ct369 PDF

Bài giảng: TRUYỀN THÔNG KHÔNG DÂY (KC222)
(WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS)
Chapter 1- Introduction
(Giới thiệu)
Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn
1
Course Information
• Class homepage:
http://cet.ctu.edu.vn/det/index.php/blog/blogger/list
ings/308-lvqdanh
• Prerequisite: Probability, Signal and Systems,
Digital Communications
• Textbook:
[1] P. Mohana Shankar, Introduction to Wireless
Systems, Wiley, 2001.
[2] Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless
Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd. Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 2002.
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Course Information: Policies
• Exam and Assignments:

§ One Mid-term Exam
§ One Final Exam
§ One Assignment / Project
• Grading Policy:
§ Mid-term Exam: 35%
§ Assignments: 30%
§ Final Exam: 35%
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Course Outline
q Overview of Wireless Communication Systems
q Propagation Characteristics of Wireless Channels
q Modulation Techniques for Wireless Systems
q Cellular System Design Fundamentals
q Multiple-Access Techniques
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Overview of Wireless
Communication Systems
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What is the oldest wireless system?
Smoke signals
Bongsoodae, Namsan Mt., Seoul Carrier Pigeons
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Wireless History (1)
• Ancient Systems: Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeons, …
– Some are still being used: e.g., semaphore flags between ships
• Thousands of years without breakthrough
• Electromagnetic wave propagation theory developed in
1860’s and summarized by Maxwell, demonstrated later by
Hertz
• First radio transmission in the 1896 by Marconi (or 1893 by
Tesla)
– Systems are of low frequency, high power, huge size, expensive,
and largely mechanical
– The development is first boosted by the invention of vacuum
tubes in 1906 by De Forest: the start of electronic age
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• The real engine of electronic age: transistor was invented by
William Shockley in the period of 1948-1951.
• Communication hardware was revolutionized for the second
time (a big one)
• Another revolution came in the same time: information
theory initiated by Claude Shannon in 1948.
• Golden age of information theory: 1948~1960’s, then
somehow faded: the theorems developed were far too
complicated to implement at that time.
• Many sophisticated military radio systems were developed
during and after WW2.
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• The third revolution for communication hardware: integrated
• circuit (IC) was invented in 1958 by Jack Kilby, developed in
1960’s and continued exponential growth since then.
• Another driving force of wireless systems: mobile phone
– According to Bell Labs, on June 17, 1946, the first mobile
telephone call was placed in St. Louis, Missouri from a
telephone set installed in an automobile.
– Take off in 1980’s due to the Cellular concept, with more than 5
Billion subscriptions today
• Many new systems proposed in 1990s. Now many standards
still coexist currently
• The forth revolution: smart phones and tablets
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Current Wireless Systems (1)
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Current Wireless Systems (2)
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Frequency Allocations: Vietnam
430-440 MHz Nghiệp dư, ISM (Industry-Science-Medical)
698-806 MHz Thông tin di động, băng tần 700 MHz
824-835 MHz
(International Mobile Telecommunications) – Triển khai
869-915 MHz IMT-2000 3G WCDMA và các phiên bản tiếp theo
Frequency
925-960 MHz
1710-1785 MHz
Triển khai LTE, LTE-Advanced (4G) và các
IMT-Advanced
1805-1880 MHz phiên bản tiếp theo
1900-1980 MHz
IMT-2000 Đã triển khai sử dụng cho 3G WCDMA
2110-2170 MHz
2400-2500 MHz Nghiệp dư, ISM

2500-2600 MHz Được triển khai cho 4G
5650-5850 MHz Nghiệp dư, ISM

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(Nguồn: Quyết định số 71/2013/QĐ-TTg và Quyết định số 02/2017/QĐ-TTg)
Cellular Mobile Systems (1)
• In December 1947, Douglas H.
Ring and W. Rae Young of Bell
Labs, proposed hexagonal cells
for mobile phones in vehicles.
• No technology was available to
implement those until 1960.
• There were no continuity of
services between several cells in
that early implementation.
• The concept of frequency reuse
and handoff was introduced
later in 1970’s.
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• Geographic region divided into cells.
• Frequency/timeslots/codes reused at spatially-separated locations.
• Co-channel interference between same color cells.
• Base stations/MSCs coordinate handoff and control functions.
• Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking burden.
MSC: Mobile Switching Center
BTS: Base Transceiver Station
BSC: Base Station Controller
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone

Network
UE: User Equipment
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Evolution of Mobile Cellular Communication Systems
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Evolution of Cellular Phones
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The First SmartPhone
o Introduced at COMDEX Exhibition,
Las Vegas, Autumn 1992.
o Size: 203.2 x 63.5 x 38.1 mm.
o Touch screen.
o Price: 1,100 USD
o Battery life: 1 hour
IBM Simon Smartphone

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A Block Diagram of a Base Transceiver Station
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q Frequency Allocation
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Cellular Mobile Systems: Development Trend (1)
Analog to Digital
+ Digital: improve quality, increase capacity, reduce phone size,
facilitate data management (for both the network and the user),
provide security…
+ First Generation (1G): analog
ü FDMA: Advanced Mobile Phone Systems (AMPS) offered 1983
in the United States: FM, Bandwidth = 30 KHz, Channel
separation = 45MHz.
ü The “cellular concept” developed by the AT&T Bell Laboratories.
+ Second Generation (2G): digital
ü United States Digital Cellular (USDC, IS-54): pi/4 DQPSK, six-
voice channels/30 KHz channel, TDMA. (In Japan: JDC, three-
voice channels/25 KHz)
ü Code Division Multiple Access: PCS band (IS-95, USA,
Qualcomm), soft capacity limit.
ü Global System for Mobile (GSM, Europe => Asia, USA): GMSK,
200 KHz bandwidth, TDMA.
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+ Third Generation (3G): digital
ü Wideband-CDMA (WW-CDMA): FDD, 5 MHz bandwidth.
ü CDMA2000: Qualcomm, 1.25 MHz bandwidth.
ü Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access (TD-SCDMA):
China Mobile, TDMA+ CDMA, TDD, 1.6 MHz bandwidth.
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+ Beyond 3G:
ü 3.5G: HSDPA, HSUPA, WiMAX (IEEE 802.16.e)
ü 3.9G: Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
ü 4G (IMT-Advanced): LTE-Advanced
ü 5G: Next standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-Advanced standards.
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(New Radio)
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Variation of throughput across a cell in a loaded network
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Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)
q WLANs connect “local” computers (100m range)
q Breaks data into packets
q Channel access is shared (random access)
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WLAN Standards (1)
q 802.11b (Old – 1990s)
– Standard for 2.4GHz ISM band (80 MHz)
– Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
– Speeds of 11 Mbps, approx. 150m range
q 802.11a/g (Middle Age– mid-late 1990s)
– Standard for 5GHz band (300 MHz)/also 2.4GHz
– OFDM in 20 MHz with adaptive rate/codes
– Speeds of 54 Mbps, approx. 60m range
q 802.11n (2009-Current)
– Standard in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz band
– Adaptive OFDM /MIMO in 20/40 MHz (2-4 antennas)
– Speeds up to 600Mbps, approx. 60m range
– Other advances in packetization, antenna use, etc.
q 802.11ac (2013)
- Standard for 5 GHz band
- OFDM /MIMO in 20/160 MHz (2-8 antennas)
- Speeds up to 6.77 Gbps
q 802.11ad (2012)  WiGig
- Standard for 60 GHz band
- Speeds up to 6.75 Gbps, approx. 10m range
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WLAN Standards (2)
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WLAN Tree
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Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1)
q Named after the tenth-century king ancient king Harald Bluetooth (Scandinavia)
o Cable replacement RF technology (low cost)
o Short range: 10m (Class 2 – 2.5mW), 100m (Class 1 - 100mW)
o 2.4 GHz band: 2.4 GHz – 2.483 GHz
o Modulation: GFSK originally, pi/4 -DQPSK and 8DQPSK ( Bluetooth 2.0 +
EDR)
o Data rates: 1 Mbps (V1.2), 3 Mbps (V2.0 + EDR), 24 Mbps (V3.0 + HS)
o Widely supported by telecommunications, PC, and consumer electronics
companies.
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(LE: Low Energy)
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Bluetooth 5
+ It’s a mesh network so all devices communicate with each
other. Maximum network size is basically unlimited.
+ Increases message length to 255 bytes (31 bytes for BT 4.0).35
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ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4)
qLow-Rate Wireless PAN
qSupport Star, Tree and Mesh
topologies
qSupport for low latency devices
qCSMA-CA channel access
qVery low power consumption
qModulation: 2 MHz BW, DSSS (2.4 GHz
band), BPSK, O-QPSK.
qData rates of 20/40 Kbps
(868/915 MHz bands original), 250
kbps (2.4 GHz band), 100/250 Kbps
(868/915 MHz bands – Rev.2006)
qTypical range: 10 ~ 300m
q ZigBee/ ZigBee Pro are mesh protocols
that sit on top of IEEE 802.15.4 PHY
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LORA
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LORA
• Backed by the LoRa Alliance
• Operates in Sub 1 GHz ISM bands (433 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz).
• Modulation: Spread spectrum / FSK, channel bandwidth of 125
KHz, up to 500 KHz
• Messages are 256 Bytes, Data rates from 0.3 to 50 Kbps
• TX power +20 dBm, 160 dB link budget
• Capacity of a system or gateway is based on number of packets
sent per sensor per day – estimated that a single gateway can
support 60K sensors (8 channels, 1 packet per hour)
• Low power, 3 modes: class A (Battery powered sensors), B (Battery
powered actuators), C (Main powered actuators).
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LORA
o LoRa is the proprietary physical layer
or the wireless modulation
technique utilized to create long
Range Communication Link.
o Based on chirp spread spectrum
modulation.
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LORA
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Narrow-Band IoT (NB-IoT)
o One of two new cellular IoT categories defined in 3GPP Release 13
(the other is LTE CAT-M), released in June 2016.
o Software update to LTE or GSM infrastructure.
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Comparison of Technologies
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Forecast of Wireless Paradigm
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Forecast of Wireless Paradigm
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Forecast of Mobile Market
1 Exabytes = 103 Gigabytes Nguồn: Cisco (2012)
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Mobile Market – Vietnam
Doanh thu, lợi nhuận của các nhà mạng 3 quý đầu năm 2016
Thị phần thuê bao internet
cáp quang năm 2016 Nguồn: http://vietnambiz.vn/loi-nhuan-viettel-gap-43-lan-ca-mobifone-
Nguồn: http://xahoithongtin.com.vn/vien-thong- va-vinaphone-cong-lai-4109.html
cntt/201703/vnpt-but-pha-ngoan-muc-tren-thi-
truong-internet-bang-rong-bo-xa-viettel-560402/
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Mobile Market – Vietnam
Thị trường viễn thông 6 tháng đầu năm 2017

