INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Temperature measurement
Measuring principle
Measuring principles on the basis of thermal expansion of substances. The volumetric
expansion of gaseous, liquid or solid substances due to the effects of temperature
When temperature changes, the volume of substances changes. Based on the differential
change of volume, the temperature can be defined.
Electrical temperature sensors convert the physical quantity "temperature" into an
electrical signal dependent on it. Electrical thermometers are self-contained components,
which supply a processible signal as their output.
For example: Thermocouple output is mVolt, RTD output is Ohm.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are based on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal increases as temperature increases – a phenomenon known as
thermal resistivity. Thus, a temperature measurement can be inferred by measuring the
resistance of the RTD element.

The two most common styles of RTD sensors are wire-wound and thin film.

- Wire-wound RTDs are manufactured either by winding the resistive wire around a
ceramic mandrel or by winding it in a helical shape supported in a ceramic sheath –
hence the name wire-wound.

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- To manufacture thin film RTD sensors, a thin resistive coating is deposited on a flat
(usually rectangular) ceramic substrate.

Copper and nickel are generally used in less critical industrial applications due to limited
accuracy and linearity, and relatively narrow temperature ranges.
Platinum is more common because its temperature vs. resistance is more linear, and the
material is cheaper than Nickel. Pt100 is very common in temperature measurement, at
0degC the output of Pt100 is 100 Ohm. (see the Pt100 temperature-resistance conversion
table)
Copper is less used in high temperature application due to the oxidization at temperature
over 150degC.

Sensing element

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The sensing element is located at the tip of the temperature sensor that is
exposed to the process temperature. The sensing element responds to temperature by
generating a measurable resistance change or a voltage signal that increases as the
temperature increases. Sensors can be provided with either one or two elements in one
sensor sheath. Dual elements provide a redundant measurement that may be useful for
hot back-up, for example flare tips uses dual elements because it is very hard to replace
if the temperature sensors fail.

Thermocouples
A thermocouple (T/C) is a closed-circuit thermoelectric temperature sensing device
consisting of two wires of dissimilar metals joined at both ends. A current is created when
the temperature at one end or junction differs from the temperature at the other end. This
phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect, which is the basis for thermocouple
temperature measurements.
One end is referred to as the hot junction whereas the other end is referred to as the cold
junction. The hot junction measuring element is placed inside a sensor sheath and exposed
to the process. The cold junction, or the reference junction, is the termination point outside
of the process where the temperature is known and where the voltage is being measured.

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The Thermocouple Temperature Ranges

There are many types of T/C that use various metal combinations. These combinations have
different output characteristics that define the applicable temperature range it can measure
and the corresponding voltage output. The higher the magnitude of the voltage output the
higher the measurement resolution which increases repeatability and accuracy. There are
tradeoffs between measurement resolutions and temperature ranges which suits individual
T/C types to specific ranges and applications.
There are T/C types that can measure temperatures as low as - 270 °C (-464 °F) and other
types that can measure up to 1768 °C (3214 °F).
T/C types

Type K is most commonly used with Temperature application above 538 degC (1000 degF)

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Accuracy

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Installation of temperature sensors

Immersion mouting

Surface mouting

Thermowell:

Temperature sensors are rarely inserted directly into an industrial process. They are
installed into a thermowell to isolate them from the potentially damaging process
conditions of flow-induced stresses, high pressure, and corrosive chemical effects.
Thermowells are closed-end metal tubes that are installed into the process vessel or piping
and become a pressure-tight integral part of the process vessel or pipe. They permit the
sensor to be quickly and easily removed from the process for calibration or replacement
without requiring a process shutdown and possible drainage of the pipe or vessel.
The most common types of thermowells are threaded, socket weld, and flanged

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Threaded thermowells are threaded into process piping or tank, which allows for easy
installation and removal when necessary. While this is the most commonly used method of
mounting, it has the lowest pressure rating of the three options. Threaded connections are
also prone to leakage and therefore are not recommended for applications with toxic,
explosive or corrosive materials.
Welded thermowells are permanently welded to process pipes or tanks. Thus, removal is
difficult and requires cutting the thermowell out of the system. Welded thermowells have
the highest-pressure rating and are generally used in applications with high velocity flow,
high temperature, or extreme high pressure. They are necessary where a leak-proof seal is
required.
Flanged thermowells are bolted to a mating flange that is welded onto process pipe or tank.
They provide high pressure ratings, easy
installation, and simple replacement.
Flanged thermowells are used in
applications with corrosive
environments, high-velocity, high
temperature, or high pressure.
Vanstone / Lap Joint thermowells are
mounted between the mating flange
and the lap joint flange. These
thermowells allow for the use of
different materials for the thermowell
coming in contact with the process and
the overlaying flange which can save
material and manufacturing costs. They
are a good choice for corrosive
applications

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When we do not need a thermowell?

