Ubc - 1984 - A1 B82 PDF

STRENGTH MODEL AND DESIGN METHODS FOR
BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD INTERACTION IN TIMBER MEMBERS
by
ANDREW HAMILTON BUCHANAN
B.E.(Hons), U n i v e r s i t y of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1970

M.S., U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley,'1972
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
Department Of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g
We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
to the r e q u i r e d standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
January 1984
© Andrew Hamilton Buchanan, 1984

In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f the
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y
o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make
i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I f u r t h e r
agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s
f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the head o f my
department o r by h i s o r her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I t i s
u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s
f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n
p e r m i s s i o n .
Department Of Civil Engineering
The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
1956 M a i n Mall
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1Y3
1 MHr-r-h
ii
Abstract
T h i s t h e s i s d e s c r i b e s a model f o r p r e d i c t i n g the strength
of timber members i n bending, and in combined bending and
axial loading, on the b a s i s of a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression
behaviour of s i m i l a r members. Both i n s t a b i l i t y and material
strength f a i l u r e s are i n c l u d e d .
The model i s based on a s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p which
incorporates d u c t i l e non-linear behaviour i n compression, and
linear elastic behaviour a s s o c i a t e d with b r i t t l e fracture in
tension.
The model i n c l u d e s the e f f e c t s of v a r i a b i l i t y in timber
strength, both within a member and between members. Size
e f f e c t s which predict decreasing strength with increasing
member size are quantified using separate parameters f o r
member l e n g t h and member depth.
An extensive experimental program on a large number of
timber members i n s t r u c t u r a l s i z e s has been used to c a l i b r a t e
and verify the model. Test procedures and r e s u l t s are
described f o r members of d i f f e r e n t lengths t e s t e d to f a i l u r e
in bending and i n a x i a l loading. The a x i a l testing included
both tension and compression loading using several end
eccentricities.
S e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e design methods based on the strength
model are investigated and compared with e x i s t i n g methods.
Recommendations are made f o r design methods f o r timber members
subjected to combined bending and a x i a l loading.

iii
Table of Contents
Abstract i i
L i s t of T a b l e s (
viii
L i s t of F i g u r e s ix
Notation xv
Acknowledgement xviii
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION . .. 1
1 . 1 BACKGROUND 1
1 .2 OBJECTIVES 2
1.3 DESIGN CODES 3
1.4 APPLICATIONS 4
1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION 5
1.6 LIMITATIONS 6
Chapter II
LITERATURE SURVEY . . - 7
2.1 INTRODUCTION 7
2.1.1 Background 7
2.1.2 C l e a r Wood and Commercial Timber 7
2.2 BENDING STRENGTH ...8
2.2.1 Bending Behaviour of C l e a r Wood 8
a. D i s t r i b u t i o n of S t r e s s e s 8.
b. S i z e E f f e c t s 17
2.2.2 Bending Behaviour of Timber 19
a. Comparison With C l e a r Wood 19
b. In-grade T e s t i n g ....20
c. D e r i v a t i o n of Design S t r e s s e s 21
d. S i z e E f f e c t s 22
2.3 AXIAL TENSION STRENGTH 23
2.3.1 A x i a l Tension Strength of C l e a r Wood 23
2.3.2 A x i a l Tension Strength of Timber ^.24
a. E f f e c t s of D e f e c t s °.24
b. S i z e E f f e c t s 26
2.4 AXIAL COMPRESSION STRENGTH 27
2.4.1 A x i a l Compression S t r e n g t h of C l e a r Wood 27
2.4.2 A x i a l Compression S t r e n g t h of Timber 28
2.4.3 S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p 29
2.4.4 Column Theory f o r C o n c e n t r i c Loading 33
2.4.5 Timber Columns 35
2.5 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD 38
2.5.1 Cross S e c t i o n Behaviour 38
2.5.2 Members with Combined Bending and Compression ...42
2.5.3 In-Grade T e s t i n g 46
2.5.4 Members with Combined Bending and Tension 46
2.5.5 V a r i a b i l i t y i n Wood P r o p e r t i e s 48
2.6 SUMMARY 49
Chapter I I I
SIZE EFFECTS 50
3.1 INTRODUCTION 50
3.2 CONVENTIONAL BRITTLE FRACTURE THEORY 51
iv
3.2.1 H i s t o r y 51
3.2.2 A p p l i c a t i o n s of B r i t t l e F r a c t u r e Theory t o Wood .52
3.2.3 Theory f o r Uniform S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n 54
3.2.4 Theory f o r V a r i a b l e S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n 56
3.2.5 C o e f f i c i e n t of V a r i a t i o n 58
3.3 BRITTLE FRACTURE THEORY MODIFIED FOR TIMBER 59
3.4 DIFFERENT SIZE EFFECTS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS 60
3.4.1 S i z e E f f e c t Terminology 61
3.5 LENGTH EFFECT 62
3.5.1 Theory 62
3.5.2 Assumptions on Length E f f e c t 63
3.6 DEPTH EFFECT 65
3.7 STRESS-DISTRIBUTION EFFECT 66
3.7.1 Tension Zone 66
3.7.2 Compression Zone 70
3.8 WIDTH EFFECT 71
3.9 EFFECT OF GRADING RULES 74
3.10 SUMMARY 75
Chapter IV
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 76
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL STAGES 76
4.2 TEST MATERIAL 79
4.2.1 Species 79
4.2.2 Grading 79
4.2.3 Moisture Content 80
4.2.4 Sample S e l e c t i o n 81
4.3 SAMPLE SIZES AND CONFIDENCE 82
4.3.1 Sample S i z e s 82
4.3.2 W e i b u l l D i s t r i b u t i o n 83
4.3.3 Confidence C a l c u l a t i o n f o r Q u a n t i l e s 83
4.4 TEST PROCEDURES 87
4.4.1 Bending 87
4.4.2 A x i a l Tension 89
a. Long' Boards 89
b. Short Boards 90
4.4.3 A x i a l Compression 91
a. Long Boards 91
b. Short Segments 92
4.4.4 E c c e n t r i c Compression 92
4.4.5 Combined Bending and Tension 94
a. Bending Followed by Tension 94
b. E c c e n t r i c Tension .....95
4.4.6 Data A q u i s i t i o n 96
4.4.7 Modulus of E l a s t i c i t y 96
4.5 SUMMARY 98
Chapter V
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 99
5.1 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOADING RESULTS 99
5.1.1 P r e s e n t a t i o n 99
5.1.2 I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Short Members 100
a. Test R e s u l t s 1 00
b. Mode of F a i l u r e 106
V
5.1.3 I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Long Members 107

