1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics; its aims and significance. Links with other branches of linguistics.

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term Lexi c o l o g y is composed of two Greek morphemes:
lexis meaning ‘word, phrase’ (hence lexicos ‘having to do with words’) and logos which denotes ‘learning, a department of
knowledge’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term L e x i с o l о g у is ‘the science of the word’. Lexicology as a branch of
linguistics has its own aims and methods of scientific research, its basic task being a study and systematic description of
vocabulary in respect to its origin, development and current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word-groups,
phraseological units, and with morphemes which make up words.
Distinction is naturally made between General Lexicology and Special Lexicology. General Lexicology is part of General
Linguistics; it is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special
Lexicology is the Lexicology of a particular language (e.g. English, Russian, etc.), i.e. the study and description of its vocabulary
and vocabulary units, primarily words as the main units of language. Needless to say that every Special Lexicology is based on the
principles worked out and laid down by General Lexicology, a general theory of vocabulary.
There is also a close relationship between Lexicology and Stylistics or, to be more exact, L i n g u o - S t y l i s t i c s
(Linguistic Stylistics). Linguo-Stylistics is concerned with the study of the nature, functions and structure of stylistic devices, on
the one hand, and with the investigation of each style of language, on the other, i.e. with its aim, its structure, its characteristic
features and the effect it produces as well as its interrelation with the other styles of language.

2.Words of native origin and their distinctive features.

In linguistic literature the term n a t i v e is conventionally used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British
Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes — the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. Practically, however,
the term is often applied to words whose origin cannot be traced to any other language. Thus, the word path is classified as native
just because its origin has not yet been established with any degree of certainty. It is possible to conjecture that further progress of
linguistic science may throw some light upon its origin and it may prove to have been borrowed at some earlier period. Words of
native origin consist for the most part of very ancient elements—Indo-European, Germanic and West Germanic cognates. The
bulk of the Old English word-stock has been preserved, although some words have passed out of existence. When speaking about
the role of the native element in the English language linguists usually confine themselves to the small Anglo-Saxon stock of
words, which is estimated to make 25—30% of the English vocabulary. Almost all words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to very
important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs (shall, will, must, can, may, etc.), pronouns (I,
you, he, my, his, who, etc.), prepositions (in, out, on, under, etc.), numerals (one, two, three, four, etc.) and conjunctions (and, but,
till, as, etc.). Notional words of Anglo-Saxon origin include such groups as words denoting parts of the body (head, hand, arm,
back, etc.), members of the family and closest relatives (farther, mother, brother, son, wife), natural phenomena and planets
(snow, rain, wind, sun, moon, star, etc.), animals (horse, cow, sheep, cat), qualities and properties (old, young, cold, hot, light,
dark, long), common actions (do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat, etc.), etc.
Most of the native words have undergone great changes in their semantic structure, and as a result are nowadays polysemantic,
e.g. the word finger does not only denote a part of a hand as in Old English, but also 1) the part of a glove covering one of the
fingers, 2) a finger-like part in various machines, 3) a hand of a clock, 4) an index, 5) a unit of measurement. Highly polysemantic
are the words man, head, hand, go, etc.
Most native words possess a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency. Many of them enter a number of phraseological
units, e.g. the word heel enters the following units: heel over head or head over heels— 'upside down'; cool one's heel—'be kept
waiting'; show a clean pair of heels, take to one's heels—'run away', turn on one's heels— 'turn sharply round', etc.
The native element comprises not only the ancient Anglo-Saxon core but also words which appeared later as a result of word-
formation, split of polysemy and other processes operative in English.
Though not numerous in Modern English, words of Anglo-Saxon origin must be considered very important due to their marked
stability, specific semantic characteristics, wide collocability, great derivational potential, wide spheres of application and high
frequency value.

3.Borrowings. The distinction between the terms origin of borrowing and source of borrowing. Translation loans. Semantic
loans.
The term b o r r o w i n g is used in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from other languages and also the result
of this process, the language material itself. It has already been stated that not only words, but also word-building affixes were
borrowed into English (as is the case with -able, -ment, -ity, etc.).1 It must be mentioned that some word-groups, too, were
borrowed in their foreign form (e.g. coup d'état, vis-á-vis).
In its second meaning the term b o r r o w i n g is sometimes used in a wider sense. It is extended onto the so-called
t r a n s l a t i o n - l o a n s (or l o a n - t r a n s l a t i o n s ) and s e m a n t i c borrowi n g .
T r a n s l a t i o n - l o a n s are words and expressions formed from the material available in the language after the patterns
characteristic of the given language, but under the influence of some foreign words and expressions (e. g. mother tongue<L. lingua
materna; it goes without saying < Fr. cela va sans dire; wall newspaper < Russ. стенгазета). Semantic borrowing is the
appearance of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language (e.g. the word propaganda and reaction
acquired their political meanings under the influence of French, deviation and bureau entered political vocabulary, as in right and
left deviations, Political bureau, under the influence of Russian). It is of importance to note that the term b o r r o w i n g
belongs to diachronic description of the word-stock. Thus the words wine, cheap, pound introduced by the Romans into all
Germanic dialects long before the Angles and the Saxons settled on the British Isles, and such late Latin loans as alibi,
memorandum, stratum may all be referred to borrowings from the same language in describing their origin, though in modern
English they constitute distinctly different groups of words.
There is also certain confusion between the terms s o u r c e of b o r r o w i n g s and o r i g i n o f t h e w o r d . This
confusion may be seen in contradictory marking of one and the same word as, say, a French borrowing in one dictionary and Latin
borrowing in another. It is suggested here that the term s o u r c e of borrowing should be applied to the language from which
this or that particular word was taken into English. So when describing words as Latin, French or Scandinavian borrowings we
point out their source but not their origin. The term o r i g i n оf t h e w o r d should be applied to the language the word may
be traced to. Thus, the French borrowing table is Latin by origin (L. tabula), the Latin borrowing school came into Latin from the
Greek language (Gr. schole), so it may be described as Greek by origin.
By a borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated
by the new language.

4. Types of borrowed elements in the English vocabulary. Etymological doublets, hybrids, international words, and folk
etymology.
International Words
It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which
are significant in the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are
international, e. g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also nu-
merous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.
It is quite natural that political terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution,
progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism. 20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new
international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is a Russian borrowing, and it became an international
word (meaning a man-made satellite) in 1961, immediately after the first space flight by Yury Gagarin. The English language also
contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent
position: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc. Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic
countries often transport their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become international: coffee,
cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit. It is important to note that international words are mainly
borrowings. The outward similarity of such words as the E. son, the Germ. Sohn and the R. сын should not lead one to the quite
false conclusion that they are international words. They represent the Indo-Euroреаn group of the native element in each
respective language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same etymological root, and not borrowings.

Etymological Doublets
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests), is
a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common
origin. Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both de-note articles of clothing. Such words as these two
originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning are called etymological doublets.
They may enter the vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs, like shirt and skirt, consist of a native word and a
borrowed word: shrew, n. (E.) — screw, n. (Sc.). Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are
historically descended from the same root: senior (Lat.) — sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) — channel (Fr.), captain (Lat.) — chieftan
(Fr.). Still others were borrowed from the same language twice, but in different periods: corpse [ko:ps] (Norm. Fr.) — corps [ko:]
(Par. Fr.),
travel (Norm. Fr.) — travail (Par. Fr.), cavalry (Norm. Fr.) — chivalry (Par. Fr.), gaol (Norm. Fr.) — jail (Par. Fr.). Etymological
triplets (i. e. groups of three words of common root) occur rarer, but here are at least two examples: hospital (Lat.) — hostel
(Norm. Fr.) — hotel (Par. Fr.), to capture (Lat.) — to catch (Norm. Fr.) — to chase (Par. Fr.). A doublet may also consist of a
shortened word and the one from which it was derived (see Ch. 6 for a description of shortening as a type of word-building):
history — story, fantasy — fancy, fanatic — fan, defence — fence, courtesy — curtsy, shadow — shade.

Hybrids are words made up of elements from two or more different languages.

Patterns of hybrids:
native affix (prefix or suffix) + borrowed stem: befool, besiege, beguile; graceful, falsehood, rapidly;
borrowed affix + native stem: drinkable, starvation, wordage; recall, embody, mishandle;
borrowed affix + borrowed stem + native affix: discovering;
native affix + native stem + borrowed affix: unbreakable.

5.Assimilation of borrowings. Types and degrees of assimilation

The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical, and
morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.
The term type of assimilation refers to the changes an adopted word may undergo:
phonetic assimilation;
graphical assimilation;
grammatical assimilation;
semantic assimilation.

The degree of assimilation depends upon the period of time during which the word has been used in the receiving language, its
communicative importance and frequency:
completely assimilated loans;
partially assimilated loans;
non-assimilated loans (barbarisms).
Completely assimilated loan-words are found at all the layers of older borrowings: cheese, street, wall, wine; gate, wing, die, take,
happy, ill, low, odd, wrong.

Partially assimilated loan-words:

not assimilated semantically: sheik, sherbet;
not assimilated grammatically: crisis – crises, formula – formulae;
not assimilated phonetically: the final syllable is stressed (machine, cartoon, police); /ʒ/ - beige, prestige, regime; /wα:/ –
memoir;
not assimilated graphically: last consonant is not pronounced (ballet, buffet, debut); a diacritic mark (café, cliché); have specific
diagraphs (bouquet, brioche).
Barbarisms are words not assimilated in any way and for which there are corresponding English equivalents: It. addio, ciao; Fr.
tête-à-tête.