Installing temperature elements without a thermowell is acceptable in some applications or
where certain conditions exist:
• The process fluid is not corrosive or otherwise hazardous
• The process is not under significant pressure
• Air-in leakage is permissible
• The primary element has the necessary static and dynamic mechanical strength for
the application
• A failure of the element may be tolerated until the process can conveniently be shut
down and assuming the operation can continue without the use of the measurement
• There is no personnel hazard if the temperature sensor is inadvertently removed
from the vessel, pipe or duct.

Thermowell failure:
When fluid flows past a thermowell inserted into a pipe or duct, vortices form at both sides
of the well. These vortices detach, first from one side, and then from the other in an
alternating pattern. This phenomenon is known as vortex shedding, the Von Karman Vortex
Street or flow vortices. The differential pressure due to the alternating vortices produces
alternating forces on the well resulting in stresses that cause alternating transverse
deflection. In addition there are other forces produced along the axial or parallel axis of the
flow.

Each thermowell design has a natural frequency referred to as fn that is dependent on its
shape, length, and material of construction.
As the vortex shedding frequency approaches the natural frequency of the thermowell, the
thermowell will oscillate in resonance and may fracture with potentially dire consequences.
It is clear that the vortex shedding forces must be taken into account when selecting a
thermowell of sufficient strength and stiffness to withstand the service conditions, and

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generally thermowells are selected such that the shedding frequency is always ≤
80% of the natural frequency.

Selection criteria
Review of process P&IDs, a site visit to ensure that the drawings are accurate and to
visualize the mounting location, and consultation with process, mechanical, environmental
engineers and project managers will usually provide answers to such questions as:
• What is the process?
• What is the process fluid? (Gas, liquid, steam or granular)
• What is the operating pressure? The maximum pressure?
• What is the normal, maximum and minimum fluid flow rate?
• Is the measurement in a pipe or a vessel?
• Is the pipe or vessel full or partially filled?
• What is the ambient temperature range around the measurement point?
• Where will the measurement be taken? Ground level or elevated?
• Is it desirable to have the field operator view a local display?
• Is the requirement to monitor temperature trends or an actual controlled value?
• What is the temperature range? The control point? Its maximum temperature? Its
minimum temperature?
• Are there established plant preferences for choice of sensor that may influence your
selection? (Proven in use is a valuable consideration)
• What is the control precision requirement? For example furnace temperature
control may tolerate ± 10 °C while a pharmaceutical batch process may require ±
0.25 °C or better.
• What is the speed of response to temperature change requirement?
• Is there a significant ROI for best possible accuracy and stability? (Like custody
transfer, energy management or distillation column throughput for example)
• What are the costs associated with a measurement failure? Production downtime
costs? Off-spec product that requires reprocessing or selling at a reduced price?
Energy inefficiency? Troubleshooting and maintenance time? Dangerous runaway
reactions?
• What are the plant engineering standards for installation? Integrally mounted
transmitters; remote-mount transmitters; direct wiring to marshalling cabinets; etc.)
• What other corporate or plant level guidance policies and procedures must be
observed
• What are the physical parameters? Pipe material, insulation thickness and diameter;
tank material, wall and insulation thickness; reactor detail; duct detail; etc.
• Are there any obstructions in the intended mounting location?
• Are there explosive, abrasive or corrosive considerations in the process? In the
surrounding environment?
• What is the frequency and severity of the piping / vessel vibration (typical and
maximum?)

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• How fast will the temperature change during normal operation? During an
upset condition?
• Is there the expectation of significant EMI, electrical surges, and RFI in the area of
the measurement from pumps, motors, radio antennas, welders, etc.?
• Is this measurement part of a safety instrumented system?

Thermocouple or RTD?
Temperature < 500 degC: RTD, otherwise T/C

Attribute RTD Thermocouple

Accuracy Class A: ± [0.15 + Typical is ± 1.1 °C or ± 0.4% of

0.002 (t) ] measured temperature(Greater).
Interchangeability
Depends on Type and Range. Degraded
Class B: ± [0.30 +
by extension wire.
0.005 (t) ]
Per IEC 60751

Stability ± 0.05 °C per 1000 Highly dependent on T/C type, quality

Hrs at ≤ 300 °C. of the wire and operating temperature.
Greater at higher
Typical is ± 2 to 10 °C per 1000 Hrs.
temperatures.
Wire wound better
than thin film.