5.1.4 A x i a l • L o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s Curves 107
5.2 SEPARATE BENDING AND AXIAL LOADING RESULTS 110
5.2.1 Test R e s u l t s 110
5.2.2 Modes of F a i l u r e 112
5.3 LENGTH EFFECTS 114
5.3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 114
5.3.2 Compression Strength 115
5.3.3 Tension Strength 116
a. 38x89mm Boards 116
b. 38x140mm Boards 117
5.3.4 Bending Strength 118
a. 38x89mm Boards 119
b. 38x140mm Boards 120
5.3.5 Summary of Length E f f e c t s 122
5.4 WEAK AXIS BENDING 123
5.5 SUMMARY 124
Chapter VI
STRENGTH MODEL 126
6.1 INTRODUCTION 126
6.2 ASSUMPTIONS 127
6.3 CROSS SECTION BEHAVIOUR .127
6.3.1 C a l c u l a t i o n Procedure 128
6.3.2 N e u t r a l A x i s Contours 131
6.3.3 Curvature Contours 132
6.3.4 U l t i m a t e I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram 134
6.3.5 Moment-Curvature Curves 134
6.4 COLUMN BEHAVIOUR 135
6.4.1 F a i l u r e Modes 136
6.4.2 C a l c u l a t i o n Procedure 139
6.5 TYPICAL OUTPUT 142
6.5.1 A x i a l Load-Moment I n t e r a c t i o n Curves 142
6.5.2 A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves 144
6.6 INPUT INFORMATION 145
6.6.1 Cross S e c t i o n Dimensions 146
6.6.2 Tension and Compression Strengths 146
6.6.3 Modulus of E l a s t i c i t y 148
6.6.4 Shape of S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p i n
Compression 149
a. Shape of F a l l i n g Branch ;.151
b. Shape of R i s i n g Branch 154
6.6.5 S t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n E f f e c t 156
6.6.6 Column Parameters 158
6.7 NON-DIMENSIONALI ZED PLOTS 158
6.8 SUMMARY 159
Chapter VII
CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION 160
7.1 INTRODUCTION 160
7.2 38x89mm BOARDS 161
7.2.1 Short Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves 161
7.2.2 Parameter E s t i m a t i o n 164
7.2.3 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curve f o r End Moments ..165
vi
. 7.2.4 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves for Mid-Span

Moments 168
7.2.5 A x i a l Load - Slenderness Curves 170
7.3 38x140mm BOARDS 170
7.3.1 Short Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves 170
7.3.2 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves 173
7.3.3 A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves 173
7.4 REPRESENTATIVE STRENGTH PROPERTIES 173
7.5 APPLICABILITY OF STRENGTH MODEL ,.181
7.6 SUMMARY .181
Chapter VIII
DESIGN METHODS FOR COLUMNS AND BEAM COLUMNS 183
8.1 INTRODUCTION ...183
8.1.1 A l l o w a b l e S t r e s s Design 183
8.1.2 R e l i a b i l i t y - B a s e d Design 183
8.1.3 R e l i a b i l i t y - B a s e d Design of Timber 185
8.1.4 Scope 186
8.2 EXISTING DESIGN METHDOS 186
8.2.1 Canadian Timber Code 186
a. C o n c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Columns 187
b. Combined A x i a l Load and Bending 188
c . Summary 190
8.2.2 NFPA Timber Code 191
a. C o n c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Columns 191
b. Combined A x i a l Load and Bending .191
c . Summary 193
8.2.3 Code Requirements f o r S t e e l 194
8.2.4 Canadian Concrete Code 198
8.2.5 L i m i t S t a t e s Timber Codes 201
8.3 COLUMN CURVES FOR CONCENTRIC LOADING 205
8.4 PROPOSED DESIGN METHODS FOR ECCENTRICALLY LOADED
COLUMNS 208
8.4.1 Type of Loading and A n a l y s i s 209
8.4.2 Input S t r e n g t h P r o p e r t i e s ...210
8.4.3 Design Approaches 210
8.4.4 Moment M a g n i f i c a t i o n F a c t o r 212
8.4.5 METHOD 1: B i l i n e a r I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram 215
8.4.6 METHOD 2: P a r a b o l i c I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram 218
8.4.7 METHOD 3: U l t i m a t e I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram 220
8.4.8 Comparison of Methods 1 to 3 221
8.4.9 METHOD 4: P u b l i s h e d Design Curves 224
8.4.10 METHOD 5: S t r a i g h t L i n e Approximation 225
8.4.11 METHOD 6: A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves 227
8.5 COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 231
8.6 SUMMARY 234
Chapter IX
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS 235
9.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ...235
9.1.1 Strength Model 235
9.1.2 Second Order S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s 236
9.1.3 Simple A n a l y s i s 237
9.1.4 Code Format 237
vii
9.2 APPROXIMATE DESIGN FORMULAE 238

9.2.1 Recommended Formulae 238
9.2.2 Example 240
9.2.3 Load F a c t o r s and R e s i s t a n c e F a c t o r s 240
9.2.4 Mimimum Moments .....241
9.3 DATA REQUIRED 241
9.3.1 In-grade Test R e s u l t s 241
9.3.2 S i z e E f f e c t s 243
a. Length E f f e c t s 244
b. Depth E f f e c t s 245
9.4 OTHER LOADING CASES . .. 245
9.4.1 Unequal End E c c e n t r i c i t i e s 246
9.4.2 Transverse Loads 246
9.4.3 Slenderness R a t i o 248
9.4.4 B i a x i a l Behaviour 249
a. Strength Under B i a x i a l Loading 250
b. S t a b i l i t y Under B i a x i a l Loading 251
9.5 LONG DURATION LOADING ...252
9.5.1 Strength Under Long Duration Loading 252
9.5.2 S t a b i l i t y Under Long Duration Loading ..253
9.6 MOISTURE CONTENT 254
9.6.1 E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e on Compression S t r e n g t h 254
9.6.2 E f f e c t of M o i s t u r e on Strength Under Combined
Loading 255
9.7 SUMMARY • 2 56
Chapter X
SUMMARY 258
LITERATURE CITED 261
APPENDIX A - CALCULATIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES 272

A.1 ULTIMATE BENDING STRENGTH 272
A. 1.1 Background 272
A. 1.2 B i l i n e a r - S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p with F a l l i n g
Branch 273
a. Assumptions ...273
b. C a l c u l a t i o n s 274
c. Length E f f e c t s 278
d. Summary 279
e. Depth E f f e c t i n Compression 280
A.1.3 E l a s t o - P l a s t i c S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p 280
a. Assumptions 280
b. C a l c u l a t i o n s 281
A.2 ULTIMATE INTERACTION DIAGRAM 283
A.2.1 Background 283
A.2.2 C a l c u l a t i o n s 283
APPENDIX B - CALCULATION OF -INTERCEPT DEFINING
INTERACTION DIAGRAM 288
APPENDIX C - TEST RESULTS 290
APPENDIX D - NOTATION 299

vi i i
L i s t of T a b l e s
I. Summary of experimental stages 77
II. Summary of l e n g t h s and s i z e s tested
(stages 1 to 4) 78
III. M a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y r a t i o s f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e groups 179
IV. Length e f f e c t parameter k, 244

V. Summary of equations f o r c a l c u l a t i n g u l t i m a t e
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram 286
ix
L i s t of F i g u r e s
1. A c t u a l and assumed s t r e s s e s i n a c l e a r wood beam at

failure 9
2. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n d e r i v e d from a b i l i n e a r stress-
strain relationship ..11
3. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n assumed by B e c h t e l and N o r r i s ....12
4. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s measured by Ramos 14
5. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n proposed by Moe 15
6. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n proposed by Bazan 17
7. S t r e s s - s t r a i n relationships i n a x i a l compression 30
8. A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curve f o r c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded
columns 36
9. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams
for l i n e a r behaviour 39
10. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams
f o r n o n - l i n e a r behaviour 40
11. Three-dimensional sketch of load v s . slenderness v s .

