping
and the Rastriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan was brought in a hurry. In a effort
to increase participation in elementary education and then in the secondary
education, most of the groups .have been exempted from paying any fees and
also provided for through mid day meal scheme, free books and uniform, etc.
This whole exercise has taken a toll on higher education. The funds were perhaps
diverted from higher education to elementary and secondary education. The
condition of a school education had definitely substantially improved since the
Jomtien Declaration. But the condition of higher education needs a critical look.
It can be expected that with the increasing school participation more adolescence
would knock the doors of higher education institutions but also better quality
children would get into higher education. The implication of this development
should clearly result into better teaching learning and research in higher education.
However, we do not find the quality of higher education improving in the chain
of events narrated above. The three major functions of higher education, (i)
teaching, (ii) research, and (iii) extension, all suffer because of paucity of funds
and poor governance of institutions. We may consider the following as the major
issues which need immediate attention.
3.4.1 Quality Assurance in Education

Time and again, higher education institutions have been questioned why they do
not figure in the list of best institutions of the world, in spite of the fact that we
have nearly 18% of the world population feeding these institutions. The first and
the most important issue in augmenting the quality of higher education is of
governance. By definition, higher education institutions should be 'autonomous'
and it should be most intolerant to interference from the government and the
politicians which have vested interests. However, if we look at the Acts, Statutes,
Ordinances and Regulations of universities, it would become clear that
universities as well as other centers of academic importance under the Central
and the state governments played a subservient role and dance to the tunes of the
politicians and the bureaucrats. We find that the secretaries and other officials
often in the departments of education interfere and pressurize the vice-chancellors
and heads of other institutions. This goes entirely against the ethos of higher
education and we cannot expect higher education institutions to deliver what
they are created for.
33
Managing Higher 3.4.2 The Mudaliar Commission
Perspective The Secondary Education Commission (1952-1953) was also set to develop
proposals to reform India's school education system. The Radhakrishnan
Commission had also surveyed the field of secondary education in a passing
manner and had admitted that secondary education remained the weakest link in
the Indian educational machinery and required urgent reform. Accordingly an
All India Commission for Secondary Education was appointed in 1952 under
the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanswamy Mudaliar. This Commission had
offered a number of suggestions that would address the needs of secondary
education with the new goals and needs of an independent India. The focus here
shifted on providing training to Indian youth at the intermediate (school) level
for disseminating democratic citizenship and further providing leadership to the
general m-asses. Concern for quality education was also strongly recommended
at the school level by the commission, further developing individual talent,
curricular offerings were extended and diversified. It also suggested the changes
in methods of teaching to achieve the new aims of education. New trends in
examination, guidance and extracurricular work were brought into the school
programmes. Anew concept of Multipurpose secondary school was recommended
that included craft, social studies and general science in the curriculum, which
was aimed at orienting students towards an industrial and science-centred
democratic life. Later in 1961, the National council for Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) was formed that would function as an autonomous
organization to would advise both the Union and state governments on
formulating and implementing education policies.
3.4.3 National Policy of Education (NPE)

To promote education in the country the National Policy on Education (NPE)
was formulated by the Government of India and reach out to its people with
wide-ranging education policies according to the needs of the diverse communities
in India. The NPE covered policies from elementary education to colleges in
both rural and urban India. The first NPE was promulgated by the government
oflndia (Gol) in 1968, and the second in 1986.
The policies focused on three aspects in relation to elementary education:
• Reach out to all elementary level children by stressing on universal access
and enrollment,
• Ensure that all children enrolled remain in school up to 14 years of age, and
• Make meaningful efforts to augment an extensive improvement while
imparting quality of education, especially keeping in mind the contextual
relevance to enable all children to achieve from the diverse communities,
and
• Focus on the revival of Sanskrit and other classical languages for
contemporary use.
With the formulation of NPE in the country, a wide range of programmes were
launched for achieving the goal of universal education through several schematic
and programme interventions centrally and in a state specific manner. Some of
the centrally sponsored initiatives have been Operation Black Board, District
Primary Education Programme, Mahila Samakhya (for education of rural women)
and certain state specific programmes, especially in Rajasthan e.g. Shiksha Karmi
34 Project in 1987, Lok Jumbish Programme 2002-03, etc.
Check Your Progress 2 Initiatives
3) What were the main recommendations of the Mudaliar Commission?
4) What action did the Plan of Action suggest for school education?
3.5 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION POLICIES AT A