Nguồn: http://xahoithongtin.com.vn/vien-thong-
cntt/201707/infographic-thi-truong-vien-thong-6-thang-dau-nam-2017-
qua-nhung-con-so-573803/ Nguồn: Appota
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Just for fun!
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Bài giảng: TRUYỀN THÔNG KHÔNG DÂY (KC222)
Chapter 2- Propagation Characteristics of Wireless Channels

(Đặc tính truyền sóng của kênh truyền)

1
Contents
Radio wave propagation phenomena
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Diffraction
• Scattering
Signal attenuation
• Attenuation and fading
• Path loss
• Hata model
Indoor propagation
More on fading
LVQDanh, CT369 2
Radio channel
The transmitted signal arrives at the receiver from different
directions at different times over a number of ways.
• Line of sight (LOS) or
• Non-line of sight (NLOS)
LVQDanh, CT369 3
Line of sight propagation

Unobstructed line of sight propagation between the transmitter
and receiver.
• Lower attenuation
• There must be no obstruction on LOS
• Objects not even on direct LOS can interfere radio transmission
(see Fresnel Zone)
LVQDanh, CT369 4
Fresnel zones
Fresnel zones determine whether a given obstacle will cause a
constructive or destructive interference at the receiver due to
reflection
• Reflection can enhance received signal if reflected and direct signals
arrive in-phase
• Its important to clear obstruction from first Fresnel zone
The radius of Nth Fresnel zone,
r = 17.31 * sqrt[N(d1*d2)/(f*d)]
...where r is the radius of the zone in meters, N is the zone to calculate,

d1 and d2 are distances from obstacle to the link end points in
meters, d is the total link distance in meters, and f is the frequency
in MHz.
LVQDanh, CT369 5
Fresnel zones
LVQDanh, CT369 6
Fresnel zones
For example, let's calculate the size of the first Fresnel zone if the
first Fresnel zone in the middle of a 2 Km link, transmitting at
2.437GHz (IEEE 802.11b channel 6):
r = 17.31 sqrt [1 * (1000 * 1000) / (2437 * 2000)]

 r = 17.31 sqrt [1000000 / 4874000]
 r = 7.84 meters
Assuming both of our towers were 10 meters tall, the first Fresnel
zone would pass just 2.16 meters above ground level in the
middle of the link.
LVQDanh, CT369 7
Fresnel zones
• Exercise: How tall could a structure in the middle of
a 2 Km point be to clear 60% (N=0.6) of the first
Fresnel zone? Transmitter is transmitting at 2.437GHz
(IEEE 802.11b channel 6).
LVQDanh, CT369 8
Propagation Components between Base Station and Mobile Station
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Reflection
Reflection occurs when a radio wave strikes a barrier with a
dimension larger than the wave length of the radio wave
• E.g. Buildings, ground, vehicles etc.
LVQDanh, CT369 10
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the radio wave hits an obstacle with sharp
irregularities, edge, small gap.
• Size of the object (e.g. edge) must be comparable to or smaller
than the wavelength of the radio wave.
• E.g. Bending around the object (typically corner of the houses or
hills).
LVQDanh, CT369 11
Scattering
Scattering occurs when the radio wave strikes the
obstacles with dimension smaller than the wave length
of the radio wave.
• E.g. Vegetation, clouds, street signs, etc.
LVQDanh, CT369 12
Signal attenuation
Attenuation and fading
LVQDanh, CT369 13
Signal attenuation
Fading is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over certain
propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position
or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random process.
• Fast fading: Rapid fluctuation of signal over a small areas. Fast fading
occurs due to multipath propagation.
– Fast fading is characterized by Rayleigh and Rician distributions.
– Rayleigh distribution: It assumes infinite reflected path with all
possible attenuation and no direct path. E.g. It is used to characterize
worst case urban or indoor communications.
– Rician distribution: It assumes a direct path from Tx to Rx as well
as infinite reflected paths. E.g. used to characterize satellite
communication channels.
• Slow fading: It is long-term fading effect caused by large obstruction

(shadowing) such as large building or hills
– Shadowing is modeled using log-normal distribution.
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Signal attenuation
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Signal attenuation
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Signal attenuation
About the term dB
Widely used to measure e.g. gain, attenuation, signal to noise ratio
(SNR) etc. The ratio of power value Pa to another power value Pb is
calculated as:
Example:
Ratio = 0.1 = -10 dB
= 1 = 0 dB
= 10 = 10 dB
= 100 = 20 dB
= 2 = 3 dB
= 0.5 = -3 dB
Decibel (dB) is a dimensionless unit:
(W)
LVQDanh, CT369 17
Signal attenuation
About the term dBm
dBm (decibel-milliwatt) is the power unit in dB referenced to 1 mW.
It measures absolute power in radio, microwave and fiber optical
network.
• dBm can measure both very small and very large values in short form.
To measure an arbitrary power Pa as x dBm:
Example:
Pa = 1 mW, x = 0 dBm
Pa = 1 W, x = 30 dBm, maximum output power of GSM 1800 mobile phone
x = 33 dBm, Pa = 2 W
x = 80 dBm, Pa = 100 KW, PTX of FM radio transmitter with 50km range dBm is an
absolute measure of power in mW
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Signal attenuation
Attenuation in free space

When there is line of sight between transmitter and receiver,
received power follows inverse square law:
LVQDanh, CT369 19
Signal attenuation
Received power in free space can be expressed as:
LVQDanh, CT369 20
Signal attenuation

Free space path loss:
(d > 1 Km)
LVQDanh, CT369 21
Signal attenuation

If received power is known in a reference distance dref ,
received power in an arbitrary distance can be calculated:
(d > dref)
dref : 100 ~ 1000 m
In dBm:
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Signal attenuation
Path loss
If transmitted and received power are known, path loss can be
calculated:
if both transmitter and receiver has no gain, it’s identical to free

space loss.
From the above equation, we can also write:

Path Loss (dB) = Transmit Power (dBm) – Received Power (dBm)
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Signal attenuation
Attenuation factor
In real case, attenuation is much higher because signal propagation
path is not really free space.
With attenuation factor, received power:
 = 2 for free space. Typical values for urban areas are 3 – 5.

With reference distance, we can write:
LVQDanh, CT369 24
Signal attenuation
Attenuation factor
Received power as a function of distance for different
values of v:
mW
LVQDanh, CT369 25
Signal attenuation
About channel models
Models are mathematical description of attenuation that are used for
system design, system simulation or radio planning purposes.
Two types of channel model:

• Empirical model: developed based on large collection of data for a
specific scenario (e.g. urban, sub-urban); do not point out exact
behaviour (rather most likely behaviour) of the channel
• Analytical or deterministic model: takes into account link specific
geometry (e.g. curve of hills, edges, big buildings etc.)
In practice, one often takes combination with site-specific correction
factors used in addition to empirical models – semi-empirical models.
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Signal attenuation
Okumura model
Combining all these causes (reflection, scattering, and diffraction),
Okumura et al. (1968) proposed channel model. The model includes
correction factor to account for terrain. But correction factors have to be
incorporated for every scenario.
• Hata (1980) proposed a model to overcome the problem.
LVQDanh, CT369 27
Signal attenuation
Hata model
• In Hata model, path loss in urban areas is given by:
LVQDanh, CT369 28
Signal attenuation
Hata model
rural areas is formulated as,
LR rural areas
LVQDanh, CT369 29
Signal attenuation
Hata model
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Signal attenuation
Extension of Hata model to PCS
Median loss in urban areas can be expressed as:
LVQDanh, CT369 31
Signal attenuation
Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
§ Single direct path between BS and mobile unit is seldom the only
physical means for propagation  Free space propagation
model is, in most cases, inaccurate when used alone.
§ The 2-ray model considers both the direct path and a ground
reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver.
LVQDanh, CT369 32
Signal attenuation
Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
§ The received power at a distance d from the transmitter can be
expressed as
 The received power falls off more rapidly than the one in free
space model.
§ At large value of d, the received power and path loss become
independent of frequency.
§ The path loss for the 2-ray model can be expressed in dB as
§ The 2-ray model has been found to be reasonably accurate for

predicting the signal strength in large scale model and LOS
microcell channels as well.
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Indoor propagation model
Models so far presented are not sufficient to predict signals in

indoor. Indoor propagation sees reflections, scattering, and
diffraction due to walls, ceilings, furniture etc. (i.e. many
obstacles). Best approach to model indoor: classify these
environments into different `zone’ configurations.
• Extra large zone
• Large zone
• Middle zone
• Small & Microzone
LVQDanh, CT369 34
Extra large zone:
A BS outside building takes all the traffic in the buildings
Loss = path-dependent losses (from BS to building) + penetration-
dependent losses
(penetration of various floors & walls)
Large zone:
Large buildings with small density of users. The building is
covered by a single indoor BS located within the building itself.
General formula of path loss can be used:
L(d) = L0(d0) [d0/d]v
Loss is determined whether users are in the same floor as BS
(attenuation factor = 2~3 if Tx and Rx on the same floor, it will
be greater than 3 if they are on different floors)
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LVQDanh, CT369 36
Middle zone:
Building structure is large and heavily populated (e.g. shopping
malls). A number of BSs serve the users
Loss = Free space path loss + floor loss + wall loss + reflection loss
Small zone and Microzone:

