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5 must-read
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 07

The Science of
COACHING
Who’d want to be a coach?

[Abstract]
An analysis of coach burnout and the recovery process

INTRODUCTION WHAT THEY FOUND WHAT THIS MEANS

The current day coach (particularly those
within a high-performance setting) plays
many roles beyond providing technical
input to help their athletes develop. It is
therefore no surprise that there is an
increasing trend of sport coaches
developing stress-related illness and
burnout, which has seen a large number
of coaches leave the profession in recent
times. It is therefore in the best interest of
any sporting organisation to help coaches
avoid and recover from these stressful
situations.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to
analyse the relationship between burnout  Only one coach reported unchanged
and recovery amongst eight professional
soccer coaches (Swedish Premier League)
over a 10 yr period. These coaches
completed a series of questionnaires over
this period along with a number of a semi-
structured interviews in order to gain
insight into each coach’s experience with
burnout and their recovery process.
The experiences of the coaches in the The factors that contributed to burnout
current study changed continuously. included:
 Coaches levels of emotional  Working too much.
exhaustion and depersonalisation
 Having several conflicting roles.
fluctuated over the 10 yr period.
 The majority of coaches reported  Difficulty in managing external
pressures.
lower emotional exhaustion scores at
the second data collection point (3 yr).  Having a perceived lack of control.
This was due to these coaches
significantly changing their approach  The expectation to excel (i.e.
to their role (e.g. moving to a part-time performance culture).
role, moving to a lower division) or
 Health problems due to stress.
leaving the profession completely.
Actions by the coaches to reduce/recover
scores between the 3 yr and 7 yr data
collection point was the only one still from burnout:
coaching at the elite level (at this time
 Stop coaching.
period).
 Change from full-time to part-time.
 By the end of the 10 yr period, none of
the coaches were still coaching in the  Take part in other work (e.g. study,
Swedish Premier League. another job).

Practical Takeaways
Regardless of the sport in which a person is involved in,
taking some time to step away from your coaching role can
reduce their levels of exhaustion, helping them to recover
from possible burnout.
An immediate change in circumstances (rather than seeing
it through) is possibly the best way to begin the recovery
process.
All coaches should look to gain the help of professionals
(e.g. sport psychologists) in order to assist them with their Will Vickery
recovery from burnout.
Will is a Lecturer of Sport
With regards to the sport organisations, finding a solution
and helping their coaching staff with regards to being over- Coaching at Deakin
worked and placed into constant stressful situations is University, Australia.
beneficial for all those involved both in the short- and long-
term.

Copyright © | Science for Sport 2019

 06

The Science of
COACHING
Which psychological attributes underpin elite sports coaches?

[Abstract]
Effective coaching is more than just the application of a coach’s knowledge
and experience

INTRODUCTION WHAT THEY FOUND

Those involved in research of the coaching
process highlight that coaching is not simply
a structured interaction between coaches
and athletes in an effort to achieve optimal
performance outcomes. Instead, it is viewed
as a complex social system with a variety of
goals and objectives, with the relationship
and the interactions of the coach and the
athlete at the centre. For a coach to truly be
effective, they must acknowledge the
influence they can have on their athletes, not
only by designing effective training sessions,
but also by the social and behavioural
interactions they have with their athletes.
Most of the information available to coaches,
or those involved in athlete development, has
traditionally focused on the behavioural
aspects of coaching practice from a
quantitative and observational perspective,
with far less focus on the underlying reasons
behind these behaviours. In other words, we
know what coaches do, but the following
question still remains: why do they do the
things they do? Because of this, the authors
of this study set out to explore what
psychological attributes underpin a coach’s
ability to actually coach.
After interviewing 12 elite coaches, a number
of psychological attributes deemed to
characterise their ability to be a successful
coach were identified:
 Attitude (being tough, focusing on the
positives)
 Confidence (communication, acting
confident, confident in ability and
knowledge)
 Resilience (handling setbacks, dealing
with criticism)
 Focus (process or future focused)
 Drive for personal development (open
minded, an appetite for learning)
 Being athlete centred (encouraging
independence, differentiation,
adaptability)
 Emotional awareness (of self and/or
others)
 Emotional understanding (influence of
emotions, athlete’s emotions,
consequence of negative emotions)
 Emotional management (control, control
in other, expression, encouraging
emotional expression)
WHAT THIS MEANS
As stated by the authors, the findings of this
research shine further light on the premise
that coaching is much more than the
transmission of knowledge from coach to
athlete, and it extends beyond just the
teaching of skills and tactics. In order to be a
successful coach, the coach must also
understand the behaviours and social
requirements of their athletes in addition to
understanding what psychological
characteristics they must possess
themselves. Of particular interest, is the
number of attributes associated with the
emotional nature of coaching, suggesting
that effective coaches are those with an
ability to recognise, understand, and manage
their own emotions, as well as those of their
athletes.