GLANCE
3.5.1 First NPE and Kothari Commission
An education commission was set up under the Chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari,
who was then the Chairman, University Grants Commission that began its task
in October, 1964, which submitted its report in May 1966. Based on this report
and its recommendations the first National Policy on Education was announced
in 1968 by the government of India. This was referred to as a "radical
restructuring" that would bring equity to educational opportunities and strengthen
national integration and facilitate greater cultural and economic development.
The policy targeted fulfilling free and compulsory education for all children up
to the age of 14. The effort would also include better training thereby providing
qualified teachers. The policy also focused on learning of regional languages,
outlining the "three language formula" that was implemented in secondary
education. Thus secondary education would have - the instruction of the English
language, the local language of the area where the school was based as the official
language, and Hindi, the national language. This was seen as essential to reduce
the gulf between the intelligentsia and the masses. The decision to adopt Hindi
as the national language became controversial, as the policy stressed on the
necessity for using and learning of Hindi to be encouraged to promote a common
language for all Indians. The policy also encouraged the teaching of Sanskrit as
a language, which was to be considered an essential part of India's culture and
heritage. The NPE of 1968 recommended that spending on education be increase
to six percent of the national income.
3.5.2 2nd NPE and Ramamurti Commission

After the implementation of the 1st NPE it was envisaged that it would be followed
by a 'five yearly review to progress and strategizing new policies and programmes
35
Managing Higher to reach higher levels of achievement in the field of education. Keeping this in
Perspective
mind, at the time of formulation of each new Five-Year Plan, it has been mandatory
to assess the drawbacks I shortcomings as well as progress lachievements in
elementary education and accordingly to decide plans and programs of contextual
relevance in the current Five Year Plans. Creating effective and relevant policies
and programmes lead to developing sound system of education that meaningfully
helps to relate and promote its unique socio-cultural identity and at the same
time also helps to cope up in meeting the existing challenges of the times. The
National Policy of Education of 1986 is the result of the reviews which were
discussed and adopted during the budget session of 1985. The new policy called
for laying special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to ensuring equal
educational opportunities for the marginalized and backward sections e.g.
women, Scheduled Tribes (ST), Scheduled Caste (SC) etc. To achieve these,
the policy suggested expanding scholarships, promoting adult education, engaging
more teachers from the SCs, motivating poor families to send their children to
schools, expansion of new institutions etc. The NPE recommended a "child-
centric approach" at the primary education level, and also launched the "Operation
Blackboard" to improve primary schools nationwide. The policy also suggested
higher education to reach the difficult and remote population by expansion through
the Open University system, for e.gstrengthening the Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU) set up in 1985 by the Gol. The policy also suggested
for setting up models for rural universities, based on the philosophy of Mahatma
Gandhi. Later a committee was set up under the chairmanship of Acharaya
Rammurti in May 1990 to review National Policy of Education (NPE) 1986, and
to make recommendations for its modifications. The Committee submitted its
report in December 1990. The modifications presented in the report was further
placed for consideration at the request of the Central Advisory Board of Education
(CABE). Accordingly a committee was set up in July 1991 under the chairmanship
of Shri N. Janardhana Reddy to take into consideration the modifications made
on NPE and other relevant developments that could have possible bearing on the
policy, and come up with necessary recommendations. This Committee submitted
its report in January 1992, which is known as National Programme of Action of
1992. It laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the education system,
to improve its quality at all.stages, and therefore gave much greater attention to
science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relation
between education and the life of the people.
3.6 IMPACT OF GLOBAL GOALS ON

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The nations across the world, communicated through the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, asserted that "everyone has a right to education". The period
post 1990 saw the coming together of countries across the world and set universal
goals to achieve basic education for all in a step wise manner. To begin with
there was focus on universal primary education that brought in the District Primary
.Education programme (DPEP).
3~6.1 World Conference on Education for All