moment 43
12. Typical log-log p l o t of f a i l u r e s t r e s s v s . volume ....56
13. Tension s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s 67
14. R a t i o of a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h to maximum s t r e s s i n
extreme f i b r e 69
15. Compression s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s 71
16. Quarter-sawn board 73
17. P.d.f. of q u a n t i l e estimators 86
18. Loading arrangement f o r bending t e s t 88
19. Loading arrangement f o r a x i a l tests

(a) t e n s i o n (b) compression 90
20. Eccentric axial loading

(a) Compression (b) Tension 93
X
21. Combined bending and t e n s i o n t e s t

(a) f i r s t stage (b) second stage 95
22. Test r e s u l t s f o r s h o r t e s t length i n e c c e n t r i c

compression 101
23. P e r c e n t i l e r e s u l t s f o r s h o r t e s t length i n e c c e n t r i c
compression 102
24. Test r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm boards i n e c c e n t r i c

compression and t e n s i o n 104
25. I n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r mean t e s t r e s u l t s of a l l

lengths i n e c c e n t r i c compression 108
26. A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curves. Mean t e s t r e s u l t s f o r

a l l lengths t e s t e d i n e c c e n t r i c compression 109
27. Comparison of t e n s i o n , compression and bending test

results 111
28. R a t i o of t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h s of 38x89mm boards

2.0m and 0.914m long 117
29. R a t i o of t e n s i o n strengths of 38x140mm boards

3.0 and 0.914m l o n g . 118
30. R a t i o of bending s t r e n g t h s of 38x89mm boards

• 1.5 and 0.84m long .120
31. R a t i o of bending s t r e n g t h s of 38x140mm boards, 3.0 and
1 . 5m long 121
32. R a t i o of edgewise to f l a t w i s e bending s t r e n g t h 124
33. Cross s e c t i o n behaviour 128

34. Flow c h a r t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g moment-curvature-axial load
r e l a t i o n s h i p s for a cross section 130
35. N e u t r a l a x i s contours for moment and a x i a l load

interaction 132
36. Curvature contours for moment and a x i a l load

interaction 133
37. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r s t r e n g t h of c r o s s
section 133
38. Moment-curvature-axial load r e l a t i o n s h i p s 135
39. Column with a x i a l load and equal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s .136
40. T y p i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded

xi
column 137
41. Column d e f l e c t i o n curves 140
42. Interaction diagrams f o r slender columns 143
43. A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s diagram f o r s e v e r a l
eccentricities 145
44. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r s t r e n g t h
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of s e v e r a l lengths 147
45. E f f e c t of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y on column behaviour .149
46. Stress-strain relationships i n compression 150
47. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r the b i l i n e a r s t r e s s -

s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p , with v a r y i n g slope of f a l l i n g
branch 152
48. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r the e l a s t o - p l a s t i c

s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p , with v a r y i n g l i m i t i n g
strain .152
49. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram r e s u l t i n g from stress-

s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p proposed by G1OS(1978) .. 153
50. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r s e v e r a l stress-

strain relationships 153
51. Stress-strain r e l a t i o n s h i p with f a l l i n g branch 155
52. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams with v a r y i n g stress-

d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter i n t e n s i o n 157
53. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams with v a r y i n g stress-

d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter i n compression 157
54. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram c a l i b r a t e d to t e s t
r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e 162
55. P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r end moments compared

with t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e 166
56. P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r mid-span moments

compared with t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e 169
57. P r e d i c t e d a x i a l load - slenderness curves compared

58. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram c a l i b r a t e d to t e s t
r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e 172
59. Predicted i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r end moments compared

xi i
60. P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r mid-span moments

compared with t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e 175
61. P r e d i c t e d a x i a l load - s l e n d e r n e s s curves compared

62. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
strength properties 178
63. Non-dimensionalized i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r

representative strength properties 180
64. A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curves f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s (non-dimensionalized) .....180
65. Code column formula compared with model prediction

(non-dimensionalized) 189
66. NFPA formula compared with model p r e d i c t i o n (non-

dimensionalized) 193
67. A x i a l load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagram for steel

members 195
68. A x i a l load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagram from OHBDC ....202
69. OHBDC formula compared.with model p r e d i c t i o n (non-

dimensionalized) 204
70. Comparison of column curves f o r c o n c e n t r i c loading

71. Design p r o p o s a l f o r c o n c e n t r i c loading compared with

model p r e d i c t i o n 209
72. T y p i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r a x i a l load and

magnified moment 212
73. I n t e r a c t i o n diagram showing t r a d i t i o n a l moment

magnifier 214
74. I n t e r a c t i o n diagram showing proposed

moment m a g n i f i e r 216
75. B i l i n e a r approximation t o i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r

magnified moments (non-dimensionalized) 217
76. P a r a b o l i c approximation to i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r

magnified moments (non-dimensionalized) 219
77. Comparison of methods 1 t o 3 with model prediction

xi i i
78. S t r a i g h t l i n e approximations t o i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams

for unmagnified moment (non-dimensionalized) 226
79. Comparison of methods 1 and 5 with model prediction

80. M o d i f i e d secant formula compared with

model p r e d i c t i o n 230
81. Parabolic approximation to i n t e r a c t i o n diagram 233
82. Bending moment diagrams f o r combined a x i a l and

t r a n s v e r s e loading 247
83. Bending about i n c l i n e d n e u t r a l axis 250
84. E f f e c t of moisture content on s t r e n g t h of timber i n

combined bending and a x i a l loading 256
85. B i l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p with falling

branch 273
86. D i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a r e c t a n g u l a r
beam assuming b i l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p ...274
.87. Flow chart f o r c a l c u l a t i n g u l t i m a t e bending moment f o r

bilinear stress-strain relationship 279
88. Elasto-plastic stresss-strain relationship 281
89. D i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a r e c t a n g u l a r
beam assuming e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n
relationship • 281
90. Flow chart f o r c a l c u l a t i n g u l t i m a t e bending moment f o r

elasto-plastic stress-strain relationship 284
91. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r nine d i f f e r e n t combinations

of a x i a l load and bending moment 285
92. U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram produced by hand