6.Latin borrowings. Periods of borrowings from Latin.

Periodisation:
Early Latin loans, e.g. cup, kettle, dish, plum, butter, wall etc.;
Later Latin loans (Christianity), e.g. lily, pearl, palm, choir, library, fiddle, peach, marble etc.;
Latin loans in Middle English (the Norman conquest+the Renaissance), e.g. animal, legal, simile, gesture, spacious, interest etc.;
The latest Latin influence, e.g. cf., i.e., ib., viz., etc.
Features of Latin loans:
polysyllabic words with prefixes: commission, induction, accelerate;
prefixes with final consonants: ad-, ab-, com-, dis-, ex-, in-, ob-: admix, abnormal, compare, disclose, inattention;
reduplicated consonants: abbreviation, occasion, illumination, immobility, difference, opportunity, resurrection, assimilation;
suffixes –ate, -ute in verbs: locate, irritate, abbreviate, execute;
suffixes –ant, -ent, -ior in adjectives: reluctant, evident, superior;
Latin plural endings are preserved: memorandum – memoranda; datum – data; formula – formulae, formulas; focus – focuses or
foci.

7.Celtic elements in the English vocabulary.

The fifth century A. D. Several of the Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the
Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the
original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but they were no match for the
military-minded Teutons and gradually yielded most of their territory. They retreated to the North and South-West (modern
Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through their numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and
assimilated a number of Celtic words (Mod. E. bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic
borrowings were place names, names of rivers, bills, etc. The Germanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and
features of their territory remained Celtic. For instance, the names of the rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic
words meaning "river" and "water". Ironically, even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn + dun in which
llyn is another Celtic word for "river" and dun stands for "a fortified hill", the meaning of the whole being "fortress on the hill
over the river".
place-names: Kent ‘coastal district’ or ‘land of the hosts or armies’, London ‘hill surrounded with water’, Carlisle (caer ‘fortified
place’), Dover ‘water’, York ‘Yew-Tree Estate’ (тисове дерево) etc.;
river-names: Thames ‘the dark one’, Avon ‘river’ etc.;
elements: -comb ‘deep valley’ as in Batcombe, -torr ‘high rock’ as in Torcross, -llan ‘church’ as in Llandaff;
hybrids:
Celtic + Latin: Manchester, Glouchester, Lancaster etc.;
Celtic + Germanic: Yorkshire, Canterbury ‘the fortified town of Kentish people’, Salisbury, Cornwall ‘peninsula
people’, in O.E. the name Wealhas (Mod.E. Wales, Welsh) was a common noun meaning ‘strangers’ given by the newcomers to
the unfamiliar Celtic tribes.
common nouns survived in regional dialects:
bard (Gael.& Ir.) ‘poet, minstrel’, loch (Gael.& Ir.) ‘lake’, plaid (Gael.) ‘blanket’, corgi (Welsh cor ‘dwarf’ + gi/ci
‘dog’), whiskey  ‘water of life’, dunn ‘grey’, cross;
via Romanic languages:
budget < O.Fr. bougette, bouge ‘leather bag, wallet’ < L. bulga < Gaulish *bulgā, ‘sack’; modern financial meaning
(1733) is from notion of treasury minister keeping his fiscal plans in a wallet;
car < Norm.Fr. carre < L. carrum, carrus, orig. ‘two-wheeled Celtic war chariot’ < Gaulish *karros;
embassy < M.Fr. embassee < It.ambasciata < L.ambactus < Gaulish
*ambactos ‘dependant, vassal’.

8.Scandinavian loan-words in Modern English.

From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitably left
their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, v., take, v., cast, v., die, v.,
law, п., husband, n. (< Sc. hus + bondi, i. e. "inhabitant of the house"), window n. (< Sc. vindauga, i. e. "the eye of the wind"), ill,
adj., loose, adj., low, adj., weak, adj. Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the
initial sk- combination. E. g. sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt.
Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root. So, the O. E. bread
which meant "piece" acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian brand. The О. Е. dream which meant
"joy" assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr(cf. with the Germ. Traum "dream" and the R. дрёма).
Total number – appr. 900 words; about 700 belong to Stand. E.
Features:
/k/ and /g/ before e and i, e.g. give, kid, get, gift;
/sk/ in the initial position, e.g. sky, skill, score, skin, skirt;
nouns: anger, bag, band, bank, bull, calf, cake, dirt, egg, fellow, fog, knife, leg, loan, law, neck, root, ransack, sister, wing,
window;
adjectives: awkward, flat, happy, ill, low, loose, odd, rotten, scant, sly, silver, tight, ugly, wrong;
verbs: cast, call, clip, die, gasp, get, give, guess, raise, seem, scare, scowl, seem, smile, take, thrive, want;
pronouns: they, their, them, themselves, though, both, same.
Legal terms (together with military terms reflecting the relations during the Danish raids and Danish rule represent the earliest
loan-words):
husband – originally ‘a house holder’, one who owns a house;
fellow – originally ‘one who lays down a fee, as a partner or shareholder’;
law – originally ‘that which is laid down’;
Place-names:
-thorp ‘village’ as in Althorp;
-by ‘farm / town’ as in Derby, Rugby;
-toft ‘piece of land’ as in Sandtoft;
-ness ‘cape’ as in Inverness, Loch Ness;
Forming elements:
are (pr. tense pl. to be), -s (pr. tense, 3rd p. sg)

9.French elements in the English vocabulary. Periods of borrowings from French.

Norman French (XI- XIII c.) – a northern dialect of French: calange, warrant, warden, reward, prisun, gaol
Parisian French (XIII-XVI c.) – the prestige dialect:
challenge, guarantee, guardian, regard, prison, jail
Features of French loans:
the accent on the last syllable: finance, finesse, supreme;
ch /ʃ/, e.g. avalanche, chandelier, chauffeur, charlatan, chic;
g before e and i /ʒ/, e.g. beige, bourgeois, camouflage, massage;
ou /u:/: coup, rouge;
eau /ou/ château;
silent final consonant p, s, t: coup, debris, ragoût, trait, ballet, debut.
Semantic groups of French borrowings:
administration: crown, country, people, office, nation, government;
titles and ranks of nobility: baron, duke, duchess, prince, peer,
but lord, lady, king, queen, earl, knight – native;
jurisdiction: case, heir, poor, justice, marriage, jury, prove;
the Church and religion: abbey, altar, Bible, grace, pray, saint;
military terms: army, battle, escape, soldier, navy, aid;
entertainment: dance, chase, partner, sport, tournament, cards;
fashion: dress, lace, embroidery, garment, mitten, frock;
food and drink: dinner, supper, appetite, spice, taste, vinegar, fruit;
the domestic life: chair, blanket, lantern, chandelier, couch, towel;
Words related to different aspects of the life of the upper classes and of the town life:
forms of address (French): sir, madam, mister, mistress, master, servant;
the names of the animals (native) vs the meat (French): cow – beef; calf – veal, swine – pork; deer – venison; sheep – mutton;
the names of country occupations (native) vs town trades (French): miller, shepherd, shoemaker, smith – butcher, carpenter,
grocer, tailor;

10.Greek borrowings. Features of Greek borrowings.

The Renaissance Period. In England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science,
art and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, there
occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st с. В. С.), the
Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (e. g. major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent,
permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon,
philosophy,method, music).1 The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (e. g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete).
Features of Greek loans:
ch [k]: chemistry, character;
ph [f]: phenomenon, physics, phonetics;
th [θ]: theme, theatre, myth;
ps [s]: pseudonym, psychic;
rh [r]: rhythm, rhetor;
y /i/ in interconsonantal and final positions: system, physics, comedy;
ae: encyclopaedia ‘training in a circle,’ i.e. the ‘circle’ of arts and sciences, the essentials of a liberal education; from enkyklios
‘circular,’ also ‘general’ (from en ‘in’ + kyklos ‘circle’) + paideia ‘education, child-rearing’;