Practical Takeaways
This study suggests that being an effective coach means more than just having a head full of
theoretical knowledge and/or developing your athletes’ physical prowess and skill level. Instead, Dr. Will Vickery
the psychological attributes which each individual coach possesses, plays just as an important Will is a Senior Lecturer
part in their athletes development and performance. From a personal development standpoint, of Sport Coaching at the
coaches should therefore not only focus on their knowledge of the sport, for example, but also University of Northumbria
how their psychological attributes, particularly those associated with emotion (see ‘what they in Newcastle Upon Tyne,
found’), can be used effectively to influence the development and performance of their athletes’. U.K.

Copyright © | Science for Sport 2017

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 07

The Science of
COACHING
What and how do coaches learn?

[Abstract]
Examining methods to develop coaches’ knowledge and behaviour

INTRODUCTION WHAT THEY FOUND WHAT THIS MEANS

Coach learning is incredibly important to
support effective practice. However, little is
known about what or when coaches learn, and
particularly, how this learning has an impact on
a coach’s practice (HERE). Many studies have
attempted to understand the impact of coach
learning by providing coaches with self-report
tools (i.e. questionnaires to examine what has
changed in their practice). Although, given that
there is often a difference in the perceptions of
a coach regarding their behviours and what
they actually do within a practical setting,
these studies lack an ability to fully understand
the impact of coach learning.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
assess changes in coaches’ behaviour and
knowledge between a group of coaches who
took part in formal education (i.e. National
Governing Body (NGB) courses), and a group
who did not take part in formal education.
Specifically, the study aimed to understand
what changed in coach learning and how,
through observing coaches’ practice and
interviewing coaches.
Eight youth soccer coaches (seven male and
one female, mean age = 27 yr) were selected to
take part in the study. Five coaches took part in
the NGB coach education course, while three
coaches did not, and instead carried out their
practice as normal. Coaches were observed in
sessions and their behaviours were recorded by
an independent observer. They were also
asked to take part in recall interviews to watch
segments of sessions back (on video) and
explain which sources of knowledge they had
used (e.g. knowledge of how athletes learn,
tactical knowledge or technical knowledge)
and where they had learned this from.
Coaches in the coach education group,
compared to the non-coach education group
were found to:
 Use more tactical focused knowledge
compared to technical focused
knowledge.
 Use more questioning to set challenges for
players to make independent decisions.
 Develop a broader knowledge of why
game-based approaches might be
effective.
Coaches’ practice can be influenced by learning
on coach education courses, but learning is also
developed through a much broader range of
experiences and interactions. Experiencing
coaching as a player, talking informally with
other coaches, and being critical on what works
for which athlete and under which
circumstances, can be vitally important to
support effective coaching.
Recall interviews (where coaches watch video-
recorded segments of sessions back) can be an
effective tool to show how coaches have
learned and changed their practice. Watching
videos in this way can also be an effective
learning tool in itself to consider why practice
was/was not effective and what might be
changed in the future. Importantly, coaches
often learn and develop knowledge on a topic,
but then fail to apply this knowledge by
changing their behaviour.

 Use more behaviours directed towards

individual athletes, as opposed to the
whole group.