calculations, compared with computer
c a l c u l a t e d curve 287
93. Typical u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram 288
94. E c c e n t r i c compression r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, 1.3m long 290
xiv
38x1 40mm boards, 1.82m long ...292
38x1 40mm boards, 4.27m long 293
102. A x i a l t e n s i o n r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, .914m long 294
104. A x i a l compression r e s u l t s ,
105. Bending t e s t r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, 1.5m span 295
38x89mm boards, ,84m span (edgewise) 296
38x89mm boards, .84m span (flatwise) 296
38x1 40mm boards, 3.0m long 297
109. A x i a l compression r e s u l t s ,
XV
Notation
a distance between loads on beam
a r a t i o of depth
A cross section area
A r a t i o of m a g n i f i c a t i o n factors
b r a t i o of c r o s s section depth
B axis intercept f o r i n t e r a c t i o n diagram
c parameter i n s t r e s s - s t r a i n equation
c r a t i o of c r o s s section depth
C force i n compression s t r e s s block
Cm equivalent moment f a c t o r
d depth of c r o s s section
subscript 1 reference depth
e eccentricity
strain
e subscript 0 compression s t r a i n at e l a s t i c f a i l u r e
1 compression s t r a i n at peak s t r e s s
t tension s t r a i n
u upper l i m i t on compression s t r a i n
y y i e l d s t r a i n i n compression
stress
subscripts a allowable compression stress in long
column
b a l l o w a b l e bending s t r e s s
c compression stress at f a i l u r e f o r short
column
ca allowable compression stress in short
column
cm compression s t r e s s at f a i l u r e m o d i f i e d for
stress-distribution effect
e Euler buckling stress
m f a i l u r e s t r e s s of extreme f i b r e i n tension
r modulus of rupture
s asymptotic s t r e s s f o r l a r g e s t r a i n
t f a i l u r e stress in a x i a l tension test
ta allowable tension stress
u compression stress at f a i l u r e f o r long
column
x extreme f i b r e s t r e s s i n tension zone
xvi
F magnification factor
G parameter in stress-strain equation
I moment of i n e r t i a of c r o s s s e c t i o n
J r a t i o of slenderness ratios
k shape parameter for Weibull distribution
k size effect parameter

subscripts 1 length e f f e c t parameter
2 depth e f f e c t parameter
3 s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter
K minimum slenderness r a t i o f o r long columns
L length of member
subscript e effective length
m r a t i o of slopes of s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves
m s c a l e parameter for Weibull distribution

M bending moment
subscripts 1 l a r g e r end moment
2 smaller end moment
u u l t i m a t e bending moment
n parameter in stress-strain equation
n sample size
n r a t i o of extreme f i b r e s t r e s s e s i n t e n s i o n and compression
p confidence
P a x i a l compression f o r c e
subscripts a compression c a p a c i t y of short column
e E u l e r b u c k l i n g load
u compression c a p a c i t y of long column
q quantile
r " confidence interval
r parameter in stress-strain equation
r r a d i u s of g y r a t i o n
r r a t i o of s t r e s s e s
S s e c t i o n modulus
xvi i
T axial tension force
subscript u tension capacity o f member
v deflection
v' slope dy/dx
v" d y/dx
2 2
V v o l u m e o f member
subscripts 1 r e f e r e n c e volume
e e q u i v a l e n t volume
w width of cross section
x distance a l o n g member
x stress
subscripts o l o c a t i o n parameter i n w e i b u l l distribution
q value of x a t q u a n t i l e q
y co-ordinate
z standard normal variable
A d e f l e c t i o n o f member
<t> capacity reduction factor
4> curvature
xvi i i
Many people have c o n t r i b u t e d to the success of t h i s t h e s i s .
My supervisor, Professor Borg Madsen, offered
enthusiastic advice and encouragement throughout, and I am
very proud to have been a s s o c i a t e d with him i n t h i s work.
Dr. Ken Johns, of the U n i v e r s i t y of Sherbrooke, initiated
part of the p r o j e c t and encouraged me to pursue i t . His co-
operative research at Sherbrooke, with the a s s i s t a n c e of Mr.
Raymond Bleau, was a major c o n t r i b u t i o n .
Dr. Noel Nathan provided a computer program, and made
many useful suggestions. Others at the U n i v e r s i t y of British
Columbia, i n c l u d i n g f a c u l t y members, t e c h n i c i a n s , and fellow
students, helped i n many ways.
The Forintek Corp. made f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e , and Dr.
Ricardo F o s c h i gave much u s e f u l advice.
F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e was r e c e i v e d from the Izaak Walton
Killam Trust, the Programme of Distinction in Timber
Engineering at UBC, and the N a t u r a l Sciences and Engineering
Research C o u n c i l of Canada.
The contributions of all the above, and others not
mentioned, are g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.
My greatest thanks go to my wife E l s a , for her typing,
and for her support and understanding without which t h i s
p r o j e c t would not have been p o s s i b l e .

1
I. INTRODUCTION
1 . 1 BACKGROUND
Wood i s a complex organic m a t e r i a l formed i n t r e e s . Wood
i s put t o a l a r g e number of uses, an important one being the
production of sawn timber for construction of b u i l d i n g s ,
b r i d g e s and other structures.
Engineering design of timber structures requires
knowledge of b a s i c engineering p r o p e r t i e s of the m a t e r i a l .
In contrast to manufactured m a t e r i a l s such as concrete
and metals, timber has been the subject of very little
research. Timber research is fundamentally d i f f e r e n t from
that of manufactured m a t e r i a l s because wood properties are
much more variable and cannot be readily modified in a
manufacturing process.
Allowable stresses for structural design of timber
members have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been d e r i v e d from standard t e s t s on
small specimens of c l e a r d e f e c t - f r e e wood. Most timber used
in s t r u c t u r a l engineering applications contains natural or
man-made d e f e c t s which may i n c l u d e knots, s l o p i n g g r a i n , p i t h ,
checks or machining d e f e c t s . These d e f e c t s g e n e r a l l y govern
the strength of the material, and the failure mode is
therefore different. Allowable stresses derived from small
clear specimen t e s t s are adjusted f o r the e f f e c t s of defects,
but the results do not accurately reflect the s t r e n g t h of
structural timber.
In recent years, design stresses f o r timber have been
obtained ' more directly from f u l l s i z e t e s t s of commercially

2
a v a i l a b l e s i z e s , s p e c i e s and grades. This testing, called
"in-grade testing", has provided a great improvement i n the
understanding of timber as a s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g material,
but t h i s understanding i s by no means complete.
Most in-grade testing has concentrated on simple span
bending t e s t s at a constant span-to-depth ratio, and some
tension and compression t e s t s at constant length. There have
been no s e r i o u s attempts to r e l a t e bending s t r e n g t h to t e n s i o n
and compression strengths. There , has been a conspicuous
absence of i n f o r m a t i o n on strengths of d i f f e r e n t lengths and
different load configurations, and strength of members
subjected to combined bending and a x i a l loading. This study
attempts t o improve the theoretical basis of the in-grade
t e s t i n g concept by i n v e s t i g a t i n g these subjects.
1 . 2 OBJECTIVES
The initial o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s study were to i n v e s t i g a t e
the behaviour of structural timber members subjected to
combined bending and axial loading, and to examine the
hypothesis that the behaviour of timber members subjected to
bending, or to combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g , can be
explained in terms of the axial tension and compression
strengths of s i m i l a r members. T h i s hypothesis has been long
accepted f o r other materials, but i t s applicability to
commercial quality timber has not yet been clearly
demonstrated.
During the couse of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t became apparent
that s i z e e f f e c t s have a major i n f l u e n c e on the . s t r e n g t h of