Buildings having many walls and partitions. Loss depends on the
material of the walls and partitions; Need the provision of one BS
for each room; Usually heavy traffic in each room.
Large-zone model can be used with appropriate path loss

exponent: v = 2 for LOS, v > 2 for NLOS.
LVQDanh, CT369 37
 The ITU Indoor Path Loss Model: A site-general

model, provides gross statistical predictions of path loss for
link design and is useful tools for performing initial design
and layout of indoor wireless systems.
LVQDanh, CT369 38
The ITU Indoor Path Loss Model
Power Loss Coefficient Values, N
Floor Penetration Loss Factor, Lf(n)
LVQDanh, CT369 39
The ITU Indoor Path Loss Model
q The ITU model can be shown to be equivalent to the equation for
free-space loss with the distance power being N = 20 (when not
traversing floors).
The expression for free-space loss expressed in dB is given by
With N = 20, expression for the free space path loss simplifies to
 Agree with the ITU site-general model
§ N = 20 corresponds to free-space loss, and this will usually apply in open areas.
§ Corridors may channel RF energy, resulting in a power loss coefficient of N = 18.
§ In the case of propagation around corners or through walls, N = 40 is used.
LVQDanh, CT369 40
Fading: Concepts
§ In addition to propagation loss, attenuation may also fluctuate with
geographical position, time and frequency which is referred as
“fading” and usually modelled as random process.
§ Propagation fluctuates around mean value.
§ Fading describes this signal fluctuation around mean value
§ Primary cause of fading is signal traversing multiple path.
Another reason is the shadowing from large objects along the
wave propagation.
Fading can be described in three ways:

• Multipath.
• The statistical distribution of the received signal envelope
(e.g. Rayleigh).
• Duration of fading (e.g. long-term, short-term).
LVQDanh, CT369 41
Fading: Multipath fading (1)
• Signal leaves the transmitting antenna and can take different

paths to reach the receiver (due to reflection, diffraction,
scattering etc.)
• Receiver gets superposition of the multiple transmitted signal,
each taking different path.
• Each copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and
phase shift after reaching at receiver.
LVQDanh, CT369 42
• Signal components arrive at receiving antenna are independent
of each other. Hence, signal received at the antenna can be
expressed as the vector sum of the signal components.
• Assuming Rx stationary & no direct path exists (Tx-Rx), the
received signal er(t):
LVQDanh, CT369 43
Instead of using sum of delayed components, received
signal can also showed using phasor notation:
LVQDanh, CT369 44
Resulting signal is the random summation of different signals
(cosine shaped signals).
• Leads to a random variation depending on the
relative phase between signal components.
• Creates constructive and destructive summation.
LVQDanh, CT369 45
Fading: Rayleigh Model (1)
(2.34)
A = sqrt(X2+Y2)
X and Y are independent and identically distributed Gaussian random

variable. Under this condition, envelop of the received signal A, given by
sqrt(X2+Y2), will be Rayleigh distributed.
LVQDanh, CT369 46
• Probability density function (pdf) of Rayleigh distribution is

given by:
• Power of received signal will be exponential distribution:
Where 2 is the variance (phương sai) of random variable X (or

Y) and U (.) is the unit step function.
LVQDanh, CT369 47
• Rayleigh distribution represents worst case fading as no LOS is
considered.
• This is the most used signal model in wireless communication.
LVQDanh, CT369 48
A typical radio signal received in Rayleigh faded channel is
shown below.
§ Variation can be 20 dB (factor of 100).
§ Received signal is random even without considering noise.
This is due to multipath and randomness of phase.
LVQDanh, CT369 49
Fading: Distribution Probability Function
A course grade distribution
The PDF curve for a typical W-CDMA system
LVQDanh, CT369 50
Fading: Outage (1)
• Every receiver is designed to operate at an acceptable level only

if a certain minimum power, Pthr , is being received
• The receiver will be in outage whenever power goes below this
threshold value. Also termed as “deep fade”.
• Outage is the implication of fading; following system goes into
outage if the threshold is set to -20 dB of relative power.
LVQDanh, CT369 51
Fading: Outage (2)
• The outage probability is given by:

r r
thr
(2.40)
• Where P0 is the average power and given by 22
• One of the adverse

consequence of fading is the
existing of outage.
• When outage occurs, the
performance of the wireless
system becomes unacceptable.
LVQDanh, CT369 52
Fading: Outage (3)
LVQDanh, CT369 53
Fading: Multipath and Inter-Symbol Interference
So far we discussed about the fluctuations of received signal due to fading.
However, fading may affect the shape of the received signal pulse.
Four different paths, pulse arrives at four different times at the receiver.
Envelope of the overlapping pulse showed a broadened pulse – leads to
intersymbol interference (ISI).
LVQDanh, CT369 54
Fading: Impulse Response (1)
• Impulse corresponding to multiple paths arrive at the receiver at
different times and with different power depending on the nature of the
channel (e.g. reflection, diffraction, scattering, etc.).
• These arrival times of signal with different powers can be used to
define the impulse response of the channel.
In Figures:
• Rural areas – due to fewer tall structure, multiple paths are closed to
each other.
• Urban areas – multiple paths are more diverse and received signals are
spread out.
LVQDanh, CT369 55
56
Figure shows an Impulse response of a
multipath fading channel where Pi is the
power and is the delay i of the ith component.
The rms (root-mean-square) delay spread,

d, is given by
Where average delay <> is:
And mean square delay <2> is:
LVQDanh, CT369 57
Fading: Symbol rate and bandwidth
There is a direct correlation between symbol rate, R (symbol/s) and
information bandwidth, Bs (Hz) in a radio connection:
R Bs
High symbol rate (bit rate) -> High bandwidth (broadband)
Low symbol rate (bit rate) -> Low bandwidth (narrowband)
The channel bandwidth can be identified as the coherence bandwidth Bc of

the channel:
Large spreading of signal  Small channel bandwidth

Small spreading of signal  High channel bandwidth
LVQDanh, CT369 58
Fading: Flat fading channel
• If the channel bandwidth Bc is larger than message bandwidth Bs, all the
frequency components in the message will arrive at the receiver with
little or no distortion  ISI will be negligible.
• The channel will be defined as flat fading channel.
• Rural areas can be characterized as nearly flat fading channel.
LVQDanh, CT369 59
Fading: Frequency selective channel
• If the message bandwidth Bs is larger than channel bandwidth Bc,
different frequency components in the message will arrive at the receiver
at different time  Resulting pulse broadening – ISI.
• The channel is classified as frequency selective channel.
• The flat fading channel can become frequency selective channel if the
information is transmitted with higher and higher data rate.
LVQDanh, CT369 60
Fading
LVQDanh, CT369 61
Fading: Doppler Effect (1)
So far, we assumed mobile phone being stationary. The motion of the

mobile unit results a Doppler shift in the frequency of the received signal
The maximum Doppler shift is expressed as,
LVQDanh, CT369 62
This leads to two effects:
• A level of variation at a rate that depends on the speed of the
mobile.
• A frequency distortion resulting from the Doppler shift of the
individual multi-path components (arriving at different angle).
LVQDanh, CT369 63
• Taking all the direction into account, the instantaneous frequency
of the Doppler shifted signal is:
Coherence time:
d
fd
(Too strict) (More practical)
Slow and fast fading can also be

explained by coherence time, Tc.
• If pulse duration is smaller than Tc,
then it is unlikely to undergo distortion
 Slow fading.
• If pulse duration is larger than Tc,
then will be distorted  Fast fading.
LVQDanh, CT369 64
LVQDanh, CT369 65
Level Crossing Rate and Average Fading Duration
q Level Crossing Rate (LCR): the expected rate at which the
Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms signal level,
crosses a specified level in a positive-going direction. The number of
level crossings per second, NA, is given by
(2.55)
Where  = A/Arms
LVQDanh, CT369 66
Level Crossing Rate and Average Fade Duration
q Average Fade Duration (AFD): the average of time for which the
received signal is below a specified level . The average fade
duration, av, is given by
(2.58)
§ LCR and AFD are two useful parameters in enabling assessment

of the instantaneous bit error rates (BERs).
§ The presence of deep fades and the number of such fades will
change the instantaneous SNR and hence, the BERs.
LVQDanh, CT369 67
Level Crossing Rate and Average Fade Duration
q Example: Find the AFD for a threshold level of  = 0.707 when the
Doppler frequency is 20 Hz. For a binary digital modulation with bit
duration of 50 bps, is the Rayleigh fading slow of fast? What is the
average number of bit errors per second for the given data rate? Assume
that a bit error occurs whenever any portion of a bit encounters a fade for
which  < 0.1.
Solution:
The average fade duration, av, is:
av
LVQDanh, CT369 68
Level Crossing Rate and Average Fade Duration (cont.)
For data rate of 50 bps, the bit period Tb is 20 ms  Tb > AFD (18.3
ms). For the given data rate, the signal undergoes fast Rayleigh
fading. Using Equation (2.58), the AFD for  = 0.1 is equal to 2 ms.
Duration of one bit > 2 ms  Only one bit on average will be lost
during a fade.
Using equation (2.55), the number of level crossings for  = 0.1 is NA

= 4.96 crossings per second. Since AFD spans only a fraction of a bit
duration, the total number of bits in error is 5 per second  BER =
5/50 = 0.1.
LVQDanh, CT369 69
Fading: Frequency dispersion vs. Time dispersion
§ Fading can occur in time

domain (due to multipath)
and in frequency domain (due Frequency selective/Time
to movement of MU). dispersive
§ At low data rates and when