11. The morphemic structure of English words. Types of morphemes. The principles of morphemic analysis.
Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the form, inner structure, function, and patterns of occurrence of a morpheme
as the smallest meaningful unit of language.
A morpheme (Gr. morphé ‘form, shape’) is one of the fundamental units of a language, a minimum sign that is an association of a
given meaning with a given form (sound and graphic), e.g. old, un+happy, grow+th, blue+colour+ed.
Depending on the number of morphemes, words are divided into:
monomorphic are root-words consisting of only one root-morpheme, i.e. simple words, e.g. to grow, a book, white, fast etc.
polymorphic are words consisting of at least one root-morpheme and a number of derivational affixes, i.e. derivatives,
compounds, e.g. good-looking, employee, blue-eyed etc.
Baudouin de Courtenay Ivan Alexandrovich (the Kazan school of linguistics; was the first in world linguistics to investigate the
morphological structure of the word):
introduced a number of linguistic terms, including a morpheme (in 1881), a phoneme, a lexeme, a syntagm etc. The Greek suffix
–eme has been adopted to denote the smallest significant or distinctive unit.
Types of Morphemes
An allomorph (a morphemic variant) (Gr. állos ‘different’ and morphé ‘form, shape’) is a phonetically conditioned positional
variant of the same derivational or functional morpheme identical in meaning and function and differing in sound only insomuch,
as their complementary distribution produces various phonetic assimilation effects, e.g. please /pli:z/ pleasure /pleʒ/ pleasant
/plez/.
Complementary distribution takes place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment, e.g. in-competent, il-
logical, ir-responsible, im-possible; cat-s.
Contastive distribution characterises different morphemes occurring in the same linguistic environment, but signaling different
meanings, e.g. –able in measurable .
A pseudo-morpheme (a quasi-morpheme) is a morpheme which has a differential meaning and a distributional meaning but does
not possess any lexical or functional (part-of-speech) meaning, e.g. re- and -tain in retain, con- and –ceive in conceive etc.
A unique morpheme is an isolated pseudo-morpheme which does not occur in other words but is understood as meaningful
because the constituent morphemes display a more or less clear denotational meaning, e.g. ham- in hamlet (cf. booklet, ringlet).
Structural Classification of Morphemes : free morphemes are morphemes which coincide with a word-form of an independently
functioning word; they can be found only among roots, e.g. hero- as in heroism.
bound morphemes are morphemes which do not coincide with a separate word-form; they include all affixes, e.g. de- as in
decode; some root-morphemes, e.g. docu- as in document;
semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes are morphemes which stand midway between a root and an affix; they can function as an
independent full-meaning word and an affix at the same time, e.g. to speak ill of sb – to be ill-dressed / ill-bred / ill-fed;
Semi-prefixes: half-, mini-, midi-, maxi-, self-, by- etc.; Semi-suffixes: -man, -like, -proof, -friendly, -oriented, -ware etc.
Morphemic analysis (What do words consist of?) is the analysis limited to stating the number and types of morphemes that make
up a word regardless of their role in the formation of this word, viz. it only defines the morphemes comprising a word, but does
not reveal their hierarchy.

12. The derivative structure of English words. The distinction between morphological stem and derivational base.
Derivational fields.
Derivative structure of English words:The nature, type and arrangement of the ICs (immediate constituent - непосредственная
составляющая) of the word is known as its derivative structure. The derivative base – is the part of the word from which the word
was built. The derivative pattern – is formed by derivative base and derivative affixes.
Though the derivative structure of the word is closely connected with its morphemic or morphological structure and often
coincides with it, it differs from it in principle.
According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes: simplexes or simple, non-derived words and complexes or
derivatives.
Simplexes are words which derivationally can't be segmented into ICs. The morphological stem of simple words, i.e. the part of
the word which takes on the system of grammatical inflections is semantically non-motivated and independent of other words, e.g.
hand, come, blue, etc.
Derivatives are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the
meaning and the structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with the meaning and the structure of the source
word. Hence derivatives are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, i.e. binary units, e.g. words like teacher is
made up of the ICs “to teach” and “-er”. The ICs are brought together according to specific rules of order and arrangement
preconditioned by the system of the language. It follows that all derivatives are marked by the fixed order of their ICs.
Types of derivational bases:
- bases that coincide with morphemes (morphological stamps) – dutiful
- bases that coincide with grammatical word-forms – unknown
- bases the coincide with word-groups – second-rateness
Types of derivations:
- Derivative words (Affixational Conversions)
- Compound words (Compound words proper Derivational compounds.)
The distinction between morphological stem and derivational base: Derivational morphemes makes new words from old
ones.Thus creation is formed from create , but they are two separate words. Inflectional morphemes: vary (or "inflect") the form
of words in order to express grammatical features, such as singular/plural or past/present tense. Thus Boy and boys, for example,
are two different forms of the "same" word; the choice between them, singular vs. plural, is a matter of grammar and thus the
business of inflectional morphology.
Derivational morphemes generally: 1) Change the part of speech or the basic meaning of a word. Thus -ment added to a verb
forms a noun (judg-ment). re-activate means "activate again."2) Are not required by syntactic relations outside the word. Thus un-
kind combines un- and kind into a single new word, but has no particular syntactic connections outside the word -- we can say he
is unkind or he is kind or they are unkind or they are kind, depending on what we mean.3) Are often not productive -- derivational
morphemes can be selective about what they'll combine with, and may also have erratic effects on meaning. Thus the suffix -
hood occurs with just a few nouns such as brother, neighbor, and knight, but not with most others. 4) Typically occur between the
stem and any inflectional affixes. Thus in governments,-ment, a derivational suffix, precedes -s, an inflectional suffix. 5) In
English, may appear either as prefixes or suffixes: pre-arrange, arrange-ment.
Inflectional Morphemes generally:1) Do not change basic meaning or part of speech, e.g., big, bigg-er, bigg-est are all
adjectives.2) Express grammatically-required features or indicate relations between different words in the sentence. Thus in Lee
love-s Kim: -s marks the 3rd person singular present form of the verb, and also relates it to the 3rd singular subject Lee.3) Are
productive. Inflectional morphemes typically combine freely with all members of some large class of morphemes, with
predictable effects on usage/meaning. Thus the plural morpheme can be combined with nearly any noun, usually in the same form,
and usually with the same effect on meaning.4) Occur outside any derivational morphemes. Thus in ration-al-iz-ation-s the final -
s is inflectional, and appears at the very end of the word, outside the derivational morphemes -al, -iz, -ation.5) In English, are
suffixes only.

13. Affixation. Classifications of affixes. Productive and non-productive affixes, dead and living affixes.
Affixation (progressive derivation) is the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes; does not change part of speech; is more typical of verb-formation
(42%), e.g. a pretest, to coexist, to undo, impossible, asleep, to rewrite etc.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes; can change part of speech; is characteristic of noun-, adjective-
and adverb-formation, e.g. an employee, childish, quietly, to specify etc.
Types of affixes According to the position in a word, affixational morphemes fall into:
prefixes – derivational affixes standing before the stem and modifying its meaning, e.g. ex-minister, in-sensitive, re-read etc.;
about 51 in the system of Modern English;
suffixes – derivational affixes following the stem and forming a new derivative within the same part of speech (e.g. king-dom,
book-let, child-hood etc.) or in a different word class (e.g. do-er, wash-able, sharp-en etc.);
infixes – affixational morphemes placed within a word, e.g –n– in stand.
Synchronic vs diachronic differentiation of affixes:
living affixes are easily separated from the stem, e.g. re-, -ful, -ly, un-, -ion, de- etc.;
dead affixes have become fully merged with the stem and can be singled out by a diachronic analysis of the development of the
word, e.g. admit < Lat. ad+mittere;
Productive vs non-productive affixes:
productive affixes take part in word-formation in modern English, e.g. -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ance, un-, re-, dis-, -y, -ish, -able,
-ise, -ate;
non-productive affixes are not active in word-formation in modern English, e.g. –th, -hood, -some, -en;
non-productive affix == dead affix

14.Word-composition. Types of compound words. Criteria for their classification.

Word-composition (compounding) is the formation of words by morphologically joining two or more stems.
A compound word is a word consisting of at least two stems which usually occur in the language as free forms, e.g. university
teaching award committee member.
The compound inherits most of its semantic and syntactic information from its head, i.e. the most important member of a
compound word modified by the other component.
The structural pattern of English compounds
[ X Y] y
X = {root, word, phrase}, Y = {root, word}, y = grammatical properties inherited from Y
Criteria for classification.
according to the type of the linking element (compounds without a linking element, e.g. toothache, bedroom, sweet-
heart;compounds with a vowel linking element, e.g. handicraft, speedometer;compounds with a consonant linking element, e.g.
statesperson, craftsman; compounds with a preposition linking stem, e.g. son-in-law, lady-in-waiting;compounds with a
conjunction linking stem, e.g. bread-and-butter.)
according to the type of relationship between the components (in coordinative (copulative) compounds neither of the components
dominates the other, e.g. fifty-fifty, whisky-and-soda, driver-conductor;in subordinative (determinative) compounds the
components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of one component over
the other, e.g. coffeepot, Oxford-educated, to headhunt, blue-eyed, red-haired)
according to the way of composition (compound proper is a compound formed after a composition pattern, i.e. by joining together
the stems of words already available in the language, with or without the help of special linking elements, e.g. seasick, looking-
glass, helicopter-rescued, handicraft;derivational compound is a compound which is formed by two simultaneous processes of
composition and derivation; in a derivational compound the structural integrity of two free stems is ensured by a suffix referring to
the combination as a whole, e.g. long-legged, many-sided, old-timer, left-hander)
according to the structure of immediate constituents (those consisting of simple stems: film-star; those with at least one of the
constituents being a derived stem: chain-smoker; those with at least one of the constituents being a clipped stem: V-day, FBI-
agent. those with at least one of the constituents being a compound stem: wastepaper-basket. )
according to the semantic relations between the constituents. (non-idiomatic compounds, whose meanings can be described as the
sum of their constituent meanings, e.g. a sleeping-car, an evening-gown, a snowfall; compounds one of the components of which
has undergone semantic derivation, i.e. changed its meaning, e.g. a blackboard, a bluebell; idiomatic compounds, the meaning of
which cannot be deduced from the meanings of the constituents, e.g. a ladybird, a tallboy, horse-marine. The bahuvrihi
compounds (Sanskrit ‘much riced’) are idomatic formations in which a person, animal or thing is metonymically named after
some striking feature (mainly in their appearance) they possess; their word-building pattern is an adjectival stem + a noun stem,
e.g. bigwig, fathead, highbrow, lowbrow, lazy-bones.)