3
timber members. An a d d i t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e , t h e r e f o r e , was to
examine and q u a n t i f y these s i z e effects.
These o b j e c t i v e s have been met by developing a strength
model which can predict the s t r e n g t h of timber members i n
bending, and i n combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g . The model
incorporates size effects, and has been calibrated and
v e r i f i e d using the r e s u l t s of a l a r g e experimental program.
The main input t o the s t r e n g t h model i s a x i a l t e n s i o n and
compression strength from in-grade testing. Input at any
level i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e n g t h can be used to predict
behaviour at that l e v e l . As such, the model i s not intended
to p r e d i c t s t r e n g t h of an i n d i v i d u a l board of timber.
1.3 DESIGN CODES
Structural design has traditionally been based on
prescribed allowable stresses which are not to be exceeded
when working loads are imposed on a s t r u c t u r e . More r e c e n t l y ,
designers have become i n t e r e s t e d i n the u l t i m a t e strength of
s t r u c t u r e s and behaviour under maximum p o s s i b l e loads. Recent
trends are toward r e l i a b i l i t y - b a s e d s t r u c t u r a l design which
considers probabilities of failure under extreme loading
conditions.
T h i s study c o n t r i b u t e s to the development of r e l i a b i l i t y -
based design of timber s t r u c t u r e s by p r o v i d i n g new information
on the d i s t r i b u t i o n of. s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of timber members
subjected t o combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g . The results
of this study can also be incorporated into conventional
working stress design codes to provide improved design

4
methods.
Current design codes c o n s i d e r the s t r e n g t h of timber to
be independent of member length. This study shows that
strength varies considerably with l e n g t h , and a simple method
of q u a n t i f y i n g length e f f e c t s i s proposed.
1.4 APPLICATIONS
The r e s u l t s of t h i s study demonstrate that c u r r e n t design
methods f o r combined bending and axial loading are very
conservative i n some cases. T h i s suggests that more e f f i c i e n t
and economical designs may be p o s s i b l e f o r timber structures
where combined loading occurs. The largest group of
structural components in this category are timber t r u s s e s ,
which, a c c o r d i n g to some estimates (Gromala and Moody 1983),
are used in 95% of new domestic c o n s t r u c t i o n

v
in the United
S t a t e s , and which are being used increasingly in larger
commercial and industrial structures.
Other structural components with combined bending and
a x i a l l o a d i n g are w a l l studs and columns in many types of
buildings.
Recent research in timber truss design has been
handicapped by a lack of understanding of the behaviour of
timber members subjected to combined bending and axial loading
(FPRS 1979).
5
1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION
Chapter 2 d e s c r i b e s p r e v i o u s attempts to understand the
behaviour of both c l e a r wood and timber members subjected to
v a r i o u s types of l o a d s .
Chapter 3 discusses size effects. One of the main
obstacles encountered by previous researchers is the
phenomenon that the strength of timber is significantly
dependent on member s i z e . The f i r s t part of Chapter 3 is a
survey of previous studies. In the second p a r t , e x i s t i n g
t h e o r i e s are m o d i f i e d and simple equations are derived for
l a t e r use.
Chapters 4 and 5 describe experiments performed to
investigate the strength of timber members subjected to
bending and axial l o a d s , both s e p a r a t e l y and combined. The
r e s u l t s of these experiments are used l a t e r t o calibrate and
verify a s t r e n g t h model. The l e n g t h e f f e c t theory introduced
in Chapter 3 i s q u a n t i f i e d i n Chapter 5.
Chapter 6 d e s c r i b e s a conceptual model f o r p r e d i c t i n g the
s t r e n g t h of p o p u l a t i o n s of s t r u c t u r a l timber members on the
basis of tension and compression properties which can be
obtained from in-grade testing. The model includes the
effects of variability in timber strength, both w i t h i n a
member and between members. The model i s based on the i n i t i a l
hypothesis that s t r e n g t h i n bending, or in combined bending
and axial l o a d i n g , can be e x p l a i n e d i n terms of a x i a l tension
and compression p r o p e r t i e s .
In Chapter 7 the strength model i s calibrated using

6
selected experimental r e s u l t s , then t e s t e d a g a i n s t many other •
experimental results. The comparisons of predicted and
measured results support the initial hypothesis and
demonstrate that t h i s s t r e n g t h model can be used to predict
the behaviour of e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded members of many lengths
and eccentricities.
Chapters 8 and 9 are concerned with applications,
describing e x i s t i n g design methods f o r v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s , and
recommending how the r e s u l t s of t h i s study can be used as a
b a s i s f o r improved s t r u c t u r a l design of timber members.
1.6 LIMITATIONS
The model developed in t h i s t h e s i s i s a f l e x i b l e one,
which i s b e l i e v e d t o be a p p l i c a b l e t o timber from any source*
However, i t has been c a l i b r a t e d with reference to tests of
members of a single species group in two s i z e s of c r o s s
section. Application to other s i z e s , s p e c i e s and grades may
require further calibration. The a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s of t h i s
study have only been verified with reference to to short
duration tests on dry timber members, loaded with eccentric
axial loads a p p l i e d with equal end eccentricities about the
major principal axis and restrained against out-of-plane
deformations. The s i g n i f i c a n c e of these l i m i t a t i o n s should be
kept in mind before extrapolating the results to other
situations.
7
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.1.1 Background
This chapter provides a brief historical review of
investigations i n t o the s t r e n g t h of s t r u c t u r a l timber members
subjected to bending, axial loads and combined load, and
describes the state-of-the-art at the commencement of t h i s
study. Many of the f i n d i n g s r e f e r r e d to i n t h i s chapter are
used later i n the t h e s i s when d e v e l o p i n g a general model f o r
the behaviour of s t r u c t u r a l timber members.
The first part of the chapter c h r o n i c l e s the d i f f i c u l t i e s
that have been encountered in trying to predict bending
behaviour of wood and timber members from tension and'
compression test results. T h i s process i s much more d i f f i c u l t
for wood than f o r other materials because of material
variability, non-linear stress-strain behaviour in
compression, and the presence of very significant size
effects.
Investigations into .axial t e n s i o n and a x i a l compression
behaviour are described, and the discussion extended to
i n c l u d e columns and beam-columns.
2 . 1 . 2 C l e a r Wood and Commercial Timber
This t h e s i s i s concerned with the s t r e n g t h of commercial
q u a l i t y sawn timber, c o n t a i n i n g n a t u r a l or man-made defects.
This material (which in certain sizes is called "lumber" i n
North America) is referred to as timber throughout this

8
thesis. The term wood g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s to c l e a r d e f e c t - f r e e
wood, as o f t e n t e s t e d in small sizes in standard tests.
Timber and clear wood behave q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y under most
loading conditions. For example, the ratio of -tension to
compression strength i s much greater i n c l e a r wood than i n
commercial timber, so c l e a r wood tends t o behave i n a ductile
manner i n a bending t e s t , whereas commercial timber f a i l s with
a sudden b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e .
For many years i t was believed that a complete
understanding of c l e a r wood behaviour would l e a d e a s i l y to an
understanding of timber s t r e n g t h , but t h i s has not developed.
Emphasis has shifted to direct investigation of s t r e n g t h
p r o p e r t i e s of timber, l e a d i n g to the development of "in-grade"
t e s t i n g of commercial q u a l i t y m a t e r i a l in structural sizes.
Investigations into the behaviour of both c l e a r wood and
timber are referenced i n t h i s chapter, and are discussed as
two separate materials.
2.2 BENDING STRENGTH
2.2.1 Bending Behaviour of C l e a r Wood
a. D i s t r i b u t i o n of S t r e s s e s
In 1638 Galileo recorded h i s attempts to d e s c r i b e . the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of f l e x u r a l s t r e s s e s i n a bending member. His
theory was i n e r r o r because he assumed that the n e u t r a l axis
was on the compression s u r f a c e . Parent obtained the correct
distribution of s t r e s s e s f o r an e l a s t i c beam i n 1708, but i t
was not u n t i l Coulomb confirmed these f i n d i n g s in 1773 that

