The Use of Scrap Tires in Rotary Cement Kilns

Michael Blurnenthal
Executive Director
Scrap Tire Management Council
1400 K Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20005

ABSTRACT
The use of scrap tires as a supplemental he1 in the United States Portland cement industry has
increased significantly in the past six years. In 1990, there were two kilns using tire-derived he1 (TDF),
today 30 kilns use TDF. The outlook for continued and expanded use of TDF in the U. S. cement industry
should be considered favorable, with 15 kilns conducting tests to determine TDF's applicability or in the
perrnitting process (refer to Table 3). Our estimates are that by the end of 1996, the cement industry could
be consuming some 75-100 million of the 253 million annually generated scrap tires in the United States.
This level of TDF usage will make the cement industry the largest market segments for scrap tires in the
United States.

While the long-term outlook is at present positive, there are a series of factors that have, and will
likely continue to adversely impact the near-term usage of TDF. These issues, as well as the factors that
are likely to positively impact the cement kiln TDF market on are the subject of this presentation.

INTRODUCTION
The Scrap Tire Management Council (STMC) is a North American tire manufactures sponsored,
advocacy organization, created to identify and promote environmentally and economically sound markets
for scrap tires. The primary goal of the Council is to assist in the creation of demand for 100 percent of
the annually generated scrap tires in the United States. The Council supports all environmentally sound
and cost efficient applications that can reuse. recycle or recover the energy fiom a scrap tires.

The number of scrap tires generated annually has been gradually increasing over time. In 1990,
when the Council was formed, some 242 million scrap tires were generated. In the period of 1994-1996,
we estimate that some 253 million scrap tires are or will be generated annually. Our data suggests that the
number of scrap tires generated annually should continue its gradual increase to approximately 260 to 275
million by the turn of the century.

Just as the number of scrap tires generated annually has been increasing, so has the markets and the
market demand for scrap tires. In 1990, some 11 percent, or 25 million scrap tires, had markets. By the
end of 1992, the number had increase to 38 percent; by the end of 1993 the percentage of tires with
markets was 43 percent; by the end of 1994 we reached 55 percent market demand. At the end of last
year, some 69 percent of all the scrap tires generated had markets.
 There are three major markets for scrap tire, which consist of tire derived fuel (TDF); products
(including those made fiom size-reduced rubber and stamped, punched or cut rubber products); and civil
engineering applications. Of all the markets, whole or processed tire-derived fuel (TDF) is the largest
single market, consuming 137 million scrap tires annually. The various market segments consist of cement
kilns; pulp and paper mill boilers; utility boilers; industrial boilers and dedicated scrap tire to energy
facilities (refer to Table 1).

The combined fie1 market segment has the capacity to consume some 250 million scrap tires a
year. The TDF requirements ranges fiom whole tires (in cement kilns, dedicated scrap tire to energy
facilities and wet bottom boilers), to rough shreds (cement kilns & dedicated scrap tire to energy facilities)
to one by one or two by two inch shreds (pulp and paper mills, industrial and utility boilers). The type of
TDF necessary for any end-user will be a function of the type of combustion facility, the type of fuel used
and the feeding system used.

TDF MARKETS NATION-WIDE:

Cement Kilns Pulp & Paper Electric Generating (all inclusive)

Using TDF 30
Permitting 15
Considering TDF 25

TIiE USE OF TDF IN ROTARY CEMENT KILNS

Destruction of TDF
Tire derived fuel can be completely destroyed in cement kilns for a variety of sound technical reasons.
The combination of extremely high temperatures (2650°F to 2750°F), a positive oxygen atmosphere and a
relatively long gas residence time (4 to 12 seconds at the elevated temperatures) assures the complete
combustion of the scrap tire. The complete combustion precludes products of incomplete combustion (PICs),
black smoke or odors being released fiom the stack. This is the main reason the use of scrap tires does not
impact the stack opacity.

Characteristics of TDF
Eighty-eight (88) percent of the tire is composed of carbon and oxygen, which accounts for its rapid
combustion and relatively high heating value. Tires contain approximately 15,000 BTU's per pound. This
compares favorably to coal which, on the average, contain some 12,000 BTU's per pound. Subsequently, when
substituting TDF for coal, a kiln operator can reduce coal by 1.25 pounds for every pound of TDF used.