15.Shortening. Types of shortening

Shortening is the process of substracting phonemes and / or morhemes from words and word-groups without changing their
lexico-grammatical meaning.
Abbreviation is a process of shortening the result of which is a word made up of the initial letters or syllables of the components
of a word-group or a compound word.
Graphical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a word or a word-group only in written speech (for the economy of space and
effort in writing), while orally the corresponding full form is used:
days of the week and months, e.g. Sun., Tue., Feb., Oct., Dec.;
states in the USA, e.g. Alas., CA, TX;
forms of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Dr.;
scientific degrees, e.g. BA, BSc., MA, MSc., MBA, PhD.;
military ranks, e.g. Col.;
units of measurement, e.g. sec., ft, km.
Latin abbreviations, e.g. p.a., i.e., ibid., a.m., cp., viz.
internet abbreviations, e.g. BTW, FYI, TIA, AFAIK, TWIMC, MWA.
Lexical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a word or a word-group both in written and oral speech.
alphabetical abbreviation (initialism) is a shortening which is read as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent
letters, e.g. BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), MTV (Music Television), EU (European Union), MP (Member of
Parliament), WHO (World Health Organisation), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), GMO (Genetically Modified
Organisms) etc.;
acronymic abbreviation (acronym) is a shortening which is read as a succession of the sounds denoted by the constituent letters,
i.e. as if they were an ordinary word, e.g. UNESCO (United Nations Scientific, and Cultural Organisation), NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organisation), UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund) etc.;
anacronym is an acronym which is longer perceived by speakers as a shortening: very few people remember what each letter
stands for, e.g. laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), radar (radio detecting and ranging), scuba (self-
contained underwater breathing apparatus), yuppie (young urban professional).
homoacronym is an acronym which coincides with an English word semantically connected with the thing, person or
phenomenon, e.g. PAWS (Public for Animal Welfare Society), NOW (National Organisation for Women), ASH (Action on
Smoking and Health) etc.;
Clipping is the process of cutting off one or several syllables of a word.
apocope (back-clipping) is a final clipping, e.g. prof < professor, disco < discotheque, ad < advertisement, coke < coca-cola;
aphaeresis (fore-clipping) is an initial clipping, e.g. phone < telephone, Bella < Isabella, cello < violoncello;
syncope is a medial clipping, e.g. maths < mathematics, specs < spectacles; ma’m < madam;
fore-and-aft clipping is an initial and final clipping, e.g. flu < influenza, fridge < refrigerator, tec < detective, Liza < Elizabeth;
Blending (telescoping) is the process of merging parts of words into one new word, e.g. Bollywood < Bombay + Hollywood,
antiégé < anti + protégé, brunch < breakfast + lunch, Mathlete < Mathematics+ athlete. information technologies: teleputer <
television + computer; webcam < web + camera; netaholic < Internet + alcoholic; economics: ecolonomics < ecology +
economics; freeconomics < free + economics; slowflation < slow + inflation; geography: Eurabia < Europe + Arabia; Chindia <
China + India; Calexico < California + Mexico; literature and art: dramedy < drama + comedy; fictomercial < fiction +
commercial; docusoap < documentary + soap-opera;linguistics: Spanglish < Spanish + English; Hindlish < Hindi + English;
cryptolect < cryptography + dialect; publilect < puberty + dialect;
A blend (a fusion, a telescoped word, a portmanteau word) is a word that combines parts of two words and includes the letters or /
and sounds they may have in common as a connecting element.
Blending has been known since the 15th c. First blends were of comic or mysterious nature as these were charades for readers or
listeners to decode. Telescoped words are found in the works by W. Shakespeare (trimpherate < triumph+ triumvirate), E.
Spencer (wrizzle < wrinkle + frizzle). The term portmanteau word was coined by Lewis Carroll in Through the Looking-Glass in
1872 to explain some of the words he made up in the nonsense poem Jabberwocky, e.g. galumph < gallop + triumph, chortle <
chuckle + snort.
ab + cd > ac, e.g. hi-fi < high fidelity, hi-tech < high technology, modem < modulator – demodulator, mopol < mobile police;
docusoap < documentary + soap-opera; digicam < digital + camera; ab + cd > ad, e.g. chofa < chair + sofa, paytriot < pay +
patriot, framily < friends + family, Denglish < Deutch + English, edutainment < education + entertainment, weisure < work +
leisure; ab + cd > abd, e.g. aquaerobics < aqua + aerobics, carbage < car + garbage, Falloween < fall + Halloween, kidult < kid +
adult, ruralpolitan < rural + metropolitan, blogebrity < blog + celebrity;
ab + cd > acd, e.g. infostructure < information + structure, celebreality < celebrity + reality; e-lecture < electronic + lecture;
ab + cd > bd, e.g. netiquette < Internet + etiquette, netizen < Internet + citizen, netpreneur < Internet + enterpreneur; ab + cd >
acb, e.g. adorkable < adorable + dork, autopathography < authobiography + pathology;

16. Conversion. Different views on conversion. Semantic relations within converted pairs.
Conversion (zero derivation, affixless derivation) is the formation of words without using specific word-building affixes.
The term conversion was introduced by Henry Sweet in his New English Grammar. First cases of conversion registered in the 14th
c. imitated such pairs of words as love, n – love, v (O.E. lufu, n – lufian, v) for they were numerous and thus were subconsciously
accepted as one of the typical language patterns.
Approaches to the study of conversion:
conversion as a morphological way of forming words (Prof. Smirnitskiy);
conversion as a morphological-syntactic word-building means (Prof. Arnold);
conversion as a syntactic word-building means (a functional approach);
Semantic Relations in Conversion Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs) denote: action characteristic of the object, e.g.
dog (n) – to dog (v); instrumental use of the object, e.g. screw (n) – to screw (v);acquisition or addition of the object, e.g.
fish (n) – to fish (v);time, e.g. winter (n) – winter (v);deprivation of the object, e.g. dust (n) – dust (v).
Nouns converted from verbs (deverbial nouns) denote: instance or process of the action, e.g. dance (v) – dance (n); agent of the
action, e.g. help (v) – help (n); place of action, e.g. walk (v) – walk (n);object or result of the action, e.g. peel (v) – peel (n).
Other Ways of Conversion
Adjective > Noun, e.g. a bitter, a wet, a regular etc.; Function word > Noun, e.g. too many ifs and buts;
Adjective > Verb, e.g. to dirty, to calm, to empty etc.; Function word > Verb, e.g. to down, to up etc.;
Noun > Adjective, e.g. a stone wall, a cotton cloth etc.; Affix > Noun, e.g. There are too many ologies and emes in
Modal verb > Noun, e.g. a must;* his report

17.Non-productive ways of word-formation.

Back-formation (regressive derivation) is the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words
(often through misinterpretation of their structure), e.g. an editor > to edit, enthusiasm > to enthuse etc.
The earliest attested examples of back-formation are a beggar > to beg; a burglar > to burgle; a cobbler > to cobble.
The most productive type of back-formation in present-day English is derivation of verbs from compounds that have either –er or
–ing as their last element, e.g. sightseeing > to sightsee; proofreading > to proofread; mass-production > to mass-produce; self-
destruction > to self-destruct; a baby-sitter > to baby-sit etc.
Onomatopeia (Gr. onoma ‘name, word’ and poiein ‘the make’) (sound imitation, echoisms) is the formation of words by a more or
less exact reproduction of a sound associated with an object producing this sound.
Semantic classification of onomatopeic words:
sounds produced by people: to babble, to chatter, to giggle, to grumble, to titter, to grumble etc.;
sounds produced by animals (to moo, to neigh, to mew, to purr etc.), birds (to twitter, to crow, to cackle etc.), insects and reptiles
(to buzz, to hiss);
water imitating sounds: to bubble, to splash etc.;
sounds imitating the noise of metalic things: to clink, to tinkle etc.;
sounds imitating a forceful motion: to crash, to whisk, to clash etc.
Sound-interchange is the gradation of sounds occupying one and the same place in the sound form of one and same morpheme in
various cases of its occurrence.
Historical causes of sound-interchange:
ablaut (vowel gradation), i.e. a change of one to another vowel accompanying a change of stress, e.g. to ride – a road; to bear – a
burden; to bite – a bit etc.;
umlaut (vowel mutation), i.e. a partial assimilation to a succeeding sound, e.g. full – to fill, a tale – to tell etc.;
consonant interchange, e.g. to speak – a speech, to bake – a batch, to live – a life etc.

18 Semasiological and onomasiological perspectives of the English lexicon

These are two points of view from which to observe and analyze a given discourse or text (linguistic or other). 
The semasiological point of view corresponds to an "ascending path" that links the signified (or content) to the signifier (or
expression). This is the generative point of view (a discursive point of view). It provides a representation of semiotic production. 
The onomasiological point of view is a "descending path", that links the signifier (expression) to the signified (or content). This is
the hermeneutic point of view (a textual point of view). It provides a representation of semiotic interpretation.
Onomasiology (Gr. ònomasía ‘name, designation’, logos ‘study’) is a subdiscipline of lexical semantics that studies the word
meaning in the direction ‘from the concept – to a sound form (or forms)’. Thesauruses are compiled according to onomasiological
principles.
Semasiology (Gr. sēmasia ‘signification, meaning’ and lógos ‘study’) is a sundiscipline of lexical semantics concerned with the
studies of the word meaning in the opposite direction: ‘from the sound form – to its meaning (or meanings)’.
The distinction was introduced by the Austrian linguist Adolf Zauner in 1903 his study on the body-part terminology in Romance
languages. Both disciplines can be treated diachronically and synchronically.