MU has low mobility then
Signal Bandwidth
channel is slow and flat.
§ If data rate is high but MU is
moving slowly, then channel is
slow but frequency selective. Time selective/Frequency
§ If however, data rate is high dispersive
and MU is moving at high
speed then channel will be Bit duration
both fast and frequency
selective. Channel will be both
time and frequency dispersive.
LVQDanh, CT369 70
Fading: Rician Model (1)
• Rician model considers a LOS path in the received signal in

addition to number of random paths.
• This LOS adds a deterministic component in the received signal
and makes Gaussian random variable (2.32) one of nonzero
mean and consequently the envelope is Rician distributed.
• The power distribution function (pdf) of Rician distribution is
given by:
Where A0 is the component from LOS part and I0(.) is the

modified Bessel function.
LVQDanh, CT369 71
Fading: Rician Model (2)
• Rician probability distribution function is characterized by the
power of ratio of direct component to the power of other
random paths (diffuse component), K(dB):
§ For K = -, there is no direct path and

the Rician distribution becomes Rayleigh
Distribution.
§ For higher and higher value of K, the
Rician distribution becomes almost
Gaussian.
§ In general, Rician distribution has less
signal variation compare to Rayleigh
because of existence of LOS component
and reduces the effect of fading.
LVQDanh, CT369 72
Fading: Lognormal fading
§ Fading described so far falls under

“short-term” fading. However,
received signal also undergoes
“long-term” fading as discussed
earlier.
§ Long-term fading occurs where
propagation takes place in an
environment with tall structures
(e.g. trees, building).
§ Under these conditions, the
signal likely to have multiple
reflected and scattered before
taking multiple paths to the
receiver.
§ Long-term fading is also referred
as “shadowing”.
LVQDanh, CT369 73
Fading: Summary
LVQDanh, CT369 74
Link Budget
f = 900 MHz
75
Link Budget (2)
(N0 = kB T)
B = 20 KHz: 10log10(B)
Protection ratio: Minimum requirement on Signal to Interference Ratio (SIRmin)
76
Link Budget (3)
(amplifier output)
77
Bài giảng: TRUYỀN THÔNG KHÔNG DÂY (CT369)
Chapter 3 - Modulation Techniques for Wireless Systems

(Kỹ Thuật Điều Chế Trong Thông Tin Không Dây)

Contents
Introductions
Analog Modulation
AM, FM, PM
Digital Modulation
ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK, QAM, and MSK
Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
LVQDanh, CT369 2
Introductions: What is modulation?
A message signal, which contains the information, is used to control the parameters
of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.
The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
+ Analog – denoted by m(t)
+ Digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.
The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:
vc (t ) = Vc cos(ωc t + φc )
Th is i ma ge ca nn o t cu rr en tly b e dis pl ay ed .
• If m(t) controls amplitude AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

• If m(t) controls frequency FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
• If m(t) controls phase PHASE MODULATION (PM or φM)
LVQDanh, CT369 3
Considering now a digital message d(t):

o If d(t) controls amplitude Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).
o If d(t) controls frequency Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).
o If d(t) controls phase Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
In this discussion, d(t) is a binary or two-level signal representing 1's
and 0's
Th is i ma ge ca nn o t cu rr en tly b e dis pl ay ed .
• The types of modulation produced, i.e. ASK, FSK and PSK are
sometimes described as Binary ASK, BFSK, BPSK, etc.
• Thus there are 3 main types of Digital Modulation: ASK, FSK, PSK.
LVQDanh, CT369 4
Why not propagate the baseband signals?
Baseband signals are not suitable for propagation
Antenna dimensions would be impractical
We can’t all use the same low frequency spectrum at the same
time
High-rate transmission requires larger bandwidths (therefore,
higher carrier frequencies)
LVQDanh, CT369 5
Introductions: Summary of Analog Modulation

Analog message signal m(t)
LVQDanh, CT369 6
Introductions: Summary of Digital Modulation
LVQDanh, CT369 7
Introductions: Summary of Digital Modulation
LVQDanh, CT369 8
Analog Modulation: Amplitude Modulation
If m(t) represents a message signal, the Amplitude-Modulated

signal sAM(t) can be expressed as
The bandwidth of an AM signal is equal to BAM = 2fm
LVQDanh, CT369 9
LVQDanh, CT369 10
LVQDanh, CT369 11

The total power in an AM signal can be shown to be
LVQDanh, CT369 12
There are 4 kinds of Amplitude Modulation techniques, namely:

1) Conventional Amplitude Modulation
Carrier + Upper Sideband + Lower Sideband
2) Double Sideband (DSB) Suppressed Carrier (SC) AM
Upper Sideband + Lower Sideband
3) Single Sideband (SSB) AM
Only one Sideband (Upper Sideband or Lower Sideband)
4) Vestigial Sideband (VSB) AM
Upper Sideband + portions of the
LVQDanh, CT369 Lower Sideband 13
Analog Modulation: Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM) is a form of Angle Modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is linearly varied with the
baseband signal m(t).
Ac : Amplitude of the carrier

fc : Carrier frequency
kf : frequency deviation constant (KHz/V)
Frequency modulation index βf is defined as
W: maximum bandwidth of modulating signal; Am: peak value of the

modulating signal; ∆f : peak frequency deviation of the transmitter.
LVQDanh, CT369 14
LVQDanh, CT369 15

An FM signal has 98% of total transmitted power in a RF bandwidth
BT:
Example:
+ AMPS cellular system: βf = 3, fm = 4 KHz BT = 24 ~ 32 KHz
LVQDanh, CT369 16
Analog Modulation: Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation (PM) is a form of angle modulation in which the
angle θ(t) of the carrier signal is linearly varied with the baseband
message signal m(t).
kθ is phase deviation constant (radian/V)
The phase modulation index βp is given by
LVQDanh, CT369 17
Digital Modulation: Overview
Block Diagram for a Digital Communication System
Original message
signal (analog)
Source Channel
A/D Modulator
Encoder Encoder
Channel
Recovered
message signal Source Channel De-
(analog) D/A
Decoder Decoder modulator
LVQDanh, CT369 18
Digital Modulation: Overview
LVQDanh, CT369 19
Digital Modulation: ASK

Amplitude Shift Keying
Modulation Process: Amplitude of the carrier is switched
between two (or more) levels according to the digital data.
LVQDanh, CT369 20
Modulator with pulse-shaping filter
LVQDanh, CT369 21

Demodulation Process:
Coherent detection Non-coherent detection
A matched filter pair such as the root

raised cosine filters be used to shape the
source and received baseband data
symbols in ASK.
LVQDanh, CT369 22
Power Spectral Density Constellation Diagrams
Null-to-Null bandwidth:
LVQDanh, CT369 23

Probability of bit error
Bit Error Ratio:
(Coherent)
(Non-Coherent)
LVQDanh, CT369 24
Digital Modulation: FSK
Frequency Shift Keying
Modulation Process: In FSK, the instantaneous frequency of
the carrier is switched between two or more levels according
to the baseband digital data.
Waveforms
Discontinuous Phase FSK
LVQDanh, CT369 25

Continuous Phase FSK
Demodulation of FSK
Coherent detection Non-coherent detection

LVQDanh, CT369 26
Spectrum of FSK
+ Sunde's FSK arises when the spacing

between the two symbol frequencies is
made exactly equal to the symbol rate.
+ Minimum Shift Keying employs a symbol
spacing equal to one half of the symbol rate.
Spectrum of CPFSK
LVQDanh, CT369 27

BER performance for FSK
o Non-Coherent
o Coherent
LVQDanh, CT369 28
Digital Modulation: PSK
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Modulation Process: In BPSK, the phase of the carrier signal is
switched between 2 or more values in response to the baseband
digital data.
Waveforms
BPSK generation
LVQDanh, CT369 29

BPSK demodulation
PSD of BPSK
Similar to that of ASK.
LVQDanh, CT369 30
Differential Phase Shift Keying
DPSK is regarded as the non-coherent version of Binary PSK.
LVQDanh, CT369 31

BER performance for BPSK
LVQDanh, CT369 32
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Modulation Process: In QPSK, the phase of the carrier signal can take any
one of the four values 0, π/2, π, or 3π/2.
I term
Q term
LVQDanh, CT369 33

Waveforms
LVQDanh, CT369 34
QPSK Generation and Detection
In QPSK, the bit transition in I- &

Q-channels occur simultaneously
LVQDanh, CT369 35

BER performance for QPSK
+ The BER performance for QPSK + The symbol error rate for QPSK is
is theoretically identical to that worse than that for BPSK The
for BPSK. symbol states are closer together.
LVQDanh, CT369 36
Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
o In OQPSK, I-channel (or Q-channel) bit stream is offset by one bit
period w.r.t. the Q-channel (or I-channel) prior to multiplication
by the carrier.
Notice that the I and Q channels

are not aligned and only one
phase transition can occur once
every Ts = Tb second with a max at
±900
The modulation envelope of the filtered

QPSK signal never passes through zero
The peak to mean ratio of the
modulation is minimized. LVQDanh, CT369 37

Pi/4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
o In Pi/4 QPSK, the four symbol set is rotated by pi/4 or 45o at every
new symbol transition To ensure that the modulation envelope of
the filtered QPSK signal never passes through zero.
The BERs for coherently detected

QPSK, OQPSK and pi/4 QPSK are
the same and equal to the
probability of error for the BPSK.
LVQDanh, CT369 38
Performance of M-ary PSK Spectrum of M-ary PSK
o Symbol error probability:
LVQDanh, CT369 39
Digital Modulation: QAM

Most commonly used combination of amplitude and phase signaling is
the Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
M-ary QAM generation:
M-ary QAM detection:
LVQDanh, CT369 40
QAM Constellation
Where ai, bi = ± 1
LVQDanh, CT369 41