1990 is the turning point in the history of education. The World Bank organized
a conference on the Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) at Jomtien,
36
Thailand. The conference was organized to promote elementary education in Major Emerging Policy
Initiatives
countries where large number of children were out of school and adults illiterate.
Asia (specially, South Asia - India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Maldives and Bhutan) had the largest mass of out of school children and also the
illiterates. The World Bank provided funds to start schemes to bring all out of
school children to the schools. 1990 onwards we find the complete focus of the
government switching over from higher education to elementary education.
The 1990s marked a new phase of developments in education in general. It is

during this phase that for the first time international assistance was sought. So
far no external assistance of any kind was sought for primary or any other level
of education by the Government ofIndia. Such assistance for primary education
was first of its kind, and has been the most significant development, as it was for
the first time the education sector was opened to external assistance. It started
with World Bank assistance for primary education in ten districts ofUttar Pradesh
and UNICEF by the name of Bihar Education Project (BPE) in Bihar. During
this period a string of internat~onal aid came in to fund and strengthens primary
education system in India. This led to coming together of educational thinkers
and the World Conference on "Education for All" was held at Jomtien, Thailand,
in 1990. This was jointly convened by the leading international funding agencies
that included World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF and UNDP. The conference
proposed for the attainment of universal primary education (UPE) by 2000, that
required to be taken up through intensive drives for universal access to education
and ensure quality monitoring through very close monitoring of learning levels
among the learners enrolled in schools.
The conference also indicated that these bold targets would be attainable if
sufficient resources were made available by national governments along with
significant support extended through international aid. This brought about
ambitious contributions from the World Bank and UNICEF in support of primary
schooling. DFID too showed interest to put increased emphasis on the primary
education sector, and emphasized on adult literacy and non-formal education,
and set a trend that defined its approach for the coming decade. India along with
other developing counties made global commitments at Jomtien Conference to
achieve the collective goals of education for all (EFA) and committed its complete
support in attaining these targets.
The delegates adopted a World Declaration on Education for All at Jomtein

Conference, 1990, which reaffirmed the notion of education as a fundamental
human right and urged countries to intensify efforts to address the basic learning
needs of all. The Framework for Action was required to meet the basic learning
needs that defined targets and strategies to meet them by the year 2000. It included
the following goals:
• Ensure universal access to learning;

• To focus on equity in education;
• To emphasise on increased learning outcomes;
• To broaden the means and the scope of basic education;
• To enhance the environment for learning; and
• To strengthen and maximize partnerships by 2000.
37
Managing Higher Keeping in mind the pouring in of external assistance from various international
Perspective
organizations it was important to have a better co-ordination from the point of
view of the government of India and governments of various states and the
international aid organizations. Thus the District Primary Education Programme
(DPEP) was launched by the GoI, as a broad overall umbrella of international
aid programmes in primary education in the country. Thus the DPEP programme
set the ball rolling for the fast pace with which primary education took off in the
past two decades.
3.6.2 World Education Forum

Following the Jomtein Conference the World Education Forum, was held in
Dakkar, Senegal in April 2000. The purpose of the forum was to present global
findings from of the evaluation of the decade of "Education for All" (EFA)
launched at Jomtien. It also focused on adopting a new Framework for Action to
take forward the initiatives of Jomtein. It had emerged from the evaluation that
the six goals set in Jomtien for the year 2000 had yet to be reached. The Dakar
Framework for Action reaffirmed the vision of the goals laid down in Jomtien
and took forward its goals to be achieved in the next 15 years i.e. 2015.
The event was organized by the International Consultative Forum on Education

for All (the EFAForum), which was created in 1991 to monitor EFA. The forum
composed of representatives from five international agencies i.e. World Bank,
UNFPA, UNESCO, UNDP and UNICEF - and of bilateral cooperation agencies,
which included the respective governments and NGOs, and certain education
specialists from different countries.
In the light of the Dakar Framework of Action, the 86th Constitutional amendment
act was introduced in December2002. It inserted Article 21A, after article 21 of
the Constitution, named as, "Right to Education". The article had provisions for
free and compulsory education to all children in the age group six to fourteen
years. Thus the focus of basic education shifted from primary to elementary
level of education. With this change in the target group for education the Universal
Elementary Education was implemented through the Government of India
sponsored "Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan", which was implemented in a mission mode.
The focus for the mission remained the same six point goals mentioned at the
Jomtein Conference.
3.7 LET US SUM UP