19 Approaches to the definition of word meaning: functional, referential and others

There are three classical theories of meaning:
analytical or referential (F.de Saussure’s disciples)
Meaning is the relation between the object or phenomenon named and the name itself;
 notional or conceptual (Aristotle, John Locke, A.I. Smirnitskiy, etc.)
Meaning is a certain representation of an object / phenomenon / idea /
relation in the mind;
functional or contextual (L. Bloomfield)
Meaning is the situation in which a word is uttered, i.e. its context.
Semiotic Triangle
Geometric schema developed by C. K. Odgen and I. A. Richards in The
Meaning of Meaning (1923) to illustrate the dependent relationship between symbol, thought, and referent; or, in more common
terms, sign, meaning, and object (of reference).

Germane to this approach, whose basic ideas are to be found as early as in the works of Parmenides (c. 540–470 BC), is the
hypothesis that there is no direct relation between the symbol and referent, between the linguistic expression and the state of
affairs in the real world; that is, linguistic expressions relate to the real world only through their meaning.

20.. Types of word meaning.

Objective aspect (denotation): word ↔ referent;
Notional aspect, i.e. significant features common for classes of objects (signification): word ↔ sense;
Pragmatic aspect, i.e. the speaker’s attitude to the referent (connotation);
Systemic or differential aspect, i.e. the relations of the signified word with other words within a word-group or in speech.
Word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components the combination and the interrelation of which
determine to a great extent the inner facet of the word.
Grammatical meaning is the meaning which unites words into big groups such as parts of speech or lexico-grammatical classes. It
is recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words, e.g. stones, apples, kids, thoughts have the grammatical
meaning of plurality.
Lexical meaning is the meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit; it is recurrent in all the forms of this word and in all the
possible distributions of these forms, e.g. the word-forms write, writes, wrote, writing, written have different grammatical
meanings of tense, person, aspect, but the same lexical meaning ‘to make letters or other symbols on a surface, especially with a
pen or pencil’.

21. Semantic change and transference of meaning.

Semantic change is the process of development of a new meaning or any other change of meaning.
Extra-linguistic causes of semantic changes:
historical, e.g. a pen ‘any instrument for writing’ < Lat. penna ‘a feather of a bird’; supper ‘the last meal of the day’ < Fr. souper
< PIE *sup ‘to drink in sips’;
social, e.g. a live wire ‘one carrying electric current’ > ‘a person of intense energy’, a feed-back ‘the return of a sample of the
output of a system’ > ‘response’, to spark off in chain reaction, a launching pad;
psychological, e.g. a don ‘a university teacher, a leader, a master’ > ‘the head of Mafia family or other group involved in
organised crime’, bikini.
ellipsis is the omittance of one of the components in a word-group; the meaning is transferred to the other component, e.g. a
presale view > a presale; to study works by Ch. Dickens > to study Dickens;
differentiation of synonyms, i.e. a gradual change of the meanings of synonyms which develop different semantic structures, e.g.
autumn – harvest, a deer – a beast – an animal;
fixed context results from synonymic differentiation when one of the synonyms becomes to be restricted in use to a number of set
expressions and compound words, e.g. meat originally ‘food’ (mincemeat, nutmeat, sweetmeat, meat and drink) > ‘edible flesh’;
linguistic analogy occurs when one of the members of a synonymic set acquires a new meaning and the other members of this set
change their menaings in the same way, e.g. to snack – to bite.
Metaphor is the transference of name based on the association of similarity between two referents and thus is actually a hidden
comparison. Models of metaphorical transference:
similarity of shape, e.g. the head of a cabbage, the nose of a plane etc;
similarity of colour, e.g. orange for colour and fruit, black despair etc.;
similarity of function, e.g. the wing of a plane, the hand of a clock etc.;
similarity of age, e.g. a green man etc.;
similarity of position, e.g. the leg of the table, the foot of a hill etc.;
similarity of behaviour or qualities of animals, e.g. a bookworm, a pig, a rat etc.;
similarity in temperature, e.g. cold reason, warm heart etc.;
transition of proper names into common nouns, e.g. a Rockefeller, a Cinderella, a Judas, a Don Juan, an Adonis etc.
Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association of contiguity (суміжність). Models of metonymical transference:
the part the whole (synecdoche), e.g. to be all ears;
the place people occupying it, e.g. The White House, The Pentagon;
the material the object made from it, e.g. a glass, an iron;
the container the thing contained, e.g. the kettle is boiling;
a geographical name a common noun, e.g. madeira, bourbon, champagne, sardine, labrador;
the instrument the agent, e.g. the best pens of the day;
the sign the thing signified, e.g. gray hair ‘old age’;
the symbol the thing symbolised, e.g. the crown ‘the monarchy’.
Changes in the denotative component of meaning:
generalisation (broadening, extension) is the widening of a word’s range of meanings, e.g. a fellow ‘a partner or shareholder of
any kind’ > ‘a man; a person in the same group’; ready ‘prepared for a ride’ > ‘prepared for anything’; rich ‘powerful’ > ‘wealthy’
etc.;
specialisation (narrowing, restriction) is the reduction in a word’s range of meanings, often limiting a generic word to a more
specialised or technical use, e.g. lord ‘the master of the house, the head of the family’ > ‘a man of noble rank’; a disease ‘any
inconvenience’ > ‘an illness’; to sell ‘to give’ > ‘to deliver for money’ etc.

Changes in the connotative component of meaning:

amelioration (elevation) of meaning occurs as a word loses negative connotations or gains positive ones, e.g. a knight ‘a boy,
youth’ > ‘a noble, courageous man’; fond ‘foolish, silly’ > ‘loving, affectionate’; pretty ‘tricky, sly wily’ > ‘pleasing to look at,
charming and attractive’ etc.;
pejoration (degradation) of meaning occurs as a word develops negative connotations or loses positive ones; it is frequently due to
social prejudice and often involves words for women and foreigners, e.g. vulgar ‘common, ordinary’ > ‘coarse, low, ill-bred’;
silly ‘happy’ > ‘foolish’. A word can have its meaning deteriorate in several directions at once, e.g. a cowboy – (in BrE) ‘an
incompetent or irresponsible workman or business’ (cowboy plumbers); (in AmE) ‘a driver who does not follow the rules of the
road’; ‘a factory worker who does more than the piece-work norms set by the union or fellow-workers’.
A euphemism (Gr. éu ‘well’, phēmi ‘speak, glorify’; euphēmia ‘a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that
should not be spoken aloud’) is a vague or indirect reference to the taboo topics:
death, e.g. to join the majority, to kick the bucket, pass away, to check out, to take a leave of life, to pay nature’s last debt, to be
beyond the veil etc.;
human weaknesses, e.g. to be tired and emotional, to be chemically affected (to be drunk), to have a weakness for horses
(gambling) etc.;
mental deficiency, e.g. to be intellectually challenged, to be thick in the head, funny farm etc.;
pregnancy, e.g. to be eating for two, lady-in-waiting, in the family way, on the nest, in the interesting way, to have a bun in the
oven etc;
age, e.g. God’s waiting room, the golden age etc.;
politics, e.g. less fortunate elements (the poor), the economic tunnel (the crisis) etc.

22. A theory of semantic field. Thematic groups.

A thematic group is a subsystem of the vocabulary for which the basis of grouping is not only linguistic but also extralinguistic:
the words are associated because the things they name occur together and are closely connected in reality, e.g.:
terms of kinship: father, cousin, mother-in-law, uncle;
names for parts of the human body: head, neck, arm, foot, thumb;
colour terms: blue, green, yellow, red / scarlet, crimson, coral;
military terms: lieutenant, captain, major, colonel, general.
An ideographic group unites thematically related words of different parts of speech; here words and expressions are classed not
according to their lexico-grammatical meaning but strictly according to their signification, i.e. to the system of logical notions,
e.g.:
‘Trade’: to buy, to sell, to pay, to cost, a price, money, cash, a receipt, expensive etc.
As a rule, ideographic groups deal with contexts on the level of the sentence. Words in ideographic groups are joined
together by common contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and reflect the interlinking of things or events,
e.g.:
‘Going by train’: railway, a journey, a train, a train station, timetable, a platform, a passenger, a single ticket, a return ticket,
luggage, a smoking carriage, a non-smoking carriage, a dining-car, to enquire, to catch the train, to miss the train etc.
In modern linguistics there are about 70 kinds of ‘fields’ and over a hundred approaches to defining what a field is.
A semantic field is the extensive organisation of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relations
to one another.
The significance of each unit is determined by its neighbours, with the units’ semantic areas reciprocally limiting each other.
The members of the semantic fields are joined together by some common semantic component known as the common
denominator of meaning.
‘Human Mind’: mind, reason, cognition, idea, concept, judgment, analysis, conclusion; to think, to conclude, to consider, to
reflect, to mediate, to reminisce, to contemplate; intelligent, wise, smart, knowledgeable, witless, dim-witted etc.
A lexico-semantic group is singled out on purely linguistic principles: words are united if they have one or more semantic
components in common, but differ in some other semantic components constituting their semantic structures. The
This type of groupings is mostly applied to verbs, e.g.
verbs of sense perception: to see, to hear, to feel, to taste;
verbs denoting speech acts: to speak, to talk, to chat, to natter, to mumble, to ramble, to stammer, to converse;
verbs of motion: to walk, to run, to tiptoe, to stroll, to stagger, to stomp, to swagger, to wander

23.Neologisms. Their sources and formation.