Symbol error probability of M-ary QAM
Eav: average signal energy
Power spectrum and bandwidth efficiency

of QAM modulation are identical to M-ary
PSK modulation. In term of power efficiency,
QAM is superior to M-ary PSK.
LVQDanh, CT369 42
Digital Modulation: MSK
Minimum Shift Keying
o MSK can be considered a variation of OQPSK where a half-sinusoidal
pulse shape is used in place of the rectangular one used in OQPSK.
LVQDanh, CT369 43

Power Spectrum of MSK Waveform of MSK
LVQDanh, CT369 44
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
o In GMSK, sidelobe levels are further reduced by passing the modulating
NRZ data waveform through a pre-modulation Gaussian pulse-shaping
filter.
LVQDanh, CT369 45

Power spectrum of GMSK BER of GMSK
Where
LVQDanh, CT369 46
Power spectrum of GMSK
LVQDanh, CT369 47
LVQDanh, CT369 48
Digital Modulation: EVM
Error Vector Magnitude
o EVM provides a way to measure and evaluate multi-level, multi-phase
modulation methods like M-QAM and M-PSK.
o EVM is the ratio of the average of the error vector power (Perror) to the
average ideal reference vector power (Preference) expressed in decibels. The
average are taken over multiple symbol periods:
o EVM is defined as a percentage in a compatible way:
LVQDanh, CT369 49
BER performance over fading channels (1)

The theoretical BER for BPSK The theoretical BER for BPSK
modulation scheme over Rayleigh modulation scheme over an AWGN
fading channel (with AWGN noise) is channel is given by
given by
Simulation Model
BPSK Modulation over Rayleigh and AWGN channels

LVQDanh, CT369 50
BER performance over fading channels (2)
Eb/N0 vs. BER for BPSK over Rayleigh and AWGN Channels
Source: http://www.gaussianwaves.com/2011/05/ebn0-vs-ber-for-bpsk-over-rayleigh-channel-and-awgn-channel-2/
LVQDanh, CT369 51
Factors Affecting the Choice of Digital Modulations (1)
LVQDanh, CT369 52
LVQDanh, CT369 53
LVQDanh, CT369 54
LVQDanh, CT369 55
LVQDanh, CT369 56
= 10-5CT369
bits/s/Hz vs. Eb/N0 for Probability of ErrorLVQDanh, 57
Modulation Summary
LVQDanh, CT369 58
Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques (1)
o Known since the 1940s and used in military communication
systems since the 1950s.
o Spread the signal over a band much wider than the signal
bandwidth.
Advantages:
o Low probability of intercept (LPI)
o Interference rejection and anti-jamming capability
o Multiple-access capability
o Multi-path diversity LVQDanh, CT369 59
How is SS different?
o SS makes the transmitted signal occupy a very large transmission
bandwidth
o Trades off frequency domain for signal orthogonality
o Allows multiple users to occupy the same frequency band at the
same time with minimal interference
Spread spectrum methods:

o Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
o Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
o Hybrid (DS/FH)
Both DSSS and FHSS require a PN sequence that appears to be

random noise signal.
LVQDanh, CT369 60
Interference Rejection
Narrowband
interference
Mod. BPF BPF Demod.
Spreading Spreading
code code
LVQDanh, CT369 61

Spread-Spectrum Theoretical Justification
SS is apparent in the Shannon - Hartley channel-capacity theorem:
C = B Log2 (1+ S/N)
• C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the

maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER).
• B is the required channel bandwidth in Hz,
• S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio.
=> Very roughly, C/B ≅ S/N To send error-free information for a

given SNR the channel, we need only perform the fundamental SS
signal-spreading operation: increase the transmitted bandwidth.
LVQDanh, CT369 62
Direct Sequence (DSSS)
o Data stream is XORed with a high-rate Pseudorandom Noise (PN)
random sequence.
o At the receiver, the received high-rate signal is XORed with the PN
sequence again to recover the original signal.
Advantages:
o Can be coherently demodulated
o Reduces frequency selective fading
o Less expensive receivers
o Suffers from near-far problem Needs precise power control
LVQDanh, CT369 63

Direct Sequence (DSSS)
LVQDanh, CT369 64
Pseudorandom Noise (PN) Sequence
o PN sequence is usually generated at a rate greater than the data
rate: (chip rate >> data rate).
o PN sequence has the effect of spreading the spectrum of the
data stream over a large frequency band.
o PN sequences are based on shift registers and “good” ones have
a period of 2m – 1, where m is the length of the shift register.
Popular PN Sequences
• Maximal Length PN sequences
• Walsh Hadamard sequences
• Gold sequences
• Kasami Sequences
Maximal Length Shift Register Sequences
LVQDanh, CT369 65

DSSS Example Using BPSK
d(t)
LVQDanh, CT369 66
Approximate Spectrum of DSSS Signals
LVQDanh, CT369 67

Spread Spectrum in CDMA systems
LVQDanh, CT369 68
Processing Gain
Processing
Gain = W/R
o The process gain is the ratio by which unwanted signals or

interference can be suppressed relative to the desired signal
when both share the same frequency channel.
o Process gain has no effect on wideband thermal noise.
A narrowband signal is spread to a wideband signal (example: CDMA)

LVQDanh, CT369 69
Frequency Hopping (FH-SS)

o The carrier frequency is changed according to a PN sequence
o The carrier only stays at a given frequency for a short time (dwell
or hop duration, Th)
o Slow hopping: Multiple bits is transmitted during a hop (Th > Ts)
o Fast hopping: Multiple hops per bit (Th < Ts)
o No near-far problem
o Non-coherent demodulation is suitable
o Less resistant to multipath fading
LVQDanh, CT369 70
Frequency-hoping Spread spectrum Hedy Lamarr (1914-2000)
A Hollywood Star
is the key element in anti-jamming Inventor of Frequency Hopping
devices used in military applications
(e.g. ballistic missiles).
Lamarr and Antheil (co-inventor)
were given the Electronic Frontier
Foundation Award for their
invention.
LVQDanh, CT369 71

In FH-SS, hopping frequencies are determined by the code and the
message (bits) are usually non-coherently FSK-modulated.
2 L − level modulation
2 k frequencies
This method is applied in BlueTooth®

LVQDanh, CT369 72
FH-SS example: transmission of two symbols/chip
4-level FSK modulation
Hopped frequency
slot determined by
hopping code
2 L levels
2 k slots
Wd = 2 L f d ( ≈ data modulator BW)

Tc :chip duration
k
Ws = 2 Wd ( ≈ total FH spectral width) T : bit duration
Tb b
Ts : symbol duration
← −− →
L=2 LVQDanh, CT369 73

Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
LVQDanh, CT369 74
Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
LVQDanh, CT369 75

DS and FH comparison
FH is applicable in environments where there exist tone jammers that can be
overcame by avoiding hopping on those frequencies
DS is applicable for multiple access because it allows statistical multiplexing
(resource reallocation) to other users (power control)
FH applies usually non-coherent modulation due to carrier synchronization
difficulties -> modulation method degrades performance
Both methods were first used in military communications,
FH can be advantageous because the hopping span can be very large
(makes eavesdropping difficult)
DS can be advantageous because spectral density can be much smaller
than background noise density (transmission is unnoticed)
FH is an avoidance system: does not suffer near-far effect!
By using hybrid systems some benefits can be combined: The system can
have a low probability of interception and negligible near-far effect at the
same time. (Differentially coherent modulation is applicable)
LVQDanh, CT369 76
Chapter 4 - Cellular System Design Fundamentals

(Thiết kế hệ thống thông tin di động: Nguyên lý cơ bản)

Contents
• Introduction
• Hexagonal Cell Geometry
• Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
• CCI Reduction Techniques
• Cell Splitting
• Hierarchical Cell Structure
• Coverage Area Estimation
• Traffic Capacity and Trunking
• Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
• Power Control for Reducing Interference
• Hand-off Operations
LVQDanh, CT369 2
Introductions
Cell and Frequency Reuse
o Cell: Limited geographic area

covered by a base station in a
mobile system.
o Frequency reuse: The same
channel (frequency) is used in
several cells apart.
LVQDanh, CT369 3
Introductions: Why frequency reuse?
Example: 8 MHz = 40 channels * 8 timeslots = 320 users max.

320 simultaneous calls!!!
Limited bandwidth
Interference are unavoidable
Minimize total interference in network
LVQDanh, CT369 4
Cell Geometry
• Different cell types are present in the planning of a mobile
network.
• Hexagonal cells describes complete coverage, and provides an
approximate picture of the symmetric to that provided by normal
radio propagation.
LVQDanh, CT369 5
Hexagonal cell geometry

• A new hexagonal coordinate system (u,v) is considered such that the
positive coordinate axes intersect at a 60-degree angle and the unit
distance along either axis is equal to √3R
• The center to center distance between any two cells can be written as:
where (i,j) represents center of a cell in

(u,v) coordinate.
LVQDanh, CT369 6
A Cell Cluster (Nc) is a group of cells where each one uses different
channel or frequency.
The normalized separation between any two cells depends only on the
cell number counted from the cell at the origin or from reference cell:
where
D = DR √ 3 R
LVQDanh, CT369 7

o Table shows the relationship between [i,j] and number of cells in a
cluster (Nc)
o q = D/R = sqrt(3Nc) is also called frequency reuse factor or CCI reduction

factor
o High q means a low CCI
LVQDanh, CT369 8
LVQDanh, CT369 9

Example: You are trying to design a cellular network that will cover an area
of at least 2800 km2. There are K=300 available voice channels. Your design
is required to support at least 100 concurrent calls in each cell. If the co-
channel cell centre distance is required to be 9 km, how many base stations
will you need in this network?
Answer:
• If 100 concurrent voice calls must be supported in each cell, each cell
must be allocated 100 voice channels.
• This necessitates the frequency re-use factor, N, to be 300/100 = 3.
• The distance between co-channel cell centre D is related to R and N via
the formula:
D
= 3⋅ N
R
3⋅ 3 2
• D = 9 km, then, R = 3 km. Cell area is: ⋅ R = 23.38
2
2800/23.38 = 120 base stations are required
LVQDanh, CT369 10
Co-channel Interference (CCI)
CCI: Interference from other cells used the same channel (frequency)
LVQDanh, CT369 11

