Energy 29 (2004) 645–651

www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Direct steam generation in parabolic trough concentrators

with bimetallic receivers
Vicente Flores , Rafael Almanza
Instituto de Ingenierı́a, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 Coyoacán,
Mexico, D.F.

Abstract

This document shows the results obtained in direct steam generation for low powers in parabolic
trough concentrators with bimetallic Cu–Fe wall receivers. The objective is to study its thermal behavior
under transient conditions and stratified two-phase flow. Experimental results in transient state appear
considering the variants of mass flows between 60 and 150 kg/h, the direction of the solar beam
irradiance on the receiver is from below and on one side of the receiver, this last being the most critical,
in particular in steel receivers because of low thermal conductivity. Some conclusions in this work are
that the most significant deformation is in a transient state and it happens only in one part of the
receiver, when it changes from the liquid phase to the steam phase during the boiling process. The bimet-
allic receiver reduced the transient deformation to the degree that it does not seem a problem for some
critical parts of the absorber system during the direct steam generation (DSG). Whereas in steel receivers
the deformation rises to 7 cm, in the Cu–Fe receivers the most drastic deformation was only of 18 mm
upwards with a mass flow of 150 kg/h and wall temperature of 200 oC. So, the use of the bimetallic
receiver is recommended for the DSG for low power applications.
# 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The technical feasibility of direct steam generation has been proven using parabolic trough
concentrators for high thermal powers of the order of 2 MW [1] and for low powers of the
order of 2.24 kW [2].
During the experience of DSG that has been reached in the Solar Plant of the Engineering
Institute at the National University of Mexico, it has been observed that the greatest problem


Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ras@pumas.iingen.unam.mx (V. Flores).

0360-5442/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0360-5442(03)00173-7
646 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651

Fig. 1. Experimental system.

during the boiling process is in the regime of stratified two-phase flow, since thermal gradients
in the periphery of the receiver tubes are created as discussed by Almanza [3] and bending of
the absorber was observed. The knowledge of the behavior of the receiver tubes operating under
these circumstances is fundamental, because they are put under great thermal stress causing,
over a short lapse of time, the deflection and consequently the rupture of the glass tube, while
over a long performance duration, a permanent deformation of the absorber was carried out.
A bimetallic copper–steel receiver 3 m in length and 31.7 mm in diameter was constructed, in
order to study the effects of the transient stages during the DSG. The objective is to eliminate
the present transient deflections at the moment of the formation of the two-phase flow during
the process of the boiling of water through the receiver tubes, in parabolic trough concentrators.
The receiver was proven in conditions of a transient state, when a sudden feeding starts with
low mass water flows (60–150 kg/h) or when cloud presence is simulated in relatively short peri-
ods of time (2–4 min), defocusing and focusing the receiver for the second case.
For the first case, the thermal and mechanical effects in the receiver were studied. This means
a sudden change of temperature and the formation of the stratified flow regime. For the second
case, the influence on the behavior of the receiver of the solar beam irradiance that affects the
wall was studied, through a sudden defocusing of the receiver in a short time and refocusing it
or by shading zones of the receiver (cloud simulation).

2. Experimental development

In the experimental work, a system of parabolic trough concentrators with reflective surface
of aluminum paper from 3M mark (SA-85P) with a reflectance of approximately 85% was used;
thermocouples adapted to the external wall of the receiver; a flow meter for low mass flow; and
finally a mechanism of displacement to measure the instantaneous deflection of the receiver was
also used. The experimental system and the bimetallic tube are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 respect-
 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651 647

Fig. 2. Bimetallic tube 2/3 Cu–1/3 Fe wall thickness.