Its will be apparent that the policy making since independence has not been very
healthy. The emphasis should have been on primary education or what Gandhiji
called the Buniyadi Shiksha, but the major portion of the budget went to fund
the higher education. There is no doubt the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs)
and similar other institutions of higher learning established during the early years
of independence at heavy investment have started paying dividends now but it
has often been mentioned that if the same amount was spent on school education
during the early years of independence many more deserving students would
have reached higher education. Higher education was practically monopolized
by a handful of rich and the elite. Only after the emphasis shifted to primary
education and school education that we are witnessing increase in participation
above ten percent of the relevant age group in higher education. The policies
38
monitoring the higher education institutions have also been criticized by most. Major Emerging Policy
We not only have to be more careful in developing policies but also reexarnine Initiatives
the existing policies so that we can strengthen the system of education in general
and higher education in particular.
3.8 SUGGESTED READING

Ministry of Human Resource Development (2009). Reports of the Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE), Volume II, 'Autonomy of Higher Education
Institutions', 'Financing of Higher and Technical Education'; Delhi: National
Book Trust.
39
Notes
/

Block-1 Managing Higher Education Institution A Perspective

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Block-1 Managing Higher Education Institution A Perspective

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

'.

Managing Higher Education

"Education is a liberating force, and in our

Prof. Nalini Puneja

Language Editing Unit Design & Format Editing

Block 1 Managing Higher Education Institution: A Perspective

Block 2 Structure of Higher Education

Block 3 Management Process and Leadership

Block 4 Contemporary Aspects on Institutional Management

Every nation requires different types of human personnel to undertake different

We would require teachers and administrators to undertake the teaching as well

Learners in HE institutions listen to the principal, the vice-chancellor or the

• explain the needs and requirements of HE in the light of past developments;

India, besides being an intellectually rich nation was also economically

Our intellectual resource was destroyed. Higher education, of which a mojor

In 1993, UNESCO formed a commission to review the education systems of the

1.3 HIGHER EDUCATION - THE CONCEPT

1.3.1 Education and Higher Education

1.3.2 The Concept of Higher Education

Now, let us come to the development of higher education. Higher-learning

Higher education is an institutionalised system of education and is an educational

1.4 - HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF HIGHER

1.4.1.1 Women in Higher Education

The University of Wisconsin went coeducational in 1865, followed by the

1.4.2 Indian Scenario

Categorisation is done here only to understand the changes in the education

Check Your Progress 2

2) Why had Max Muller praised Indian education?

1.4.2.1 Ancient India

"He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind, must

1.4.2.2 Medieval India

ii) Feudal India 11

A new management system in Universities and other education institutions

Check Your Progress 2

1.5 HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE NEW GLOBAL

• The tension between the global and the local,

(Source :Learning the Treasure Within, Delor-1996)

1.5.1 HE for the Development and Perfection of the Individual

1.5.2 HE for the Fulfillment of the Growing Demands of the

1.6 KEY PLAYERS IN THE·HIGHER EDUCATION

1.7 LET US SUM UP

In India, there was no separate system of HE but learners achieve knowledge up

1.8 UNIT END ACTIVITIES'

1) Ashby, Eric and Mary Anderson (1966): Universities - African. British,

2) Altbach, Philip G. (2006): 'The Private Higher Education Revolution: An

3) Delors, J. (1996): Learning the Treasure Within. Report to UNESCO of the

4) IGNOU (1994): "ES-313: Student Support Services," Post Graduate Diploma

6) Naik, J. P. & Nurullah, Sayed (1974): A Students History of Education in

2.3 UNDERSTANDING GLOBALIZATION

The modem system of education especially higher education has developed in

Many scholars trace the beginning of globalization of education in the travel of

2.3.1 Internationalization of Education

2.3.2 Collaboration Resulting in Brain Drain

Financial and intellectual support has also been an established form of

2.3.3 Supporting Foreign Students Abroad

Such scholarships have been of great suppport to individual learners as they

Collaboration for Profit

Check Your Progress 1

2.4 EDUCATION SERVICES UNDER GATS

Primary Education Services,

2.4.1 Primary Education Services

2.4.2 Secondary Education Services

The secondary education services is visualised as a continuation of the basic

The 'branch campuses' established by institutions abraoad are mainly in this