The signal-to-noise ratio can be defined
The signal-to-CCI ratio can be expressed as
Where NI is the number of interfering cells

LVQDanh, CT369 12
For 6 interfering cells (Nc = 7 cell in a

cluster):
For example with v = 4, Nc = 7:

S/I = 73.1 = 18.6 dB
LVQDanh, CT369 13
o The number of interfering cells

is always 6, regardless of the size
of the cell group.
o The distance and thus the

interference is determined by
group size.
LVQDanh, CT369 14
Special Cases of CCI
o When the user is on the cell edge you get:
o Or if (D-R) is used for all distances:
o Greater reuse distance reduces

interference, but also reduces the
capacity!
LVQDanh, CT369 15
Special Cases of CCI
LVQDanh, CT369 16
CCI Reduction Techniques
o CCI reduction by using sector antennas.
o Interference is reduced when directional antennas are used to divide a
cell into sectors.
LVQDanh, CT369 120-degree sector 17

CCI Reduction with 120-degree sector
For the 120-degree sectors, the CCI is reduction by a factor of 3,
which gives:
For the 60-degree sectors, the CCI is reduction by a factor of 6,

which gives:
LVQDanh, CT369 18
CCI Reduction with 60-degree sector
There is a major drawback on sectorized

antenna approach to improving S/I ratio It
adversely affects the overall capacity of the
system. This can be explained using the concept
of trunking. LVQDanh, CT369 19

Several tiers of Interference
o So far single tier of channel interference is considered at a
distance D.
o Signal-to-CCI ratio for 3 tiers:
o In most cases, these

interferences from the 2nd
and 3rd tiers are negligible.
LVQDanh, CT369 20
Cell Splitting
o Cell splitting is a technique to divide a

cell (congested) into smaller cells to
increase capacity.
o Cell splitting allows channels to be
reused.
o Cell splitting also requires adjustment
to the antenna transmission power
To maintain the same CCI
performance after splitting.
LVQDanh, CT369 21
Hierarchical cell structure

o Complexity of operation increases
Number of hand-over goes up
Increasing signaling load
Increasing switching & control load
o Solution: Fiber Optic Mobile (FOM) System
Macro
2 to 20 Km
LVQDanh, CT369 22
Fiber Optic Mobile (FOM) System
Several BTS linked using optical fibers and controlled from the same
location
o BTSs only receives/transmits
o Switching & channel allocation centrally
LVQDanh, CT369 23
Macro Cell Network

Cost performance solution
Suitable for covering large area
o Large cell range
o High antenna position
Cell ranges 2 …20 km
Used with low traffic volume
o Typically rural area
o Road coverage
Normally use omnidirectional antenna
o Exception: Use beamed antenna for road coverage
LVQDanh, CT369 24
Micro Cell Network
Capacity oriented network
Suitable for high traffic area
Mostly used with beamed cell
Cost performance solution
Usage of available site’s equipment
Typical applications
Medium town
Suburb
Typical coverage range: 0.5 .. 2km
LVQDanh, CT369 25
Cell Coverage Area Estimation

o Transmitter power, PT (dBm)
o Sensitivity of the receiver or threshold power, Pth (dBm)
Receive sensitivity indicates how faint an RF signal can be successfully
received by the receiver. The lower the power level that the receiver can
successfully process, the better the receive sensitivity.
o Power loss from transmission, Lp (dB)
o As signal undergoes long-term fading, fade margin, M should be

included:
The amount by which a received signal level may be reduced
without causing system performance to fall below a specified
threshold value
Fade margin reduces the permitted loss

Reducing the transmission distance
LVQDanh, CT369 26
Computation of Fading Margin
o The probability density function of received power under long-term
fading:
Where pLT is power in mW, p0 is the median power and σ is standard

deviation of fading.
o The outage probability, Pout(r), at a distance r can be expressed as:
Where Pth is the minimum required power, P0 (R) is the median power at
the distance R calculated from the Hata model, and v is the loss factor.
LVQDanh, CT369 27

o The fading margin M [dB] can be written as:
Fading
level Outage goes up as
fading level increases
(at fixed fade margin).
Power margin
required to maintain a
fixed outage goes up
as the fading level
increases.
LVQDanh, CT369 28
LVQDanh, CT369 29
Link Budget
o To calculate maximum coverage (cell) based on minimum power
(received) required to maintain acceptable performance.
o Two fade margins (to mitigate fading):
Long-term fading, M1
Short-term fading, M2
o d0, maximum coverage based on only attenuation (distance dependent)
o d1, considers long-term fading effect
o d2, considers short-term fading effect
LVQDanh, CT369 30
Link Budget
LVQDanh, CT369 31
Traffic Capacity
o How to compare the quality of service by various cellular

operators?
What is the probability of not being able to make a call when
tried?
What is the probability that one has to wait to get connected?
o Answer lies in the concept of ’Trunking’ and ’Grade of Service
(GOS)’
LVQDanh, CT369 32
Trunking and Grade of Service
Trunking: There are more users than there are available channels
(trunks), based on the assumption that not all going to try to set up a
call at the same time. Trunking allows to accommodate a large number
of users using a limited bandwidth.
Grade of Service (GOS): However, problem arises when everybody in
the system willing to make call at the same time. Only limited number of
them allowed and the rest are blocked.
GOS is a measure of the probability of blocking. It is the ability of
the user to gain access to the system during the busiest hour. To
understand GOS, traffic intensity needed to be defined.
LVQDanh, CT369 33
Traffic Intensity
o The traffic intensity generated by a user, AI:
AI = λTH (Erl)
λ is the average number of calls/hour, and TH is the duration of the calls
(in hour).
o If there are K users in the system, the provider must be able to sustain
a traffic intensity of Atot, given by:
Atot = KAI (Erl)
Example: A person is using the phone at a rate of 2 calls/hr and stays on

the phone for an average time of 3 minutes per call. What is the traffic
intensity generated by this user?
LVQDanh, CT369 34
Offered Traffic
o To achieve a certain performance (blocking probability), the operator
must provide a certain number of channels or trunks: Offered traffic
C = Number of available channels
p(B) = Blocking probability (Erlang B formula) = GOS
o The calls arrival can be modeled using a Poisson process (events occur
continuously and independently of one another).
The duration of calls is exponentially distributed.
Where Ac is the Carrier traffic:

Ac = A[1- p(B)]
LVQDanh, CT369 35
Trunking Efficiency
The efficiency
increases as the
number of channels,
C, increases.
LVQDanh, CT369 36
Trunking Efficiency
LVQDanh, CT369 37
Trunking Efficiency
LVQDanh, CT369 38
Trunking Efficiency
(Cont’d)
Answer:
LVQDanh, CT369 39
Trunking Efficiency: Omni vs. Sector antenna

o For number of channels per cell = 56, GOS = 2%
Omni
No. of channels/sector = 56
Offered traffic (at GOS 2%) = 45.87 Erl (Erlang B table, pp. 158-159, course
book)
Carried traffic = 45.87 X 0.98 = 44.95 Erl
Trunking efficiency = 44.95/56 = 80.3%
120-degree sector
No. of channels/sector = 56/3 =19
Offered traffic (at GOS 2%)/sector = 12.34 Erl (Erlang B table)
Carried traffic/sector = 12.34 X 0.98 = 12.09 Erl
Carried traffic/cell = 12.09 X 3 = 36.28 Erl
Trunking efficiency = 36.28/56 = 64.8%
LVQDanh, CT369 40
Trunking Efficiency: Omni vs. Sector antenna
60-degree sector
No. of channels/sector = 56/6 =9
Offered traffic (at GOS 2%)/sector = 4.35 Erl (Erlang B table)
Carried traffic/sector = 4.35 X 0.98 = 4.26 Erl
Carried traffic/cell = 4.26 X 6 = 25.58 Erl
Trunking efficiency = 25.58 /56 = 45.7%
Signal-to-Interference ratio (CCI) increases by using sectored cells

S/I(120) < S/I(60)
But at what cost? Using of sectors lowers trunking efficiency!
LVQDanh, CT369 41
Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)

o ACI is caused primarily by inadequate filtering and nonlinearity of the
amplifiers.
o In most cases, it is sufficient to take under consideration only the
interference coming from the two channels on either side of the primary
channel.
o ACI is typically attenuated by the receiver filter whereas CCI is
unaffected.
Receiving filter
response
LVQDanh, CT369 42
Nonlinearity of Amplifiers
Amplifier nonlinearity causes

spreading of frequencies
Spectral regrowth
LVQDanh, CT369 43

o ACI ratio can be expressed as:
Where HB(f) is the transfer function of the bandpass filter and ∆f is the
channel separation. G(f) is the power spectral density function of the
signal.
o The overall performance of Co-channel
interference
the cellular system is the total
Signal-to-Interference ratio: Adjacent-
channel
interference
LVQDanh, CT369 44
LVQDanh, CT369 45
Power Control For Reducing Interference

o In practical cellular communication systems, the power levels
transmitted by every subscriber unit are controlled by the
serving base stations
Need for Power Control:
• Received power must be sufficiently above the background
noise for effective communication.
• Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from
the mobile. Reduce co-channel interference, alleviate health
concerns, save battery power.
• In Spread Spectrum systems using CDMA, it’s desirable to
equalize the received power level from all mobile units at the
Base Station.
LVQDanh, CT369 46
LVQDanh, CT369 47
•Power control enable the transmitter side to adapt its output

power according to pilot signal’s strength.
•Aims to solve the ‘near-far’ problem with the goal to achieve
uniform signal to interference ratio (SIR) for all the active users.
•Two methods:
a) open-loop Power Control
b) closed-loop Power Control
LVQDanh, CT369 48
Open-loop Power Control
• In open-loop PC, the mobile measures the pilot strength
(continuously transmitted by the BS) which is related to path loss.
If the pilot gets weak it powers-up, when the pilot gets strong it
powers down.
• It assumes that the forward and reverse link are similar.--- not
accurately (incase of FDD).
• Quickly react. – e.g. mobile emerges from a behind a large
building.
• It gives quite results with the TDD mode.
• It is used in WCDMA-FDD mode but only to provide initial power
setting of the mobile station at the beginning of the connection.
LVQDanh, CT369 49