An additional advantage of TDF use in cement kilns is the tire's steel component. Each passenger
carflight truck tire contains two and one-half pounds of high grade steel (ASTM 1070). The tire's steel can
substitute, in part, for the iron requirement in the cement's raw meal recipe. The advantage to the kiln operator
is a reduction in raw meal cost. The advantage to the scrap tire supplier is that whole tires can be readily used,
which require no processing, thus avoiding the cost of processing the tire. Cement kilns using processed TDF
can accept relatively roughly shredded tires, which require less expensive processing relative to other TDF
markets.
 Another point of interest is that tires tend to have a lower percentage of sulfUr than most coals. S u b in
tires averages 1.3 percent by weight. S u k in coal ranges from 1.1 to 2.3 percent or higher, depending on the
coal quality. Emissions data from a variety of kilns has clearly demonstrated a consistent reduction in sulfbr and
other emissions with the use of TDF.

Since all the components of TDF are either destroyed, combined into the clinker or captured in the air
pollution control device, there is no ash or other residue to dispose. Finally, the components of the scrap tire,
once chemically combined into the clinker, are not capable of leaching out. This is comparable to silica not
leaching from glass. In short, the cement kilns use 100 percent of the scrap tire in a completely environmentally
sound manner.

Feeding TDF into Kilns

Conventional kilns (long wetllong dry) may use either whole tires or shredded tires as a supplemental
fuel. Shredded tires can be fed into the kiln by insufllation, that is, blowing shreds into the discharge end of the
kiln or introduced via a "chip canon". Due to the short residence time (three to five minutes) within the kiln, the
shreds should be two inch by two inch, or smaller, which assures the complete combustion of the TDF prior to
falling into the clinker cooler.

Whole or sectioned tires can be introduced through a mid-section feeding system of the straight kiln.
There are at least two patented systems currently available in the United States that allow the feeding of whole
tires into the W s calcining zone. These technologies could allow for an extended service life of this group of
kilns, whose high fuel costs can make these facilities marginal producers of cement.

Pre-heaterlpre-calciner kilns can use shredded andlor whole tires. Two-inch chips may be fed with the
coal in a precalciner. Whole or shredded tires can be fed as well in between the fourth stage and the kiln at the
riser duct to the fourth stage preheater vessel. Preheater kilns cany the greatest potential for combustion of
whole scrap tires. Tires can be introduced at the riser duct to the fourth stage preheater vessel through a double
tipping valve.

Air Emissions
Perhaps the most significant question raised concerning the use of TDF in cement kilns is its impact on
air emissions. The image of thick clouds of black smoke rising from outdoors, uncontrolled scrap tire Gres is
probably the only reference many persons have concerning scrap tires. The concerns about TDF's impact are
understandable, but can be easily addressed.

In the eight years of operating experience with TDF, no kiln has been caused to exceed its perrnitted air
emission threshold limits due tot he use of TDF. Indeed, in virtually every case, the use of TDF has caused a net
reduction in emissions f?om cement kilns. In fact, the United States Environmental Protection Agency
concluded that "The long residence time and high operating temperatures of cement kilns provide an ideal
environment to burn tires as supplement fuel. Results of several tests indicate the emissions are not adversely
affected ,but in many cases improve when burning tire."(l)

Since the EPA report was issued, there have been more comprehensive testing done on air emissions
from the use of TDF. Tables 2a - 2e represent the results from the source emission survey done at the Boxcrow
Cement Company in Midlothian, Texas in October 1991 (2).

On March 20, 1996, the USEPA issued a media release concerning the proposed standards for air
emissions from hazardous waste incinerators and cement kilns. In this document, the USEPA indicated that they
would be establishing the strongest national-wide regulatory standard door the reduction of dioxin and h a n
emission, as well as the emissions for mercury, lead and cadmium. (3)
A provision of this program that could have a positive impact on the TDF market is that there will be a
"comparable fuels exemption" The key provision is that the USEPA would exclude from regulations any
hazardous waste incinerator, and presumably cement kiln using hazardous wastes, that uses a hazardous waste
that have the same characteristics as fossil fuels and are used in lieu of fossil fbels. M e TDF is not a hazardous
waste, it is a cleaner fuel than fossil fuels, and may be included.

Another emission issue that may also have a positive impact of the use of TDF are the provisions of Title
III of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. If TDF is a component of the fuel stream for any or some of the top
12 percent used to establish the MACT standards, using TDF may become an operating requirement to meet the
MACT standards.