Practical Takeaways
In order to develop their practice through learning, coaches can
attend coach education courses delivered by National Governing
Bodies. Importantly, learning and knowledge developed on
these courses can be supported and complimented by a much
broader range of experiences. Among these, coaches can
consider the benefits of video-recording sessions and watching
footage back to reflect upon key interactions with players to
consider why their practice was/was not effective and what can
be done to enhance their practice.
For example, coaches could watch themselves providing
feedback to an athlete in the gym who is attempting to perform
Adam Nichol
a Romanian deadlift to consider why they (the coach) acted in
this way, what influence they may have had on the player, and if
Adam is an Associate
anything, could have been done to more effectively engage
with the player. Here, good coaches will not be afraid to Lecturer/PhD Researcher
challenge deep-rooted beliefs that they might have held for a at Northumbria University:
long period of time about what they consider effective coaching
to be.
Newcastle upon Tyne.

Copyright © | Science for Sport 2019

 08

The Science of
COACHING
Developing athletes’ creativity

[Abstract]
What can sport coaches learn from jazz music?

INTRODUCTION WHAT THEY FOUND WHAT THIS MEANS

Traditional coaching approaches often limit Seven female volleyball players were Creativity is more likely to be developed where
opportunities for players to develop creativity. challenged by the coach to collaboratively coaches create environments which allow
Given many sports involve constantly changing develop creative outcomes by building on each players to feel comfortable in experimenting,
situations which often require creative solutionsother’s performances within game-based making mistakes, and discussing or evaluating
from players, there is a need to consider how a activities, modified games, or game scenarios. their creative plans. Indeed, creativity takes
broader range of coaching practices may Video clips of creative plays were also shown to place within and is developed through
benefit the development of athlete creativity the athletes, and they continued to take part in interaction with others (e.g. teammates and in
(HERE). more technical-based drills to enhance the response to opposition performance/cues).
number of skills which it would be possible for
Recent research within the field of music has Appropriate opportunities, therefore, need to be
players to creatively build from. Researchers
pointed to some useful strategies which may provided for athletes to interact with
kept a reflective log and conducted group
be helpful in developing innovation (HERE). This teammates and to perform against opposition
interviews with the players to understand their
research has, for example, highlighted that players for them to be more likely to develop
experiences and assess the effectiveness of the
musicians can develop creativity by being creative performance which is relevant to, and
intervention.
challenged to play a piece of music which effective within a game. For instance, when the
follows on from a previous musician, borrowing The researchers found that athletes had ball is returned from a serve in volleyball,
from the previous notes played and then developed their creativity, mainly through: players must be able to independently read the
elaborating on them (working collaboratively). position of their peers, game conditions, and
This study, aimed to test the effectiveness of  Independently interacting with each other cues to create the best possible creative
collaborative creativity techniques borrowed (e.g. discussing plans for new outcome. Practice must, therefore, allow an
from jazz music in developing the creativity of performances in response to the opportunity for this full process to happen.
youth volleyball players within a sport coaching opposition, or evaluating plans which had Similar to jazz music, then, opportunities to
environment. Players took part in a been attempted). build upon and innovate based upon the
collaborative, creativity-based intervention performance of others is crucial.
 Being encouraged by the coach to attempt
working with one coach who facilitated the
different strategies, and then being
intervention.
afforded opportunities to try these within
game-based environments

 Reading the performances of others and

increasing tactical knowledge.

Practical Takeaways
Coaches wishing to develop creativity with their athletes
should carefully consider how they make athletes feel
relating to creativity. Here, encouraging athletes to play in a
new and innovative way (and not criticising/punishing
failed attempts to try something new) is an important
starting point. Specifically, team sports coaches could look
to enforce a rule where players cannot attack by applying
the same skills or tactics used in the previous attack (e.g.
ruling out attacking the opposition down the right wing).
Coaches could also look to give athletes opportunities to
independently discuss and evaluate new tactics (e.g. Adam Nichol
letting athletes take the lead in speaking during a time-
out). Importantly though, coaches should not forget about Adam is an Associate
the value of drill-based activities to provide players with Lecturer/PhD Researcher
the ‘foundation’ skills to build upon. Securing basic skills
at Northumbria University:
of the sport often allows athletes greater opportunities to
build from in order to develop creativity.
Newcastle upon Tyne.