Closed-loop Power Control
• In closed-loop PC, feedback is used whereby the base-station
measures the signal-quality of mobile; e.g. frame error rate (FER)
and commands each mobile to power up and down accordingly
in order to keep the overall FER at desired level. – reverse link.
• The mobile provides information about received signal quality to
the BS, which then adjusts transmitted power. – forward link.
• The UTRA-FDD (WCDMA) mode uses fast closed-loop power
control technique both in uplink and downlink.
LVQDanh, CT369 50
LVQDanh, CT369 51
Hand-off Operations
Hand-off Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new
base station.
This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new
base station, but also requires that the voice and control
signals be allocated to channels associated with the new
base station.
LVQDanh, CT369 52
Hand-off Operations
Handoffs: The Basics
LVQDanh, CT369 53
Hand-off Operations
• In the first generation analog cellular systems, Signal strength
measurements are made by the base station to determine the
relative location of each mobile user with respect to the base
station.
• In second generation systems that use digital TDMA

technology, handoff decisions are made mobile assisted handoff
(MAHO). Every mobile station measures the received power
from surrounding base stations and continually reports the
results of these measurements to the serving base station. A
handoff is initiated when the power received from the base
station of a neighboring cell begins to exceed the power
received from the current base station by a certain level or for a
certain period of time.
LVQDanh, CT369 54
Hand-off Operations
Practical handoff considerations
• Using different antenna heights and different power levels: it is possible to
provide large and small cells which are co-located at a single location. This
technique is called umbrella cell approach and is used to provide large area
coverage to high speed users while providing small area coverage to users
traveling at low speeds.
• The umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs in
minimized for high speed users and provides additional microcell channels for
pedestrian users.
LVQDanh, CT369 55
Hand-off Operations
Hard handoff and soft handoff
• Hard handoff: When the signal strength of a neighboring cell
exceeds that of the current cell, plus a threshold, the mobile
station is instructed to switch to a new frequency band that is
within the allocation of the new cell.
• Soft handoff: a mobile station is temporarily connected to
more than one base station simultaneously. A mobile unit
may start out assigned to a single cell. If the unit enters a
region in which the transmissions from two base stations are
comparable (within some threshold of each other), the
mobile unit enters the soft handoff state in which it is
connected to the two base stations. The mobile unit remains
in this state until one base station clearly predominates, at
which time it is assigned exclusively to that cell.
LVQDanh, CT369 56
How safe is your mobile phone?
Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) is

a measure of the rate of RF
energy absorption by the body
from the source being measured
(mobile phones).
In the U.S.A, the SAR for

mobile phones must be less
than or equal to 1.6 W/kg.
In Europe, the SAR limit for
mobile phones is 2.0 W/kg.
Source: http://www.ict-pulse.com/2011/07/how-safe-is-
your-mobile-phone/ SAR levels for select mobile phones
LVQDanh, CT369 57
Chapter 5 - Multiple Access Techniques

(Kỹ Thuật Đa Truy Cập)

Contents
• Introduction
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
• OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access)
LVQDanh, CT369 2
Introduction
Multiple Access is divided in two main types:
• Contentionless: “conflict-free” protocol based on scheduling
– Ensuring a transmission, whenever made is a successful one and
not interfered by another transmission.
– Used in mobile systems such as GSM, UMTS and LTE.
• Contention based: “Random access” with various means to resolve
conflict for simultaneous transmission
– In principle, transmission is not guaranteed to be successful.
– Used in WLAN/Wi-Fi systems.
– Also used in mobile system for initial connection set-up.
• Contention-type protocols are not treated further.
LVQDanh, CT369 3
Introduction
CSMA
RTS/CTS
LVQDanh, CT369 4
Multiple Access in Mobile Systems
When multiple users share same bandwidth, four main techniques are
used:
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
– Each user is assigned a separate frequency range
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
– Multiple users share the allocated frequency bands, and each user
use an allocated time
• CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
– The bandwidth used by all users simultaneously, which is separated
by means of code
• OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)
– The bandwidth is divided to the different users as needed
LVQDanh, CT369 5
(O)FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
power
power
power
LVQDanh, CT369 6
Duplex Transmission
Communication needs to be in both directions- to and from mobile.
• Forward Channel (Downlink- DL): from Base Station to Mobile
• Reserve Channel (Uplink- UL): from Mobile to Base Station
Two types of Duplex systems:
• FDD (Frequency Division Duplex)
– Two distinct band of frequencies for each user- one for uplink
and one for downlink.
– These bands are separated by a guard band.
• TDD (Time Division Duplex)
– Time is used to separate forward and reverse channels.
– Almost continuous transmission is possible since time splits
between channels are very small.
LVQDanh, CT369 7
Duplex Transmission
Using the same antenna for both directions
FDD: A duplexer is needed since the TDD (Time Domain Duplex):
same antenna is used for both way No duplexer is needed.
transmissions.
LVQDanh, CT369 8
Duplex Techniques and Systems
Systems are characterized both by its method of multiple access

and duplex.
For example
• TDMA/FDD (e.g. GSM)
• TDMA/TDD (e.g. DECT)
• CDMA/TDD (e.g. UMTS TDD)
• CDMA/FDD (e.g. UMTS FDD)
• OFDMA/TDD (e.g. WiMAX)
• OFDMA/FDD (e.g. LTE)
LVQDanh, CT369 9
FDMA
o The available bandwidth W is divided into N non-overlapping
bands, each with width Wch.
o A small guard band is provided to reduce interference.
D
= 3⋅ N
R
3⋅ 3 2
⋅ R = 23.38
2
LVQDanh, CT369 10
Resource Allocation in FDMA
During call set-up, the user is given an unused channel by the

Base Station exclusively.
After termination of call, the channel may be reassigned to
another user.
If during the call, the caller moves into another cell, then it will
be assigned an unused channel from the new cell.
If FDD is used with FDMA, then the available band is divided in
two; one half for downlink and another half for uplink. The
caller has one frequency for the uplink and another for
downlink.
LVQDanh, CT369 11
Advantages of FDMA
The major advantage of FDMA is the “hardware simplicity” since

discrimination between users is done by simple bandpass filters.
No timing information or synchronization is required.
Little problem of frequency-selective fading and Intersymbol
Interference (ISI) since bandwidth assigned to each user is
relatively small.
LVQDanh, CT369 12
Disadvantages of FDMA
Inflexible resource allocation:

• Available channels may not be granted to existing users and
enhance capacity of the system.
• Dynamic channel assignment may overcome this limitation by
assigning unused channels to other cells which needs more
capacity.
Inability to be used as variable rate transmission which is common in
digital systems. This eliminates FDMA as the choice for combined
voice and data transmission.
Filter with excellent cut-off characteristics necessary since FDMA
depends on bandpass filters.
Crosstalk due to interference from neighboring channels produced
by nonlinear effects.
LVQDanh, CT369 13
Crosstalk in FDMA
o Crosstalk stems from non-linear amplifiers. For example, a composite
signal c(t) at the receiver with 3 channels can be expressed as:
where f1, f2, f3 are carrier frequencies and a1, a2, a3 are information
bearing signal.
o The output of a nonlinear amplifier will be:
o The non-linearities are scaled as b2, b3 … which results in non-linear

terms as:
f1 = 2 f2 − f3
or any other combination. Signals from other channels will appear in the
same window as the signal being received.
LVQDanh, CT369 14
Crosstalk in FDMA
LVQDanh, CT369 15
TDMA
Each user occupies the whole bandwidth for a fraction of a time,
called a time slot (per frame) and continues to have access to the
bandwidth on a periodic basis.
LVQDanh, CT369 16
TDMA
Timeslot and Frame
o Preamble: Address and

synchronization
information.
o Guard bits: Necessary to
allow non-ideal time
synchronization between
the mobiles.
LVQDanh, CT369 17
TDMA and Duplex
TDMA/TDD
• Some of the timeslots in the frame will corresponds uplink and
the other to downlink within same carrier.
• For telephony, the division between up- and downlink is 50-50.
• For data, the division between up- and downlink can be
adjustable, e.g. 30-70.
TDMA/FDD
• Uplink and downlink will be separate frames on different
carrier frequencies.
LVQDanh, CT369 18
Resource Allocation in TDMA
• During call set-up, user is assigned a free time slot, and use it in
each frame.
• When moving to the new cell, the user is assigned an available slot
in the new cell.
• For data transmission with higher data rate, a user may receive
more than one time slot per frame.
LVQDanh, CT369 19
TDMA in GSM
GSM is a combined FDMA / TDMA system.