A neologism (Gr néos ‘new’ and logos ‘word, study’) is a new lexical unit introduced into a language to denote a new
object or phenomenon. The term is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from French néologisme. Neologisms are often
directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event.
While the typical lexical growth areas of the 1980s were the media, computers, finance, money, environment, political
correctness, youth culture and music, the 1990s saw significant lexical expansion in the areas of politics, the media and the
Internet.
Nonce words (occasional words) (an ellipsis of the phrase for the nonce ‘for the once’) are lexical units created by the
speaker on the spur of the moment, for a given occasion only, and may be considered as ‘potentially’ existing in the English
vocabulary, e.g. what-d’you-call-him /-her/-it/-them, n. is used instead of a name that one cannot remember.
A lot of neologisms resulted from nonce words, e.g. yuppie, n. ‘a well-paid young middle-class professional who works
in a city job and has a luxurious lifestyle’; coach potato, soap opera, generation X, thirty-something, glass ceiling ‘an
unacknowledged barrier to advancement in a profession, especially affecting women and members of minorities’; gerrymander
/'dʒɛrɪ‚mandə/, v. ‘manipulate the boundaries of (an electoral constituency) so as to favour one party or class’.
Semantic neologisms – new meanings of already existing words – result from semantic derivation due to the functional mobility
of the vocabulary:
virus, n. ‘a piece of code which is capable of copying itself and typically has a detrimental effect, such as corrupting the system or
destroying data’;
black hole ‘a place where money or lost items apparently disappear without trace’;
trophy, adj. ‘used for impressing others, in sb’s opinion’ as in trophy wife ‘a young and attractive wife who is regarded as a status
symbol for the husband, who is often older and affluent’, trophy-child ‘a child whose birth or achievements are paraded to
enhance the parents' status’;
spin, n. ‘a form of propaganda, achieved through providing an interpretation of an event or campaign to persuade public opinion
in favor or against a certain organisation or public figure’ as in spin doctor, spin crew, spin journalism.
to open the kimono ‘to open a company's accounting books for inspection; to expose something previously hidden’; a sleep camel
‘a person who gets little sleep during the week, and then attempts to make up for it by sleeping in and napping on the weekend’;
to put skin in the game ‘take an active interest in a company or undertaking by making a significant investment or financial
commitment’;
Ohrwurm – earworm, n. ‘a catchy song or tune that runs continually through someone's mind’;
вешать лапшу на уши – to hang noodles on sb’s ears (to dupe smb, to string smb along); Потемкинские деревни – Potemkin
village ‘a show’; to Potemkinise, Potemkin election; хотели, как лучше, а получилось, как всегда – we tried our best – you
know the rest (used in reference to the natural tendency of things to go wrong in Russia); упал – отжался – drop down and give
me some push ups (a jocular threat to punish sb);

24. Polysemy. Semantic structure of English words. Diachronic and synchronic approaches to polysemy.
Polysemy (Gr. πολυσημεία ‘multiple meaning’) is the ability of words to have more than one meaning.
Polysemy is typical of the English vocabulary due to:
its monosyllabic character;
the predominance of root words.
A monosemantic word is a word having only one meaning; these are mostly terms, e.g.: hydrogen, molecule.
A polysemantic word is a word having more than one meaning; highly polysemous words can include dozens of meanings, e.g. to
go – appr. 40 meanings), to get, to put, to take – appr. 30 meanings).
A lexeme is the totality of all the forms and meanings of a word; a structural item of the vocabulary.A lexico-semantic variant is
one of the individual meanings of a polysemantic word.
The semantic structure of a word is an organised system comprising all meanings and shades of meanings that a particular sound
complex can assume in different contexts together with emotional, stylistic and other connotations.
Polysemy in diachronic terms implies that a word may retain its previous meaning and at the same time acquire one or several
new ones. The main question of diachronic approach is which meaning came first, e.g. table, n. ‘a flat slab of stone or wood’
(primary meaning); ‘a piece of furniture’, ‘the food put on the table’, ‘people seated at a table’ (secondary meanings).
Synchronically polysemy is understood as co-existence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period and the
arrangement of these meanings in the semantic structure of a word. Synchronic typology of meaning is concerned with the
opposition of main and derived meanings.

25.Homonyms. Classifications and sources of homonyms.

Homonymy (Gr. homos ‘same’ + onyma, dial. form of onoma ‘name’) is the sameness of form combined with the difference in
meaning.
Homonyms are two or more words identical in sound-form or / and spelling but different in meaning and distribution, e.g. hole, n
– whole, adj; need, n – knead, v; polish, n – Polish, adj, etc.
Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which 89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are disyllabic.
From the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are classified into:
historical homonyms which result from the breaking up of polysemy; then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more
separate words (see the examples on the divergence of word meanings);
etymological homonyms, i.e. words of different origin which come to be identical in sound or / and in spelling (see the examples
on the convergent sound development).
From the point of view of the correlation between the sound form and the graphic forms, homonyms are classified into:
homonyms proper (perfect, absolute, full) are words identical both in pronunciation and in spelling but different in meaning, e.g.
back n. ‘part of the body’ - back adv. ‘away from the front’ - back v. ‘go back’; bear n. ‘animal’ - bear v. ‘carry, tolerate’;
homographs are words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning e.g. bow /bəu/ - bow /bau/; lead /li:d/ - lead /led/;
homophones are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning: son – sun; pair – pear; air - heir, buy - by, him -
hymn, steel – steal; storey – story;
 homoforms are words identical in some of their grammatical forms: bound, v. ‘to jump, to spring’ - bound (past participle of
bind); found, v. ‘establish’ - found (past participle of find);
capitonyms are words that share the same spelling but have different meanings when capitalised, e.g. polish, v. ‘to make shiny’ -
Polish, adj. ‘coming from Poland’; Boxing Day (26th of December) – boxing ‘ a kind of sport’.
The classification based on the distinction between homonymy of words and homonymy of individual word-forms (suggested by
Prof. Smirnitskiy).

Full homonyms are two or more words which belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all their forms, i.e. their
paradigms are identical, e.g.
blow, v. ‘to send out a strong current of air’ - blow, v. ‘to produce flowers’; mole, n. ‘a small, furry, almost blind animal that digs
holes and passages underground to live in’ – mole, n. ‘a small, dark brown, slightly raised mark on a person’s skin’;
Partial homonyms are words found within different (rarely the same) parts of speech which coincide only in some of their forms,
i.e. their paradigms are not identical. e.g.:
seal, n. (seals) ‘a semi-aquatic marine mammal’ – seal, v. (sealed, sealing) ‘to close tightly’; lie, v. (lies – lying – lay – lain) ‘to
be in a horizontal or resting position’ – lie, v. (lies – lying – lied – lied) ‘to make an untrue statement’;
According to the type of meaning, homonyms are classified into:
lexical homonyms, if they belong to the same part of speech but differ in lexical meaning, e.g.:
bank, n. ‘land along the side of a river’ – bank, n. ‘an establishment for keeping money, valuables, etc.’;
lexical-grammatical homonyms, if they belong to different parts of speech and differ both in their lexical and grammatical
meanings, e.g.:
bear, n. – bear, v.; right, adj. – write, v.;
grammatical homonyms, i.e. homonymous word-forms of one and the same word differing in grammatical meaning, e.g. the
homonymy of the plural, Possessive Case singular and plural: bears - bear's - bears'.

26.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations among English words.

Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations are understood as basic linguistic relationships describing the complex structure of a
language system. This distinction is relevant to all levels of description. It was introduced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinard de
Saussure in 1916 as a generalisation of the traditional concepts of a paradigm and a syntagm.
Paradigm (Gr. parádeigma ‘pattern, model’) is a set of homogeneous forms opposed to each other according to their
semantic and formal features.
Syntagm (Gr. sýntagma ‘that which is put together in order’) is a structured syntactic sequence of linguistic elements
formed by segmentation which can consist of sounds, words, phrases, clauses, or entire sentences.
Paradigmatic relations exist between units of the language system outside the strings where they co-occur. They are based on the
criteria of selection and distribution of linguistic elements. Paradigmatic relations determining the vocabulary system are based on
the interdependence of words within the vocabulary: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy.
F. de Saussure called paradigmatic relationships associative relationships, because they represent the relationship between
individual elements in specific environment.
It was the Danish linguist Louis Hjelmslev who replaced the term associative relations for paradigmatic relations.
Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear links between the units in a segmental sequence. Syntagmatic relations are
horizontal since they are based on the linear character of speech.
In psycholinguistics these terms are used in a different sense.
The term paradigmatic relations denotes the mental associations between words which form part of a set of mutually exclusive
items, e.g. black responds with white.
The term syntagmatic relations refers to mental associations between words which frequently occur together, e.g. black magic /
tie / sheep.