Emission Factors.
Condition I Condition I1 Condition I11 Condition IV
Particulate Matter Emissions - grldscf 0.0042 0.0102 0.0139 0.0028
Particulate Matter Emissions - lbslhr 5.16 12.85 18.14 3.83
Particulate Matter Emissions - lbslton kiln feed 0.024 0.065 0.099 0.021
Hydrogen Chloride Emissions - l b s h 0.962 2.771 3.101 1.025
PM 10 Particulate Matter Emissions - lbslhr 2.06 13.10 11.73 0.95
Condensible Particulate Matter Emissions - lbslhr 27.4 205.1 102.2 5.6
Total Reduced Sulfur Compounds Emissions - lbslhr 6.21 9.97 9.71 9.44
Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions - l b s h N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.
Sulfur Dioxide Emissions - lbslhr 1,406.0 1,498.0 1,655.2 1,380.1
Sulfur Trioxide Emissions - lbslhr N/A 1.34.1 79.6 NIA
Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions - lbslhr 532.3 561.5 411.1 326.1
Carbon Monoxide Emissions - ppm 1,205 1,356 1,443 1,485
Carbon Monoxide Emissions - lbslhr 781.0 899.2 956.0 967.9
Total Hydrocarbons Emissions - ppm 119 116 101 98
Total Hydrocarbons Emissions - lbslhr 121.6 120.3 105.1 100.3
Hexavalent Chromium Emissions - l b s h N.D. NIA NIA N.D.
Kiln Feed Rate - tonslhr 214.8 197.7 184.1 182.9
Clinker Production Rate - tonslhr 121.7 112.1 104.3 111.2
Coal Feed Rate - Calciner - tonslhr 9.4 8.3 4.2 3.7
Coal Feed Rate - Kiln - tonslhr 8.0 8.9 5.7 6.6
Tire Chip Fuel Feed Rate - tonslhr 0.0 0.0 2.7 4.1
Raw Mill Status On Off Off On

Metals Emissions.
Condition I Average (lbdhr) Condition IV Average (lbdhr)
Aluminum 0.071 0.012
Antimony N.D. N.D.
Arsenic N.D. N.D.
Barium 0.002 N.D.
Beryllium N.D. N.D.
Boron 0.005 0.006
Cadmium N.D. N.D.
Chromium 0.003 8.81x10-~
Copper 0.002 0.001
Iron 0.102 0.046
Lead <0.001 N.D.
Manganese 0.009 0.008
Mercury 0.003 0.002
Nickel 0.005 0.003
Selenium N.D. N.D.
Thallium 0.001 1.59~10-'
Vanadium N.D. N.D.
Zinc 0.008 0.007
Volatile Organic Compounds.
Condition I (lbslhr) Condition IV (lbslhr)
Methylene Chloride O.O05(E) 0.055
Benzene 3.822 3.261
Toluene 3.307 4.497
Ethylbenzene 0.421 0.577
Styrene(etheny1benzene) 0.433 0.765
Xylene (dimethylbenzene) 1.831 2.691
Methyl Styrene (ethenylmehtylbenzene) N.D. 0.007
Ethyl Toluene (ethylrnehtylbenzene) N.D. 0.938
Pentadiene 0.746 0,427
Butadiene N.D. N.D.
Ethynylmehtylbenzene N.D. N.D.

Semivolatile Organic Compounds.

Condition I (lbshr) Condition IV (lbshr)
Naphthalene 0.101 0.1 16
Acenaphthene N.D. N.D.
Fluorene N.D. N.D.
Phenanthrene N.D. <0.001
Benzo (a) pyrene N.D. N.D.
Methyl Indene N.D. N.D.
Limonene N.D. N.D.
Benzaldehyde 0.058 0.250

Dioxins and Furans

Condition I (lbs/hr) Condition IV (lbs/hr)
2,3,7,8- N.D. N.D.
tetrachlorodibenzodioxin
total tetrachlorodibenzodioxin N.D. N.D.
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran N.D. N.D.
total tetrachlorodibenzofhran N.D. N.D.
Production of Cement
Production rates may be increased in preheater kilns while burning whole tires. This is possible by virtue
of the preheater calcination rate increasing in the preheater second and third stages when burning tires compared
to the normal calcination rate while burning coal only. Calcining rates have been increased fiom 45 percent
burning coal only to 56 percent when burning whole tires. Use of tires has decreased the carbon dioxide
transported by the kiln which, in turn, allows room for additional oxygen to be used in the kiln. The extra
oxygen allows for the burning of additional clinker. All of the above kilns require clinker coolers to receive the
burned cement clinker and cool it, and to preheat the primary, secondary and tertiary air flows which are used to
burn the clinker, dry the coal, and to help calcine the raw meal.