Copyright © | Science for Sport 2019

 07

The Science of
COACHING
Coaching youth vs. master athletes

[Abstract]
Same coach, different approaches? How the context a coach is working in
can influence their behaviour

INTRODUCTION WHAT THEY FOUND WHAT THIS MEANS

Research into the different coaching approaches
which impact on the learning and development of
athletes is becoming much more prevalent.
Typically, there are two approaches to this, coaching
based on a more ’traditional’ perspective (e.g.
instructional, technically focused, coach-led) or a
more ‘contemporary’ perspective (e.g. guided
discovery, athlete independence). There is some
indication though that the type of approach used by
the coach depends on the athlete(s) that they are
working with. For example, those working with
masters athletes may use less instructive behaviour
when compared to a coach working with young
athletes. This is because the masters’ athletes
typically have greater experience within a particular
sport and, therefore, less time is required instructing
the masters athletes on how to play or move. This
information is limited though, and it is, therefore, not
well understood if coaches do change their
behaviours when working with different athletes. As
such, this study looked to gain an understanding of
the different behaviours for the purpose of learning
and development used by a single canoe/kayak
coach during training sessions specifically when
coaching youth and masters athletes; from the
perspective of the athletes.
A number of differences related to the development
and learning of athletes appeared between the two
groups, particularly regarding the communication
between the coach and the athletes, how the athletes
age and maturity level impacted the approach to
training by the coach, and how the coaches
expectations for training influenced athletes
perceptions of learning. More specifically though:
 Masters athletes noted a greater emphasis by
the coach to be involved in more collaborative
interactions (e.g. facilitated conversations with
the coach, asked questions about what needed
to improve). Youth athletes though suggested
that the same coach was very directive and
instructive which led to these athletes not
asking many questions relating to their
performance.
 Youth athletes suggested that the coach
provided less opportunity for self-directed
learning during training with factors such as
attendance and behaviour monitored
continuously by the coach. Masters athletes
though felt that their maturity levels (compared
to the youth athletes) afforded them more self-
directed learning opportunities.
This coach appeared to change their coaching style
depending on the ability level of the athletes,
particularly in the way they communicated and
interacted with their athletes. When coaching the
youth athletes, the coach appeared to follow a more
‘traditional’ coaching approach whereby a more one-
way communication style, which was much more
authoritative, was followed. This also included a
greater reliance on more instructive behaviour
limiting the chance for skill retention and transfer. By
comparison, the same coach appeared to be more
engaging with the maters athletes, specifically being
involved in more two-way conversations and
provided more opportunity for self-discovery. As the
authors suggest, this type of environment may have
allowed the masters athletes to become more
intrinsically motivated compared to the youth
athletes, allowing them to be more appreciative of
the learning process.

 The youth athletes felt that the coach

emphasised a competitive training environment
to prepare them for future events, mainly with
intra-team comparisons. Masters athletes on the
other hand highlighted the how the coach
encouraged peer support and social interaction
during training to emphasise continued learning.

Practical Takeaways
As athletes from different sports and activities, age groups, and ability levels all learn and develop differently,
coaches need to be adaptable. Along with a well-developed training plan, the coach also needs to have a well-
Dr. Will Vickery
developed communication style and the ability to interact with different personalities in a variety of situations.
Will is a Senior Lecturer
Regardless of the age or ability, it is ultimately the athletes who take part during match-play, not the coach. In
this case, coaches would be best served to allow younger athletes the opportunity to engage in self-discovery of Sport Coaching at the
and have a greater input into the training session itself, much like the older athletes in the current study. This University of Northumbria
would not only allow for these younger athletes to further engage with the session and the coach, but also in Newcastle Upon Tyne,
create more decision-making opportunities; a skill vital for long-term athlete development. U.K.

Copyright © | Science for Sport 2018

Save time and stay up-to-date
without breaking the bank!

Gone are the days of frustration, pouring

though Google for hours trying to find
relevant research. You can access over
600+ relevant, clear and concise research
reviews spread across 40+ issues of The
Performance Digest... For free.

$1544
FREE!