9
they became g e n e r a l l y accepted (Booth 1980).
From that time u n t i l the present, most e n g i n e e r i n g design
of timber beams has assumed linear elastic behaviour to
f a i l u r e , with the n e u t r a l a x i s at mid-depth of the section.
Early tests in bending indicated that wood does not
always behave in this manner. A bending t e s t on a t y p i c a l
d e f e c t - f r e e wood member shows l i n e a r e l a s t i c behaviour up to a
proportional l i m i t , beyond which compression yielding occurs
in the compression zone, the n e u t r a l a x i s s h i f t s towards the
tension face, and with f u r t h e r l o a d i n g the tension stresses
continue to increase u n t i l a b r i t t l e tension failure occurs.
The assumed and actual stresses at failure are shown in
f igure 1.
Compression
^
Tension
Figure 1 - A c t u a l and assumed s t r e s s e s in a c l e a r wood

beam at f a i l u r e
As early as 1841 Joseph Colthurst noted that f o r a
bending t e s t with f i r battens
"extension and compression were equal up to three-

q u a r t e r s of the breaking l o a d , but a f t e r t h i s compression
y i e l d e d in a much higher r a t i o than e x t e n s i o n " .
(Todhunter and Pearson 1886)
10
The t r a d i t i o n a l method of c a l c u l a t i n g t h e maximum stress
in a timber beam a t f a i l u r e h a s b e e n to measure the failure
load, calculate the corresponding bending moment, and
calculate a "modulus of rupture" by dividing the maximum
bending moment by the section modulus. For linear elastic
behaviour t h e modulus of rupture i s the maximum stress. If
any non-linear behaviour occurs t h e modulus of rupture i snot
the stress a t f a i l u r e , but merely a ficticious stress somehow
related to strength. This relationship between t h e modulus of
rupture and strength i s not easily defined, as i t is a
function o f t h e non l i n e a r compression behaviour of the wood
and the ratio between tension and compression strengths, which
will be e x p l a i n e d further in this thesis
Observations of flexural f a i l u r e s made i tclear that as
failure loads are approached, the longitudinal flexural
stresses a r e not l i n e a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d over the cross section.
A simple modification to elastic theory c a n b e made b y
assuming that wood h a s a b i l i n e a r elasto-plastic stress-strain
relationship i n compression, but remains elastic in tension.
This model, which produces a stress distribution of t h e form
shown in figure 2 i s a reasonable approximation of actual
behaviour. This distribution of stresses i n a wood member
appears t o have been first proposed by N e e l y ( ] 8 9 8 ) who^, showed
remarkable insight into the behaviour of wood beams. He
recognized that a bilinear elasto-plastic stress-strain
relationship in compression can be used to construct the
compression stress block shown in figure 2. For clear wood,

11
l/l
in
(a) s t r e s s - strain relationship (b) stress distribution
Figure 2 - S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n d e r i v e d from a b i l i n e a r
stress-strain relationship
which i s much stronger in t e n s i o n than i n compression, he
suggested that flexural capacity can be calculated from
compression s t r e n g t h alone.' T h i s study w i l l show that Neely's
theory needs some m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r a p p l i c a t i o n to timber, but
it i s s u r p r i s i n g how l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been given to h i s
work.
Dietz (1942) tested f i v e beams of c l e a r D o u g l a s - f i r to
i n v e s t i g a t e the d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s , and to
compare the behaviour of the same m a t e r i a l under d i r e c t axial
s t r e s s e s i n tension and compression. He was able to use the
results of a x i a l t e s t s to p r e d i c t the bending s t r e n g t h of h i s
test specimens surprisingly well compared with later
investigators.
Measured d i s t r i b u t i o n s of s t r a i n over the c r o s s sections
i n d i c a t e d some d e v i a t i o n from the usual assumption that plane
sections remain plane. The measured s t r a i n g r a d i e n t was non-
l i n e a r , with l a r g e r s t r a i n s near the t e n s i o n face and smaller
strains near the the compression face than would be p r e d i c t e d

12
f o r plane s e c t i o n s remaining plane. T h i s phenomenon has not
been r e p o r t e d by any l a t e r investigators. D i e t z reported that
the outermost compressive fibre i n a beam possesses a much
higher p r o p o r t i o n a l l i m i t than does a s i m i l a r f i b r e i n a block
subjected t o a x i a l compression. T h i s r e s u l t has been reported
elsewhere, as d e s c r i b e d below, but has not been found by a l l
investigators.
Bechtel and N o r r i s (1952) c a r r i e d out a number of t e s t s
on small c l e a r S i t k a spruce beams using bending, tension,
compression and shear specimens from each p i e c e of wood. The
compression t e s t s produced a s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve of the shape
shown by the s o l i d l i n e in figure 3(a).
(a) s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship (b) s t r e s s distribution
Figure 3 - S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n assumed by Bechtel and

Norris
They used the s i m p l i f y i n g assumption of p e r f e c t e l a s t o -
p l a s t i c behaviour shown by the dotted line to obtain a
distribution of s t r e s s e s as shown i n f i g u r e 3(b). They then
c a l c u l a t e d the t h e o r e t i c a l f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h of the beam using

13
this distribution of s t r e s s e s , m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s from the
small c l e a r t e s t s , and a c r i t e r i o n of f a i l u r e under combined
shear and normal s t r e s s e s proposed by N o r r i s ( 1 9 5 5 ) .
As expected, shear s t r e n g t h governed the behaviour f o r
short deep beams, f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h f o r long shallow beams,
and combined flexural and shear s t r e s s e s f o r intermediate
beams. For the beams where shear failures were significant
(span-to-depth ratio less than about 10), the theory gave
f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h s l e s s than 5% over the measured strength.
For beams governed by tension strength the theory
overestimated the measured s t r e n g t h by 15% to 34%. The error
was a t t r i b u t e d to the s i m p l i f i c a t i o n made i n f i g u r e 3 ( a ) , but
the l a r g e s t source of e r r o r may. well have been a brittle
fracture size e f f e c t which was not r e c o g n i z e d at that time.
Size e f f e c t s result i n a r e d u c t i o n of the failure stress as
the h i g h l y s t r e s s e d volume of a member i s i n c r e a s e d .
Comben(l957) carried out a s e r i e s of t e s t s on 80mm deep
beams of c l e a r wood with s t r a i n gauges throughput the beam
depth, and he a l s o made t e n s i o n and compression t e s t s on wood
from the same members. H i s f i n d i n g s were that plane sections
remain essentially plane, wood in tension remains linear
elastic until f a i l u r e , and compression s t r e s s e s are the same
at the proportional limit f o r both the compression