Speed of Response in For 6mm sensor For 6mm sensor about the same as
Thermowell about the same as RTD.
Installation in Liquid T/C.
Slightly faster for 3mm sensor.

Calibration Easily recalibrated Limited to in situ comparison to

for long service life. “Standard T/C”.
Best accuracy with
Sensor-Transmitter

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Matching.

Potential -200 to 850 °C -270 to 2300 °C

Temperature Range

Life Span Many years. Degradation indicates frequent

Shorter at higher replacement.
temperatures.
Much shorter at high temperatures.
Higher life cycle costs.

Installation Use standard copper Requires expensive matching extension

Considerations wire. wire.
Good EMI and RFI Low level signal is very susceptible to
immunity. EMI and RFI.

Vibration Tolerance Thin film design is Larger wire diameters are very good.
very good.

Life Cycle Cost Lower. Higher.

Purchase Cost Thin film design Types R and S most expensive.

about the same.
Wire wound higher.

System Performance Always better below Order of magnitude lower.

with Transmitter 650 °C.

Temperature Transmitter
The transmitter converts the sensor measurement input signal to high level robust output
signal. The output signal can be either analog or digital, both of which are highly accurate
and reliable with strong noise immunity and may be transmitted over long distances. The
most common analog signal is 4-20mA with HART protocol. The digital communication
®

protocols are HART (including WirelessHART™), FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus, and Profibus, all of
which are open and interoperable standards.

Maintenance Basics

Transmitters

• Mechanical inspection/repairs
• Proper installation guidelines followed
• Corrosion

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• Loose mounting
• Erosion
• Covers are on tight with metal-to-metal seal
• Conduit seals are tight
• Moisture intrusion •
Electrical inspection/repairs
• Clean and tight terminations
• Corrosion on terminals or housing
• LCD operating properly
• The shield and case grounding is correct and intact.

Sensors and Thermowells

• Remove sensor from thermowell for calibration or replacement

• Clean well bore of thermal paste and/or corrosion
• Inspect for corrosion on terminals, enclosures and on thermowell.
• Inspect thermowell mounting for evidence of cracking indicating potential failure
• Inspect and tighten flange bolts
• For high temperature applications verify integrity of protection tube
• For surface mount sensors –– Verify mounting is secure for good thermal contact of
the sensor tip with the process vessel or pipe
• Verify that the insulation surrounding the sensor is in place with minimal leakage
• For pipe clamp units ensure clamp bolts are tight and that no corrosion exists

Calibration

Overview and Definition

Calibration is distinctly different from transmitter ranging or adjustment of other
transmitter configuration parameters that are normally entered during commissioning.
Changes to these values are not typically part of a calibration procedure although some
parameters may be authorized by management to be done at that time like adjusting
damping or changing an alarm setpoint
The zero value is the lower end of the range. Span is defined as the algebraic difference
between the upper and lower range values. The calibration range may differ from the
instrument range, which refers to the capability of the instrument. As an example, a
temperature transmitter with an RTD input has a potential range of -200 to 850 °C to
produce a 4-20 mA output. However, for a specific application it is to be calibrated to a
range of 0 to 50 °C for 4-20 mA output. For this example the input zero value is 0 °C and the
input span is 50 °C and the output zero value is 4 mA and the output span is 16 mA.

When to Calibrate
Calibration is performed for one or more of the following reasons:

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• During commissioning of a new instrument

• After a transmitter has been repaired or modified
• When a specified time period has elapsed
• When a specified usage such as operating hours has elapsed
• Before and/or after a critical measurement
After an event has occurred that may have put it out of calibration or damaged it like shock,
vibration, exposure to an adverse condition like a lightning strike, or sudden changes in
weather
• Whenever observations appear questionable or instrument indications do not match
the output of related instruments
• As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification or instrument
manufacturer recommendation

Documentation Considerations
A part of the engineering of each temperature measurement system is the development of
documents that contain all of the necessary information about the application. These
include the Plot Plan, Process Flow Diagram, Piping and Instrument Diagram (P&ID),
Installation Details, Instrument Lists, Loop Sheets, and Specification Sheets.
• Instrument layout
• The Process Flow Diagram
• Piping and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID)
• The Installation Detail Drawing
• Loop Diagram
• Instrument Lists
• Specification/ datasheet

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