27. Synonyms. Types of synonyms. Sources of synonymy.

Synonyms (Gr. syn ‘with’, ónyma ‘name’) are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing a common
denotative semantic component, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in sense, but
differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotations, style, valency and idiomatic use,
e.g.:strange – (unusual or unexpected); queer – (unusual or unexpected), odd – (unusual or unexpected), weird – (unusual or
unexpected), peculiar (unusual or unexpected),
The synonymic dominant is the general term of its kind potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other
members of the group. It is characterised by:
high frequency value;
broad combinability;
broad general meaning;
lack of connotations;
stylistic neutrality;
it may substitute for other synonyms at least in some contexts;
it is often used to define other synonyms in dictionary definitions.
Lexical synonyms are similar in meaning in the language system.
Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific contextual conditions, cf. the following sentences:
I’ll go to the shop to buy some bread.
I’ll go to the shop to get some bread.
I can’t bear him anymore.
I can’t stand him anymore.
Absolute synonyms coincide in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics, e.g. word-building – word-
formation;
Ideographic synonyms convey the same concept but differ in shades of meaning, i.e. in their denotative component;
interesting – (exciting), (makes you want to know more sth);
fascinating – (exciting), (makes you want to know more sth), [extremely];
intriguing – (exciting), (makes you want to know more sth), [there is sth you find difficult to understand or explain];
absorbing – (exciting), (makes you want to know more sth), [holds your attention for a long time];
gripping – (exciting), (makes you want to know more sth), [holds your attention for a long time], [you want to know what is going
to happen next];
Stylistic synonyms differ in their stylistic characteristics, i.e. in their connotative component, e.g. head (neutral) – attic (stylistic).
Ideographic-stylistic synonyms differ in shades of meaning and belong to different styles, e.g. to see ‘to have or use the powers of
sight and understanding’ – to behold (elevated, archaic) ‘to look at that which is seen’.
development of the native elements, mostly denoting different shades of common meaning, e.g. fast – speedy – swift;
handsome – pretty – lovely;
adaptation of words from dialects and varieties of English, e.g. dark – murk (Northern English); girl – lass (Scottish English);
wireless – radio (American English);
foreign borrowings, e.g. to ask (native) – to question (French) – to interrogate (Latin); to end (native) – to finish (French) – to
complete (Latin);
euphemisms, e.g. drunk – intoxicated – tired and emotional; to kill – to finish – to make away with sb – to remove;
etymological doublets, e.g. shade – shadow; canal – channel;
productive word-forming processes, e.g. await – wait; memorandum – memo; resistance – fight back.

28. Antonyms. Definition. Morphological and semantic classifications of antonyms.

Antonymy is a type of paradigmatic relations based on polarity of meaning.
Antonyms (Gr. antí ‘against,’ ónyma ‘name’) are two or more words of the same language belonging to the same part of
speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in distribution, associated and often used together so
that their denotative meanings render contrary or contradictory notions.
For the analysis of the semantic continuum where synonyms and antonyms interplay, one can use the ‘semiotic square’
model suggested by Algirdas Greimas, a Lithuanian-born linguist and semiotician who laid the foundations for the Paris School of
Semiotics and is considered, along with Roland Barthes, the most prominent of the French semioticians
According to the character of semantic opposition:
1)Antonyms proper (contrary antonyms) are antonyms which possess the following characteristics:
they are gradable, i.e. there are some intermediate units between the most distant members of a set, e.g. cold – cool – tepid –
warm – hot; never – seldom – sometimes – often – always;
they are capable of comparison, e.g. good – better – best vs. bad – worse – worst;
they can be modified by such intensifiers as very, slightly, extremely, fairly, rather etc., e.g. huge – very big – BIG – quite big –
medium-sized – quite small – SMALL – very small – tiny;
they do not deny one another, e.g. She is not beautiful ≠She is ugly;
they refer not to independent absolute qualities but to some implicit norm, e.g. a big mouse vs a small elephant.
2)Contradictory antonyms (complementary antonyms) are mutually opposed (exclusive) and deny one another, e.g. male – female;
married – single; asleep – awake; same – different. Their features:
not gradable;
truly represent oppositeness of meaning;
cannot be used in the comparative or superlative degree;
the denial of one member of such antonymic opposition always implies the assertion of the other, e.g. not dead – alive.
4)Conversive antonyms (conversives) are words which denote one and the same situation as viewed from different points of view,
with a reversal of the order of participants and their roles, e.g. husband – wife; teacher – pupil; to buy – to sell; to lend – to
borrow; to precede – to follow. These antonyms are mutually dependent on each other and one item presupposes the other.
5)Vectorial antonyms (directional antonyms) are words denoting differently directed actions, features, e.g. to rise – to fall; to
arrive – to depart; to marry – to divorce; to learn – to forget; to appear – to disappear.
Morphological classification of antonyms by V. N. Komissarov (Dictionary of English Antonyms):
root antonyms (absolute antonyms) are antonyms having different roots, e.g. clean – dirty; late – early; day – night;
derivational antonyms are antonyms having the same root but different affixes, e.g. to fasten – to unfasten; flexible – inflexible;
useful – useless.

29. Grammatical and lexical valency. Grammatical and lexical context.

Lexical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various collocations, i.e. in combinations with other words. The lexical
valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. Both the E. plant and Ukr. рослина may be combined with a
number of words denoting the place where the flowers are grown, e.g. garden plants, hot-house flowers, etc. (cf. Ukr. садові
рослини, оранжерейні рослини, etc.). The English word, however, cannot enter into combination with the word room to denote
plants growing in the rooms (cf. pot plants — кімнатні рослини).
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of
word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but
one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
 different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be
described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep /
disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as
distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is
delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same
part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.
the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only
propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups
having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at + Noun (clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same
word-group pattern.
The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g.
keen + N as in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + N as in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf) as in keen to know ‘eager’.

30.Free word-groups. Definition. Classifications.

A word-group is a combination of at least two meaningful words joined together according to the rules of a particular
language.
Words in word-groups are not “free” because their syntagmatic relationships are governed, restricted and regulated, on the one
hand, by requirements of logic and common sense and, on the other, by the rules of grammar and combinability.
Distribution is the range of positions in which a linguistic unit can occur, e.g. the noun issue can appear in various
combinations:
Adj. + issue: burning, central, critical, crucial, key, vital; controversial, difficult, thorny; economic, moral, political, social,
technical, theoretical;
V. + issue: raise; debate, discuss; decide, settle; address, consider, deal with, examine; clarify; focus on; highlight;
avoid, evade.
Semantic combinability of words is based on the meanings of words. It is conditioned by the nature of the denotata of words, i.e. it
reflects the connections, relations and associations between objects, properties or events in reality. Semantic links between the
combining words serve as a basis for free word-groups.

Semantic agreement is the presence of common semantic features (semes) and the absence of contradictory semantic features in
the combining words; it is the basic law of semantic combinability. Consider the example below:
*The yellow idea cut the tree.
*Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic
relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be
grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.

31. Discrepancies between free word-groups and phraseological units.

a word-group is a combination of at least two meaningful words joined together according to the rules of a particular language
a phraseological unit is a non-motivated word-group that cannot be freely made up in speech but is reproduced as a ready-made
unit
Semantic:the semantic change affects the whole word-group, e.g. a wolf in a sheep’s clothing, to have one’s heart in one’s mouth;
the semantic change affects one of the components, e.g. to fall ill, to lose one’s temper;
Structural: restriction in substitution; restriction in introducing additional components; grammatical invariability.
-the contextual approach proceeds from the assumption that individual meanings of polysemantic words can be observed in
certain contexts and may be viewed as dependent on these contexts;
-a phraseological unit is a unit of fixed context characterised by specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components
and a peculiar semantic relationship between them;
-the two criteria of PhU – specialised meaning of the components and non-variability of context – display unilateral dependence.

constructed in speech wg ready-made pu

substitution is possible as a rule, no substitution
individual meanings of the components (motivated) meaning is non-motivated (idiomatic)
each notional word functions as a separate syntactic unit the whole expression functions as a single syntactic unit
unpredictable predictable
32..Phraseological units: a variety of terms and the problem of definition. Characteristic features of phraseological units.
Main Features of Phraseological Units: idiomaticity reproducibility stability predictability inseparability
Terminological Vagueness:a phraseological unit (V. V. Vinogradov) an idiom a set-phrase a word-equivalent a collocation
a phraseme (N. M. Amosova) a quasi-idiom (I. Melchook).

33..Classifications of phraseological units.

Phraseological combinations (collocations): clearly motivated; made up of words possessing specific lexical valency which
accounts for a certain degree of stability in such word-groups; variability of member-words is strictly limited, e.g. to meet the
demand, to make a mistake, to bear a grudge, to pay a compliment, to give a speech etc.
Phraseological unities:partially non-motivated, i.e. their meaning can usually be perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the
whole unit, e.g. to lose one’s head, a fish out of water, to show one’s teeth, to wash one’s dirty linen in public,
Phraseological fusions: completely non-motivated, i.e. the meaning of the components has no connection, at least synchronically,
with the meaning of the whole group; characterised by complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure
of the whole unit, e.g. once in a blue moon, to be on the carpet, under the rose etc.

34. Polysemy, synonymy and stylistic features of phraseological units.

Absolute synonyms (identical in meaning and stylistic connotations):
break one’s word = depart from one’s word; bring (drive) to the bay = drive (force) to the wall; like lightning = with lightning
speed = like a streak of lightning;
Ideographic synonyms denote different shades of common meaning, e.g. to come to / arrive at / jump at / leap at a conclusion. In
other cases, they differ in intensity of a given meaning:
to have two minds – to be in twenty minds; to be in one’s cups ‘tipsy’ – to be drunk as a skunk ‘drunk and incapable’;
Stylistic synonyms (appropriate only to definite contexts):
What on earth is this? – What the hell is this?
on the Greek calends – When pigs fly.
Polysemy of phraseological units:
to be on the go – 1) be energetic; 2) keep doing smth; 3) be in a hurry; 4) be drunk.
Stylistic Aspect of Phraseology Not all phraseological units bear imagery: clichés / stock phrases (see you later, take it easy,
joking apart etc.); some proverbs (better late than never); some euphonic units: rhyme (out and about); alliteration (forgive and
forget, now or never, safe and sound); repetition (little by little, inch by inch); with archaic words (to buy a pig in a poke).