ively. The bimetallic receiver length 3 m and 31.7 mm internal diameter has a thickness of 2.6
mm with wall thickness of 2/3 for copper and 1/3 for steel; this proportion was taken from a
theoretical study [7]. A commercial selective surface for applications in solar energy, SOLKOTE
Hi/Sorb II, with emissivity from 0.28 to 0.49 and absorptivity from 0.88 to 0.94, was applied on
the surface of this receiver; a Pyrex glass tube was used without evacuation to cover the
receiver.
Type K thermocouples with bayonet and pipe-clamp adapters were located on the upper and
lower sides at the middle of the receiver between posts. Fig. 3 shows the thermocouples on the
external surface of the receiver as they were installed.
The experimental method endeavours to establish the lower and upper temperatures in the
wall of the receiver tube and the degree of deflection. The value of the temperatures is as an
indicator of the magnitude of the present thermal stress in different points of the internal wall of
the receiver, and simultaneously the magnitude of the deflection; such measurements consider
the more drastic effect of stratified flow pattern in the DSG. The thermal and mechanical behav-
ior of the receiver in real conditions of DSG was experienced, having variants such as the angle

Fig. 3. Thermocouple with bayonet and pipe-clamp adapter.

648 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651

of incidence of the solar irradiance, in the lower and lateral part of the outer surface of the
receiver tube, and the mass water flow. In all the tests, the intention of this study was the for-
mation of the stratified two-phase flow through the bimetallic receiver. Additionally, steel
receivers of 25.4 and 31.7 mm diameter with 1.9 and 3.8 mm wall thickness respectively, were
studied with the purpose of comparing their behavior with the bimetallic receiver.

3. Thermal behavior and deflection of the bimetallic receiver

At the beginning of the experiment the parabolic collector is focused without water and only
v
with static air, until the receiver wall temperature of 200 C is achieved.
With solar irradiance arriving on the lower part of the receiver, the graph of Fig. 4 was gen-
v
erated; under this condition, the temperature difference was kept at 26 C from 0 to 6 s. When
low water flow (90 kg/h) started to go into the receiver and reached the middle of the test sec-
tion, the deflection on the bimetallic receiver began, reaching 7 mm. After 20 s, a difference of
v
7 C was registered, so the temperature on the wall tends to be homogeneous. The excellent
thermal conductivity of copper favors the distribution of temperatures in the periphery of the
receiver, improving its thermal behavior as discussed by Flores [4].
During the deflection from 14 to 20 s, the same figure shows that the lower temperature
descends more rapidly than the upper temperature. The presence of the regime of stratified flow
causes this phenomenon. In the lower part of the wall of the receiver, greater heat transfer
exists, because the liquid phase is in contact with the wall while in the high part of the wall,

Fig. 4. Evolution of the temperatures versus time, with stratified two-phase flow and irradiance arriving on the lower
part of the copper–steel receiver.
 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651 649

Fig. 5. Evolution of temperatures versus time, with stratified two-phase flow and irradiance arriving on one side of
copper–steel receiver.

smaller heat transference exists due to the steam phase in contact with the wall, which leads to
ascending deformations, in most cases.
When solar irradiance arrives on one side of the bimetallic receiver (Fig. 5), a similar behav-
ior in a few seconds was observed and the maximum deflection was 9 mm. After 15 s, the tem-
v
perature difference between T2 and T1 started to increase to about 20 C, which depends on the
configuration adopted by the two-phase flow into the receiver and the distribution of the solar
irradiance on the external wall [5,6].
On the other hand, the first adverse effect in the steam generation happens during the heating
of the bimetallic receiver with static air in its interior, which undergoes a deformation by the
formed thermal gradient in the periphery of the receiver. This effect is due to the heating of the
absorber that generates mechanical stress on such a receiver due to thermal expansions.
The longer deflection that has been registered during the initial heating is 3 mm downwards
with respect to the horizontal of the receiver tube.
The deformation during the heating rose to 6 mm for steel receivers for those with 25.4 mm
diameter and, 4 mm for the receiver with 31.7 mm diameter. Even though the temperatures in
the wall are the same for both receivers, the first one has lower mass density than the second
one, so the mechanical resistance to the deflection is greater for the one with greater diameter
and wall thickness of 3.8 mm, than the one with smaller diameter and wall thickness of 1.9 mm.
In Fig. 6 the temperature gradients for two steel and one bimetallic receiver are plotted under
v
similar conditions of DSG. The tube temperature before water enters is about 200 C and the
v
temperature of the water coming into the receiver is 30 C; the evolution of (T2–T1) during the
formation of the stratified two-phase flow is shown. At 6 s, the receivers contain only air in
their interior and DT being greater with T2 > T1, where T2 is in the lower side and T1 is in the
650 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651