There have been some operational problems associated with the use of TDF in cement kilns. In
particular, alkali build-ups in the kiln system may occur in any one of several areas in the feed or drying
system of the kiln. These build-ups are brought on by the alkali components of the raw mix, or fiom any of
several fbels condensing into solids. The point of condensation may be harmless, but, in many cases, the
build-ups may choke off the flow of kiln gases.

Remediation may be accomplished by changing the raw meal component with the high alkali
content, changing the he1 with high alkali content, altering the temperature profile in the kiln so that
condensation occurs at an innocuous location, or changing the shape of the material at the point of
impingement so that the condensed material will not adhere to the kiln.

Costs Considerations
Another potential, significant advantage to using whole tires is that it can lower operating costs, as
compared to using 100 percent coal. Whole scrap tires in the United States can currently be obtained by an
operating facility at a positive cost. That is, a fee can be assessed by the kiln operator to scrap tire transporters in
exchange for the right to deliver scrap tires to the cement company. The use of scrap tires reduces the tonnage
of coal used, and consequently lowers the cost associated with the acquisition of coal. Finally, as indicated in the
preceding section, the steel component of a tire can substitute for iron which reduces the cost of iron acquisition.
The use of shredded scrap tires, while not as cost effective as whole tires, typically can be obtained for less than
the cost of most coals.

Since no new pollution control devices are required, the only capital expenses required are a trailer
storage area and a feeding system As has been demonstrated by several of the kilns, the costs related to the use
of TDF are similar to any improvement project in a cement plant. The payback period for the capital
improvements is generally less than 18 months, depending upon the percentage and cost of the TDF used. The
actual capital costs to construct a tire feeding system will vary, depending on the kiln configuration and
technology used and the complexity of the system itself. In general, capital costs have ranged between $200,000
and $500,000.

Maintenance costs are likely to increase slightly. There should be a lower coal mill maintenance due to
the reduced coal through-put; however, there will be maintenance required on the TDF feedinglweighing system
that may offset this reduction. The only other initial expense encountered has been the cost to train plant
personnel with the new feeding equipment and the expense of additional fire fighting equipment near the TDF
conveying feeding system. The plant's fire fighting plan should be modzed to reflect the additional fire
protection systems installed for the TDF system
Cement Quality
The quality of the cement, whether using whole or shredded tires and regardless of the point of entry, is
as good or better than when using only coal. Case in point is Holnam's Ideal Seattle long straight kilns, which
have provided better quality cement using TDF than with their basic fuel of a coal and petroleum coke mixture.
Holnarn uses two inch tire shreds at 2.5 tons per hour.

Holnarn estimates that the shreds are lofted 25 to 30 feet into the kiln They have never had evidence of
tire steel in the cooler. The clinkering zone was shortened and alite size was smaller and the clinker crystal
definition was improved. This improvement was probably caused by the stabilization of fiee lirne in the kiln
Prior to use of tire derived fuel, fiee lirne jumped around considerably. This stopped with the burning of scrap
tires due, it is believed, to a shorter clinkering zone brought on by the high volatility and high energy content of
the TDF.

The cement quality has also improved in preheater kilns when using TDF. This is brought about by two
basic facts: First, the raw meal calcining in the preheater is increased by 22 to 25 percent, depending on the tire
burn rate. This, in turq has made the kilns operate more smoothly which makes for more consistent quality.
Second, clinker crystal structure and clinker appearance have both improved. Clinker size is also reduced. The
combination of these improvements has been demonstrated at one plant in a two day grindability test on Type I
cement.

From field experience, it is reported that there is no discernible cement color change. Cement quality
was as good or better than base line studies. Microscopy studies revealed more discreet crystal structure. There
was also no reported buildup of rubber in the fourth stage preheater vessel. There was reported additional build-
up of calcined raw meal scale in the area of the feed shelf, which was easily managed. The kiln operation
presented no other problems.

Conclusions
There are several factors that have made TDF an accepted supplemental fuel in cement kilns. Tire-
derived fuel contains 25 percent greater heating value than coal, while the s u h r , nitrogen oxide, metals
and volatile organic emissions are at worst, indicate no difference. Where whole tires can be used, they
yield a tip-fee to the kiln, while processed TDF still costs less than coal or petroleum coke. From an
operators stand point, TDF usage still can keep the kiln running with few up-sets and improve the strength
of the clinker

The promulgation of new USEPA regulations and the implementation of the Clean Air Act may impact
the use of TDF in cement kilns. At this point in time, the indications are that these up corning changes are likely
to have a positive effect on the use of TDF.