1
specimens
and f o r the extreme compression fibres in the bending
specimen. These f i n d i n g s are not i n agreement with those of
Dietz.
In a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s he found l i n e a r e l a s t i c behaviour
14
to failure, as r e p o r t e d by most other i n v e s t g a t o r s . Comben
also tested beams of s i x d i f f e r e n t sizes and depths varying
from 5mm t o 80mm at constant span to depth r a t i o . He found a
very s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n f a i l u r e s t r e s s with increasing
size.
A study of three clear Douglas f i r beams was made by
Ramos(l96l) with s t r a i n measurements over the depth. These
experiments also confirmed that plane s e c t i o n s remain plane,
and that the compression stress block in bending can be
predicted from the axial compression stress-strain
relationship. He a l s o noted that visually similar material
can possess quite different stress-strain relationships, as
shown i n f i g u r e 4, which i s a composite sketch of h i s measured
stress distributions i n three s i m i l a r beams.
Figure 4 - S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s measured by Ramos
Ramos proposed the use of the bilinear elasto-plastic
relationship f o r p r a c t i c a l ' purposes, but he was unable to
obtain s a t i s f a c t o r y verification of h i s theory because of
machine malfunctions and the absence of d i r e c t t e n s i o n test
results.
15
A s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t approach was taken by Moe(l96l) who
looked more closely at the deformations on the compression
side of glued laminated beams. He combined the physical
phenomenon of l o c a l w r i n k l i n g of the compression f i b r e s with a
measured axial stress-strain relationship f a r beyond the
elastic range to propose the s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n shown by the
solid line in figure 5, which i s c o n s i s t e n t with the model
developed i n t h i s t h e s i s . H i s suggestion of the dotted line
in figure 5 as an approximation for calculating bending
s t r e n g t h has not been pursued by o t h e r s .
11
iV
1*
Figure 5 - S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n proposed by Moe
Nwokoye(1975) t e s t e d a series of clear hardwood glued
laminated beams. For those beams long enough to prevent a
shear f a i l u r e , he found that a theory based on the' simple
bilinear stress distribution shown i n f i g u r e 2 gave a very
accurate p r e d i c i t o n of s t r e n g t h . The t h e o r e t i c a l estimate was
based on the r e s u l t s of d i r e c t t e n s i o n and compression tests
on specimens cut from the same beams. T h i s accuracy i s i n
contrast t o B e c h t e l and N o r r i s who found that a similar theory

16
overestimated the s t r e n g t h of t h e i r beams. Nwokoye's results
may indicate a different s i z e e f f e c t i n hardwoods compared
with softwoods. Nwokoye confirmed that plane sections
remained plane, and he produced evidence supporting his
assumption that the extreme f i b r e s t r e s s in bending at the
proportional limit is the same as the u l t i m a t e compressive
s t r e n g t h p a r a l l e l to the grain.
A t e s t s e r i e s using c l e a r poplar beams was c a r r i e d out by
Z a k i c ( l 9 7 3 ) who assumed a parabolic stress-strain curve in
compression, producing a parabolic d i s t r i b u t i o n of stresses
over the compression region at failure. Zakic's analysis is
not consistent with any stated stress-strain relationship, and
strains, in excess of those producing maximum s t r e s s are not
considered. S e v e r a l unanswered q u e s t i o n s have been r a i s e d by
Nwokoye( 1974 ).
Bazan(l980) proposed a refinement to elasto-plastic
theory. He approximated the stress-strain relationship in
compression by l i n e a r e l a s t i c behaviour up to maximum s t r e s s ,
f o l l o w e d by a linear reduction in stress with increasing
strain, as shown in f i g u r e 6(a), where the solid l i n e shows
actual behaviour and the dotted line shows Bazan's
approximation. This produces a compression s t r e s s block of
the shape shown in figure 6(b). This approximation is
suitable for small and intermediate l e v e l s of s t r a i n , but
o b v i o u s l y cannot be e x t r a p o l a t e d to very l a r g e strains.
Bazan attempted to p r e d i c t bending s t r e n g t h of c l e a r wood
beams from the r e s u l t s of a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression tests

17
in
0)
(a) s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship (b) s t r e s s distribution
Figure 6 - S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n proposed by Bazan
on specimens cut from the same board. He achieved reasonable
success using the compression s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p shown
above, and an empirical size effect factor in tension.
Bazan's general procedure i s continued i n t h i s t h e s i s but with
application to commercial q u a l i t y timber members with d e f e c t s ,
loaded i n both bending and combined l o a d i n g . T h i s study a l s o
uses a much more r i g o r o u s approach to brittle fracture size
effects i n the t e n s i o n zone. Timber with d e f e c t s was included
in Bazan's test programme, but was not subjected to
mathematical a n a l y s i s .
b. Size E f f e c t s
Observations over many years have found that the bending
strength of large members tends to be l e s s than that of
s m a l l e r members under s i m i l a r l o a d i n g conditions.
The first attempt to q u a n t i f y a size effect theory in
bending was made by Newlin and Trayer (1924). They defined
the term "form f a c t o r " to r e l a t e the modulus of rupture of any
cross s e c t i o n to that of a 51x51mm specimen and carried out

18
bending tests on beams of a l a r g e number of d i f f e r e n t c r o s s
sections including rectangular, c i r c u l a ' r , hollow and f l a n g e d .
The material f o r a l l these t e s t s was clear straight-grained
Sitka spruce.
On the b a s i s of these t e s t s they developed a theory f o r
the observed s i z e e f f e c t . T h i s theory, which became known as
the "fibre support theory", suggests that the maximum
compressive s t r e s s which the extreme fibres in a beam can
sustain is related to the amount of l a t e r a l support which
those f i b r e s r e c e i v e from l e s s h i g h l y s t r e s s e d fibres nearer
the neutral axis. As such, the theory p r e d i c t s that the
strength of a deep beam should be l e s s than that of a shallow
beam because i n the deep beam the h i g h l y s t r e s s e d compression
f i b r e s are f u r t h e r from lower s t r e s s e d f i b r e s which can offer
lateral support. -The theory a l s o p r e d i c t s the lower strength
of flanged beams where one or more narrow webs do not o f f e r as
much l a t e r a l support as a s o l i d rectangular web.
In addition to explaining strength differences at
ultimate l o a d , the theory gives a possible explanation f o r the
phenomenon observed by some " i n v e s t i g a t o r s that the s t r e s s i n
the extreme compression f i b r e at the proportional limit in
bending is greater than the f i b r e s t r e s s at the p r o p o r t i o n a l
limit i n a compression parallel to the grain test. This
phenomenon i s not explained by more recent brittle fracture
theories.
The f i b r e support theory was based on c e r t a i n assumptions
regarding the strength of wood in the ductile compression