Fig. 6. Temperature gradients during stratified two-phase flow formation.

upper side. At 7 s the water flow begins and initiates the formation of the stratified two-phase
flow; T2 diminishes with greater speed because the lower part of the wall is in contact with the
liquid phase of the water, until T2 approximates to T1. After that, DT continues to increase,
indicating that in the interior of the receiver the liquid and steam phases have been homogen-
ized to the same temperature because of the incidence of the solar irradiance in the inferior part,
increasing the value of T2. Finally, DT tends to stabilize. The changes to more drastic gradients
appear mainly in the steel receivers, mainly in those with smaller diameter where thermal inertia
is smaller because of smaller density, while the bimetallic receiver presents greater stability in its
thermal behavior.
On the other hand, the bimetallic receiver was also tested simulating the cloud presence, defo-
cusing the receiver during the steam generation for short periods of time (between 2 and 3 min).
The thermal conditions of steam in the output before defocusing are: 175 C and 7 kg/cm2 with
v

v
a mass flow of 60 kg/h. When the receiver is defocused, the temperature reduces to 130–140 C
and the pressure has values between 4 and 5 kg/cm2. The result of defocusing the receiver is
therefore an increase of the evaporation zone, where a liquid–steam mixture exists, diminishing
the mass of the steam phase and its quality, but keeping the two-phase mixture. The previous
phenomenon leads to increased length of the receiver put under the two-phase flow, and it
means instabilities are presented as sounds of tension by the mechanical stress which were
stimulated by the two-phase flow. Despite this, the present adverse effects on the bimetallic
receiver are negligible, compared with those obtained in steel receivers; since in these, instan-
taneous deflections of the order of 12 mm downwards or upwards appear.
 V. Flores, R. Almanza / Energy 29 (2004) 645–651 651

4. Conclusions

The thermal behavior and deflection of the bimetallic receiver is quite stable in DSG, in order
to obtain applications for low powers, where the thermal conductivity of the copper causes the
homogenization of the wall temperature of the receiver, eliminating the high thermal gradients
that appear internally in steel receivers. In addition, the steel layer of the bimetallic receiver
improves the mechanical resistance to the deformation of such receiver, reducing the deflection
to which it is put under thermal stress in the wall of the tube.
The deflection has been associated with the thermal gradient produced by stratified two-phase
flow formed during the boiling of water.
The variation of the incidence angle of the solar beam irradiance is not so significant in the
thermal behavior of the bimetallic receiver nor in the value of the deflection, such as happens in
steel receivers where the deflection is more drastic when beam irradiance reaches over one side,
during the formation of the stratified two-phase flow, in the DSG under conditions of low flows
and low pressures. In plants of low power from 1 kWe up to 60 kWe, the flow is low and there
is no way to avoid the stratification, so the bimetallic receiver can be used in order to get DSG
under any thermohydraulic condition.
Today the experimental work uses six thermocouples to gain a better understanding of the
thermal behavior of the receiver.

Acknowledgements

This work has been financed by D.G.A.P.A. (Dirección General de Apoyo a Personal Aca-
démico). SEP-PROMEP-UQROO (Secretarı́a de Educación Pública - Programa de Mejor-
amiento a Profesores - Universidad de Quintana Roo) gave a fellowship to the author. Santiago
L., Saez A. and Figueroa S. helped to develop the experimental work.

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