• The frequency band is divided into the carriers of 200 kHz
• Different carriers used in different cells
For larger capacity requirements, multiple carriers are used in a cell.
Each carrier is divided into eight TDMA timeslots, which together is
called a TDMA frame.
Each frame is 4.615 ms (= 120/26 ms) and each time slot is 0.577 ms
(= 15/26 ms). A time slot is the smallest unit in GSM.
Each channel uses one time slot per TDMA frame.
Bit-rate on the physical layer in GSM is 270.833 kHz.
LVQDanh, CT369 20
TDMA Frame Structure in GSM
LVQDanh, CT369 21
Advantages and Disadvantages of TDMA

Advantages:
• Flexibility in resource allocation
– Based on availability, more time slots can be assigned to the
same user. Allows for variable data rate.
– Not so strong cut-off filters requirement, or problems with
crosstalk.
– Better utilization of resources. Overhead in the form of guard
bits between the time slots and synchronization bit requires less
resources than the resulting guard band between the carrier
channels in FDMA.
Disadvantages:
• The need for synchronization, both the frames and time slots.
• Wider bandwidth allows more frequency selective fading and
ISI.
LVQDanh, CT369 22
TDMA
LVQDanh, CT369 23
TDMA
LVQDanh, CT369 24
CDMA
• Multiple users can share the same carrier at the same time when
each user multiplies the data stream with a unique “spreading
code“ before sending.
• The data stream can be recreated in the receiver by multiplying by
the same spreading code.
• Interference from other users is suppressed because of orthogonality
between the spreading code for each user.
• Spreading code is a pseudo-random (or pseudo-noise-PN) periodic
sequence, each bit in the spreading sequences is called a chip.
• The ratio between the bit length Tb and the chip-length Tc is: Tb/Tc=K .
o This is also called the Spreading Factor (SF).
• The bandwidth of the new signal is wider than the original by a
factor of K because of high chip rate.
LVQDanh, CT369 25
CDMA Signal Generation
LVQDanh, CT369 26
CDMA Spread Spectrum
Spreading of the spectrum (in freq. domain). Here for the example K=4
LVQDanh, CT369 27
CDMA Transmitter and Receiver
Power spectrum of 3G WCDMA
LVQDanh, CT369 28
CDMA Transmitter and Receiver
CDMA demodulator
• In a case with k CDMA users, where mi(t) is signal ith, and pi(t) is
spreading code i, the output from the de-spreader for user 1 becomes:
LVQDanh, CT369 29
CDMA
Orthogonality
Two functions xq(t) and xk(t) are orthogonal over an interval [a,b] if
the inner product is 0 (zero) for all q and k, except when q=k:
• Examples of orthogonal functions are Spreading codes used in

CDMA and sine functions used in OFDMA.
LVQDanh, CT369 30
Interference in CDMA
• Different users have different spreading codes, which are almost
orthogonal.
• If the orthogonality between the codes is perfect then no interference
at the receiver.
• The cross correlation between two spreading sequences sn and sm is:
• Perfect orthogonality means that cross-correlation function is zero for

all t.
• In practice, orthogonality is not perfect, thus there is some
interference.
• In CDMA, there is a soft capacity limit, new users degrades signal
quality a little bit for everyone, but there is no absolute limit to how
many users may be allowed.
LVQDanh, CT369 31
Pseudo Noise (PN) Code Generator

Periodic sequence of PN code can be generated with period 2m-
1 with an m-stage feedback shift register. Set-up consists of flip-
flops and modulo-2 adders.
LVQDanh, CT369 32
CDMA challenges
The near-far problem:

• If the interference and the signal has unequal power, the
performance becomes worse
• Some mobiles will be closer to the base station than others and
unequal signal levels may occur.
The near-far problem is counteracted by power control.
• The nearest mobiles transmit with lower power, so that the
received power at the base stations is almost the same for all
mobiles.
• Power control is used in all CDMA systems.
LVQDanh, CT369 33
CDMA in UMTS (3G)
The multiple access technique used in the 3G system UMTS is called

WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access).
WDCMA is a direct sequence CDMA system.
• The chip rate is 3.84 Mc/s.
WCDMA is combined with FDMA. Each frequency carrier is allocated
5 MHz, so multiple operators can offer services without disturbing
each other.
• An operator can also use more that one frequency carrier to
increase the capacity in the network.
UMTS can use both TDD and FDD, but FDD is used almost
everywhere.
LVQDanh, CT369 34
RAKE Receiver
• In DS-CDMA, the chip duration is very narrow and under the
assumption that multipath delays is larger than chip duration, those
delayed version of chips are resolvable.
• The figure shows a conceptual RAKE receiver. The different
correlators are synchronized to various paths with different delays
and programmed to captured the strongest signal.
LVQDanh, CT369 35
OFDMA
OFDMA is based on OFDM, where the carrying waves are distributed

on multiple users.
• By dividing the data stream into many parallel narrowband signals,
we get long symbols, which reduces inter-symbol interference (ISI).
• Frequency selective fading can be suppressed by the fact that data is
spread over several sub-carriers.
• Interference from other users is suppressed due to the orthogonality
between the carrying waves.
• There is a fixed relationship between symbol length and separation
between the carrying waves: Ts·Δf = 1.
LVQDanh, CT369 36
OFDMA
What is OFDM?
OFDM transforms a wideband frequency-selective channel to a set of
parallel flat fading narrowband channels, which substantially simplifies
the channel equalization problem. It directly modulates the incoming
symbol sequence onto the sub-carriers without pulse shaping.
LVQDanh, CT369 37
OFDMA
Orthogonality
Two functions xq(t) and xk(t) are orthogonal over an interval [a,b] if the
inner product is 0 (zero) for all q and k, except when q=k:
If the interval [a,b] is of length Ts , harmonic exponential functions (e.g.

shaped signals) satisfy this criterion when the frequency difference is:
LVQDanh, CT369 38
OFDMA
Orthogonality of sine functions
o Sine functions are orthogonal when they have an integer number
of periods in the symbol interval.
The product cos(2πx)*cos(4*πx) over the

interval [0,1] sums to zero. This means that
these functions are orthogonal. sin(2πx) and cos(2πx) are orthogonal
LVQDanh, CT369 39
OFDMA
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
• Robust against frequency selective fading and interference.
• Scalable bandwidth.
Disadvantages
• High amplitude variation which gives high peak to average
power ratio (PAPR). This increases in-band noise and BER (bit
error rate).
• Tight synchronization between users are required for FFT in
receiver.
• Dealing CCI is more complex in OFDMA than CDMA.
LVQDanh, CT369 40
Summary
• Multiple access allows multiple users the opportunity to share the
available bandwidth.
• FDMA is a simple scheme with each channel is allocated a frequency
band. The main advantage is easy implementation, and that there is no
need for synchronization and timing information. The main
disadvantages are less flexibility in resource allocation and the need for
very sharp cut-off filters.
• In TDMA, users are separated in time. The main advantage (compared
to FDMA) is the flexibility in resource allocation, and the possibility of
variable data rate. The biggest drawback is the need for
synchronization. TDMA schemes are also susceptible to fading.
• In CDMA, each user is assigned a unique PN code. Each code consists of
K chips, each with duration of Tc, and KTc=T, the bit duration. Thus,
CDMA uses a much larger bandwidth than TDMA or FDMA. All users
share the same bandwidth all the time.
LVQDanh, CT369 41
Summary
• In CDMA, PN sequences are almost orthogonal to each other.
• CDMA suppresses interference.
• In OFDMA, orthogonal carrying waves are distributed on multiple
users.
– This technique provides high robustness against frequency
selective fading.
– Scalable OFDMA, which is used in LTE, provides the opportunity for
flexible bandwidth utilization.
LVQDanh, CT369 42

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Bài giảng: TRUYỀN THÔNG KHÔNG DÂY (KC222)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

• Exam and Assignments:

Bongsoodae, Namsan Mt., Seoul Carrier Pigeons

698-806 MHz Thông tin di động, băng tần 700 MHz

2400-2500 MHz Nghiệp dư, ISM

5650-5850 MHz Nghiệp dư, ISM

MSC: Mobile Switching Center

BTS: Base Transceiver Station

BSC: Base Station Controller

PSTN: Public Switched Telephone

UE: User Equipment

IBM Simon Smartphone

A Block Diagram of a Base Transceiver Station

(LE: Low Energy)

1 Exabytes = 103 Gigabytes Nguồn: Cisco (2012)

Thị trường viễn thông 6 tháng đầu năm 2017

Chapter 2- Propagation Characteristics of Wireless Channels

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Line of sight propagation

...where r is the radius of the zone in meters, N is the zone to calculate,

r = 17.31 sqrt [1 * (1000 * 1000) / (2437 * 2000)]

Propagation Components between Base Station and Mobile Station

Attenuation and fading

• Slow fading: It is long-term fading effect caused by large obstruction

Attenuation in free space

Attenuation in free space

Attenuation in free space

if both transmitter and receiver has no gain, it’s identical to free

From the above equation, we can also write:

With attenuation factor, received power:

 = 2 for free space. Typical values for urban areas are 3 – 5.

Two types of channel model:

rural areas is formulated as,

§ The 2-ray model has been found to be reasonably accurate for

Models so far presented are not sufficient to predict signals in

Small zone and Microzone:

Large-zone model can be used with appropriate path loss

 The ITU Indoor Path Loss Model: A site-general

Floor Penetration Loss Factor, Lf(n)

The expression for free-space loss expressed in dB is given by

 Agree with the ITU site-general model

Fading can be described in three ways:

• Signal leaves the transmitting antenna and can take different

X and Y are independent and identically distributed Gaussian random

• Probability density function (pdf) of Rayleigh distribution is

• Power of received signal will be exponential distribution:

Where 2 is the variance (phương sai) of random variable X (or

A course grade distribution

The PDF curve for a typical W-CDMA system

• Every receiver is designed to operate at an acceptable level only

• The outage probability is given by:

• Where P0 is the average power and given by 22

• One of the adverse

The rms (root-mean-square) delay spread,

Where average delay <> is:

And mean square delay <2> is:

The channel bandwidth can be identified as the coherence bandwidth Bc of

Large spreading of signal  Small channel bandwidth

So far, we assumed mobile phone being stationary. The motion of the

Slow and fast fading can also be

§ LCR and AFD are two useful parameters in enabling assessment

Using equation (2.55), the number of level crossings for  = 0.1 is NA