35.. Origins and sources of phraseological units.

According to their origins, phraseological units in Modern English may be divided into:
native, e.g. to eat the humble pie ‘to submit to humiliation’ < ME to eat umble pie (umbles ‘the internal organs of a deer’); to
save for a rainy day; to beat about the bush ‘not to speak openly and directly’; to lose one’s rag ‘to lose one’s temper’ etc.;
borrowed, which, in their turn, can be either intralingual (borrowed from American English and other variants of English) or
interlingual (borrowed from other languages).
Types of Borrowed Phraseological Units: Intralingual borrowings: e.g. to bite off more than one can chew; to shoot the bull ‘’to
talk nonsense’ (from American English); to pull sb’s leg (from Scottish Gaelic); a knock back (from Australian English) etc.
Interlingual borrowings:
translation loans from Latin, e.g. to take the bull by the horns, a slip of the tongue (Lat. lapsus linguae), with a grain of salt (Lat.
cum grano salis), second to none (Lat. nulli secundus); from French, e.g. by heart (Fr. par coeur), that goes without saying (Fr.
cela va sans dire); from Spanish, e.g. the moment of truth (Sp. el momento de la verdad), blue blood (Sp. la sagre azul) etc;
barbarisms (non-assimilated loans), e.g. sotto voce (It.) ‘quietly, in a low voice’, la dolce vita (It.) ‘the good life full of pleasure’,
al fresco (It.) ‘in the open air’, cordon bleu (Fr.) ‘high quality, esp. of cooking’.

36..Standard English: features and the problem of definition.

a variety of English with standardised pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and spelling that have no local base;
used as the norm of communication by the government, law courts, and media;
taught to native speakers in school and to learners of English as a foreign language;
a canon of literature and translations;
prestigious within a country;
only a minority of people within a country (e.g. radio newscasters, translators) use it. Most people speak a variety of regional
English, or a mixture of standard and regional English.

37.. Local dialects in the British Isles. Scotticisms in Standard English.

Scottish English is the result of language contact between Scots and English after the 17th c. It is the most distinctive from
Standard English (not to be confused with the Scottish Gaelic language, which is a Celtic language spoken in the Highlands). Its
special status is conditioned by:
a strong literary tradition and the Bible (1983);
its own dialects;
vast lexicographic description: John Jamieson's Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1808-1825, 4 vols
Scottish National Dictionary (1976, 10 vols); the Scots Thesaurus (1990, 20 000 items).
Scotticisms: a lassie, a laddie, a billy, a kilt, a tartan, a glamour ‘magic spell; charm’, a slogan ‘a battle cry of a Scottish clan’, a
wean ‘child’; wee, bonny; to greet ‘to cry’, to keek ‘to peep’, to ken ‘to know’; ilk ‘the same’, ilka ‘every’;
Scotticisms of Germanic origin: a bairn ‘a child’, a burgh ‘a small town’; stark ‘strong’, couthie ‘nice, pleasant’, to awe ‘to have,
to possess’, to wale ‘to choose’; Scotticisms of Celtic origin: a bannock ‘flat quick bread’, an ingle ‘fire, fireplace’, a binn ‘a
waterfall’;
English words that underwent semantic changes in Scottish English: scheme ‘local government housing estate’, mind ‘memory,
recollection’, travel ‘go on foot’, gate ‘road’; idioms: to miss oneself ‘miss a treat’; to be up on high doh ‘to be overexcited’,
etc.;
colloquial words: high ‘highest quality’ as in it’s high; fair ‘completely’ as in I fair forgot; brave ‘good’ etc.;
a wide usage of contractions: canna (cannot), dinna (do not), mebbe (may be), didna (did not), twouldna (it would not).
Irish English (Hiberno-English) is the variant of English spoken in Ireland. It is the product of the Irish language and the
interaction of English and Scots brought to Ireland during the 16th – 17th c. The linguistic influence of the Irish language is most
clearly seen in Gaeltachaí. English first appeared in Ireland during the Norman invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century. Since
the 19th century, it has become the dominant language, with Gaelic found only in certain rural parts of the west. In the east, the
link was the strongest with England, but in the north it was with Scotland (now Ulster Scots).
Welsh English refers to the dialect of English spoken in Wales. It is significantly influenced by Welsh grammar and often include
words derived from Welsh. In addition to the distinctive words and grammar, there is a variety of accents found across Wales
from the Cardiff dialect to that of the South Wales Valleys and to West Wales.
Features of Welsh English are:
distinctive pitch difference giving a ‘sing-song’ effect;
adding the words like and indeed to the end of the sentence for emphasis or using them as stop-gaps;
straightforward borrowings from Welsh: to cwtsch ‘to hug, to cuddle’; an awdl ‘a long poem’; an englyn ‘a short poem form’.
Cockney English is generally considered one of the broadest of the British accents and is heavily stigmatised. It is considered to
epitomise the working class accents of Londoners and in its more diluted form.
The term Cockney refers to both the accent as well as to those people who speak it. To be a true Cockney, a person has to
be born within hearing distance of the bells of St. Mary le Bow, Cheapside, in the City of London. This traditional working-class
accent of the region is also associated with other suburbs in the eastern section of the city such as the East End, Stepney, Hackney,
Shoreditch Poplar and Bow.
Cockney rhyming slang: in a pair of associated words the second word rhymes with the word a person intends to say; the
first word of the associated pair indicates the word you originally intended to say. Some rhymes have been in use for years and are
very well recognised, if not used, among speakers of other accents, e.g.:
apples and pears – stairs; plates of meat – feet; bees and honey – money.

38 Chief characteristic features of the American English lexicon.

40..Types of Dictionaries
Abridged Dictionary
An abridged dictionary does not have all of the words of the language in it; it does not include words that are very archaic (too
old) or arcane (too specialized). This type of dictionary is your all-purpose dictionary and is fine for most occasions. Has some
limited information on etymologies (roots) of words.
Unabridged Dictionary
The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is probably the most famous of all unabridged dictionaries. This type contains all words of
the language, including arcane and archaic words and excellent information on etymology.
Student/Children's Dictionary
This type of dictionary has many fewer words than a (collegiate) abridged dictionary or an unabridged dictionary, generally has
more pictures, and includes the words that will be the most important for gaining functional fluency of the language. This type of
dictionary can be frustrating when a seemingly common word is not listed and time is wasted searching for it.
Article on Editing of Christian words from student dictionaries
Etymological (Historical) Dictionary This type of dictionary is mostly for linguistics and those interested in the roots of words.
This type of dictionary can be extremely helpful in terms of making connections between words, increasing vocabulary, and
gaining a fuller understanding of a word's definition(s).
Slang / Dialectical Dictionary
This type of dictionary contains slang and colloquial words that are common in speech but may or may not be "proper" or "actual"
words. This type of dictionary is generally more helpful to historians of language or linguistics professors than to natural-born
speakers, but it may be helpful to those learning another language.
Rhyming Dictionary
This type of dictionary contains the most common words and the words that rhyme with them. The dictionary may choose to only
have "perfect" rhymes, or may have both "perfect" and "imperfect rhymes. See the Wikipedia article on Rhyme for more
information.
Scrabble Dictionary
This is a very specialized type of dictionary that contains those words that are considered "legal" in playing Scrabble. Though not
a true dictionary as they rarely contain definitions (as definitions are not important in Scrabble), they can be extremely helpful --
as a spelling resource or just while you play your friend in Scrabble.

41 The main problems in lexicography.

Lexicography, the science of dictionary compiling, deals with the problems of form, meaning, usage & origin of vocabulary units.
I. The problem of classification of English dictionaries.
There are many different types of English dictionaries:
1) Linguistic dictionaries are word-books, their subject-matter is lexical units & their linguistic properties of use etc.
2) The encyclopaedic dictionaries are thing books that give information about the extra-linguistic world; they deal with
concepts (objects & phenomena, their relations to other objects and phenomena etc).
a) According to the nature of their world list linguistic dictionaries may be divided into:
· general dictionaries (which contain lexical units in ordinary use with this or that proportion of items from various spheres of
life);
· restricted dictionaries (make their choice only from a certain part of the word stock, the restriction being based on any
principle (dictionaries of foreign words, terminological, phraseological, dialectal word books) determined by their compiler).
b) According to the information they contain linguistic dictionaries are divided into:
· presenting a wide range of data, especially with regard to the semantic aspect of the vocabulary items (explanatory
dictionaries);
dealing with lexical units only in relation to some of their characteristics, such as etymology, frequency of pronunciation
(specialised dictionaries;
c) According to the language of explanation, all types of dictionaries are divided into:
· monolingual (information is given in the same language);
· bilingual (in another language).
d) According to the prospective user, all types of dictionaries are divided into:
· dictionaries for scholarly users;
· dictionaries for students;
· dictionaries for general public.
Thus, to characterise a dictionary one must qualify it at least from the different angles mentioned above.
II. Some basic problems of dictionary compiling.
The most important problems the lexicographers face are:
1. The selection of items for inclusion and their arrangement. The questions to be decided upon are:
a) The type of lexical units to be chosen for inclusion;
b) The number of items to be recorded;
c) What to select and what to leave out in the dictionary;
d) Which form of the language, spoken or written, or both, is the dictionary to reflect;
e) Should the dictionary contain obsolete and archaic units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms etc.