Overall, the use of TDF in rotary, Portland cement kilns has yielded several distinct and quantifiable
benefits. The expectation is that there will be a continued and expanded use of TDF in Portland cement kilns, a
use that has and will continue to be beneficial for all.
 Status of TDF Use in US Cement Kilns

Company Name Location Status

Ashgrove Cement Durkee, Oregon Using TDF (whole)

Ashgrove Cement lnkom, Idaho Using TDF
Ashgrove Cement Leamington, Utah Using TDF (whole)
Ashgrove Cement Seattle, Washington Has permit to test
Blue Circle Cement Atlanta, Georgia In permitting process
Blue Circle Cement Harleyville, South Carolina Using TDF (whole)
Blue Circle Cement Revena, New York In permitting process
Blue Circle Cement Tulsa, Oklahoma In permitting process
Calif. P. C. Cement Tucson, Arizona Using TDF (processed)
Calif. P. C. Cement Mojave, California Using TDF (whole)
Calif. P. C. Cement Colton, California Interested in Using TDF
Calaveras Cement Redding, California Using TDF (whole)
Capitol Cement Martinsburg, West Virginia Has permit-start-up 8/96
Cemex Balcones, Texas Has permit-not using TDF
Essroc Cement Bessemer, Pennsylvania Has permit for testing
Essroc Cement Frederick, Maryland Using TDF (Mid-kiln)
Essroc Cement Speed, Indiana In permitting process
Fla. Crush'd Stone Brooksville, Florida Using TDF (whole)
Hawaiian Cement Honolulu, Hawaii Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Ada, Oklahoma Has permit
Holnam Cement Clarksville, Missouri Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Devil's Slide, Utah Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Dundee, Michigan In permitting process
Holnam Cement Santee, South Carolina In permitting process
Holnam Cement Mason City, lowa Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Midlothian, Texas Has permit (processed)
Holnam Cement Portland, Colorado Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Seattle, Washington Using TDF (processed)
Holnam Cement Theodore, Alabama Using TDF ((processed)
Illinois Cement LaSalle, Illinois Has permit (whole)
lndependent Cement Catskill, New York Has permit (processed)
Independent Cement Hagerstown, Maryland Using TDF (whole)
Kaiser Cement Permanente, California Using TDF (processed)
LaFarge Cement Alpena, Michigan In permitting process
LaFarge Cement Davenport, lowa In permitting process (whole)
LaFarge Cement Joppa, Grand Chain, Illinois Has a permit-not using TDF
LaFarge Cement Whitehall, Pennsylvania Using TDF (whole)
Lehigh P. Cement Leeds, Alabama Using TDF (whole)
Lehigh P. Cement Mason City, lowa In Permitting Process
Lehigh P. Cement Mitchell, Indiana In Permitting Process
Lehigh P. Cement Buda, Texas In Permitting Process
Lehigh P. Cement Union Bridge, Maryland Using TDF (Whole)
Lone Star Cement Cape Girardeau, Missouri Using TDF (processed)
Lone Star Cement Oglesby, Illinois Using TDF (processed)
Lone Star Cement Pryor, Oklahoma Has permit-not using TDF
Medusa Cement Charlevoix, Michigan In permitting process
Medusa Cement Clinchfield, Georgia Using TDF (whole)
Mitsubishi Cement Lucerne, California Using TDF (whole)
Monarch Cement Humbolt, Kansas Using TDF (whole)
Nevada Cement Fernly, Nevada In permitting process
North Texas Cement Midlothian, Texas In permitting process
National Cement Ragland, Alabama Has permit-not using TDF
Rinker
-. Material Miami, Florida Has permit-not using TDF
Riverside Cement Diamond Bar, California Using TDF (whole)
Signal Mtn Cement Chattanooga, Tennessee Using TDF (whole)
Southdown Inc. Brooksville, Florida Using TDF (whole)
Southdown Inc. Fairborn, Ohio Has permit -waiting to start
Southdown Inc. Neville Island, Pennsylvania Has permit-not using TDF
Southdown Inc. Victorville, California Has permit-not using TDF

References
(1) Control Technology Center, Burning Tiresfor Fuel and Tire Pyrolysis: Air Implications; EPA-45013-91-
024, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C.; December 1991;pp. 4-36.

(2) Metro Environment4 Source Survey of Boxcrow Cement Company Kiln Stack, Mildothian, Texas, TACB
Permit C-8996, October 1991.

(3) Environmental News, EPA PPRPOSES MOST-PROTECTIVE STANDARDS FOR AIR EMISSIONS
FROM HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATORS AND CEMENT KILNS, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, March 20, 1996.