19
region of the beam. It was assumed throughout this
development that the s t r e n g t h of wood i n t e n s i o n i s a m a t e r i a l
constant, and the theory does not p r e d i c t a size effect in
axial tension. The more recent development of a b r i t t l e
fracture explanation for size effects in bending will be
introduced i n chapter 3.
2 . 2 . 2 Bending Behaviour of Timber
a. Comparison With C l e a r Wood
The bending strength of timber members i s c o n s i d e r a b l y less
than that of c l e a r wood specimens of the same size, and
failures tend to be more b r i t t l e . The simple explanation for
t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n behaviour i s that the t e n s i o n strength of
timber' is greatly reduced by various defects, whereas
compression s t r e n g t h i s a f f e c t e d much less, resulting in a
m a t e r i a l which i s o f t e n weaker i n t e n s i o n than i n compression.
In this case bending strength i s governed by tension
behaviour, and f a i l u r e s tend t o be sudden and brittle, with
all s t r e s s e s i n the e l a s t i c range.
The stress-strain r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r timber tends to be of
the same form as shown in figure 3 for clear wood, with
compression strength slightly reduced and t e n s i o n strength
greatly reduced.
20
b. In-grade T e s t i n g
In recent years l a r g e s c a l e in-grade testing programmes have
provided a a wealth of new i n f o r m a t i o n on the behaviour of
timber. In-grade t e s t i n g r e f e r s to f u l l - s i z e t e s t i n g of l a r g e
samples of commercial timber i n the s i z e s , grades and species
groups i n which i t i s produced and marketed.
In Canada t e s t i n g has been c a r r i e d out on the p r i n c i p a l
s i z e s , grades and species groups. The emphasis has been to
provide lower 5th p e r c e n t i l e s t r e n g t h values as a b a s i s f o r
specifying allowable design stresses (Madsen and Nielsen
1978a). In many cases r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples of timber have
been subjected to a proof load such that only about the 10%
weakest boards have been broken, providing an accurate
estimate of the lower 5th percentile strength. Unbroken
boards have been returned to normal p r o d u c t i o n . In other
r e s e a r c h - r e l a t e d s t u d i e s , complete samples of boards have been
t e s t e d to f a i l u r e under various loading and environmental
conditions.
Some important f i n d i n g s from in-grade testing are:
1. Commercial q u a l i t y timber e x h i b i t s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
f a i l u r e modes than c l e a r wood i n many l o a d i n g cases.
2. V a r i a b i l i t y in strength,properties i s much greater

for timber than f o r c l e a r wood.
3. The d i f f e r e n c e i n s t r e n g t h between v a r i o u s t r e e
s p e c i e s i s much l e s s f o r timber members than observed i n
c l e a r wood, e s p e c i a l l y at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l .
4. E x i s t i n g grading r u l e s do not separate timber into

well defined strength c l a s s e s .
5. Timber members e x h i b i t a significant size effect.

21
Large members f a i l at lower s t r e s s e s than smaller members

of the same s p e c i e s and grade.
6. The f a i l u r e s t r e s s i n a x i a l t e n s i o n members i s much

l e s s than the modulus of rupture obtained from bending
tests.
7. Moisture content has l e s s e f f e c t on the s t r e n g t h of

timber than on c l e a r wood, a t the low end of the s t r e n g t h
distribution.
8. Strength i s not s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d with s i z e or type

of d e f e c t , or with d e n s i t y or modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
S e v e r a l of the above r e s u l t s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n more detail
later.
c. D e r i v a t i o n of Design•Stresses
The conventional method of p r e d i c t i n g the s t r e n g t h of wood
with d e f e c t s (timber) has been t o apply modification factors
to the strength values obtained from t e s t s on small c l e a r
specimens. T h i s procedure i s d e s c r i b e d by WiIson(1978).
The standard method of determining modulus of rupture is
to load t o f a i l u r e small c l e a r specimens 51x51mm, 760mm long,
under c e n t r e - p o i n t l o a d i n g over a simple span (ASTM 1981a).
For wood with defects, modification factors or " s t r e n g t h
r a t i o s " a r e used to modify the results of the small clear
tests (ASTM 1981c), depending on slope of g r a i n or knot size,
assuming that knots have zero s t r e n g t h . In-grade t e s t i n g has
shown that the actual s t r e n g t h of timber i s very different
from that p r e d i c t e d i n t h i s way.
In-grade testing i s now being used as a direct
measurement of strength properties. This method provides
characteristic s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s f o r a given population of

22
timber, but has never been intended t o p r e d i c t the s t r e n g t h of
a s i n g l e board. In-grade t e s t r e s u l t s provide e s s e n t i a l input
to any p r o b a b i l i s t i c design method f o r timber structures.
One of the l a r g e s t problems p r e v e n t i n g efficient design
of s t r u c t u r a l timber i s the absence of a n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e test
method for predicting strength. Many attempts have been made
to p r e d i c t s t r e n g t h on the basis of non-destructive test
parameters such as f l e x u r a l s t i f f n e s s , l o c a l slope of g r a i n ,
d e n s i t y and knot s i z e , but none have produced very useful
results. Commercial "stress-grading machines" are used to
separate wood i n t o s t r e n g t h c l a s s e s on. the basis of local
flat-wise f l e x u r a l modulus of e l a s t i c i t y . T h i s can provide a
small improvement over t r a d i t i o n a l v i s u a l grading methods, but
the c o r r e l a t i o n between s t r e n g t h and modulus of e l a s t i c i t y is
not very high.
d. Size Effects
For at least 70 years a s i z e e f f e c t has been observed f o r
timber members in bending. In an e x t e n s i v e report, Cline and
Heim (1912) document that the bending strength of l a r g e
members tends to be l e s s than that of smaller members under
similar loading conditions. Madsen and N i e l s e n (1976) have
investigated this phenomenon more recently using in-grade
testing methods. Size effects will be discussed in more
detail later.
23
2.3 AXIAL TENSION STRENGTH
2.3.1 A x i a l Tension Strength of C l e a r Wood
The first recorded t e s t on wood in a x i a l t e n s i o n parallel
to the g r a i n was performed by M a r i o t t e i n 1680 (Booth 1980).
Tension t e s t s have not been as easy to perform as bending and
compression t e s t s because of the difficulty of making a
connection stronger than the t e s t specimen.
Today there i s a standard test (ASTM 1980) using a 450mm
long p i e c e of c l e a r wood necked down to 4.8x9.5mm over a 64mm
gauge length. The e v o l u t i o n of t h i s t e s t specimen has been
d e s c r i b e d by Markwardt and Youngquist (1956). Since test
methods f o r small c l e a r specimens became s t a n d a r d i z e d , tension
strengths have been c o n s i s t e n t l y higher than the modulus of
rupture (Wood Handbook 1974). No serious attempt has been
made to explain this discrepancy which w i l l be discussed
f u r t h e r under s i z e effects.
As d e s c r i b e d by Galligan et al.(l974) tensile design
stresses were taken as equal to the design bending s t r e s s
u n t i l about 1965 i n the b e l i e f that t h i s was a conservative
interpretation of t e s t results. Consequently, the r e s u l t s of
small c l e a r t e n s i o n t e s t s were not put to much use and tension
testing received very little attention. This was not a
serious problem at that time because the lack the of s u i t a b l e
connection d e t a i l s prevented very high stresses from being
developed i n t e n s i o n members of r e a l s t r u c t u r e s .
It was not until more effective connections became
a v a i l a b l e and commercial s i z e m a t e r i a l with d e f e c t s was tested

24
that the p o s s i b l e magnitude of a s i z e e f f e c t in tension was
realized, leading t o renewed i n t e r e s t i n t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h of
c l e a r wood. Kunesh and Johnson (1974) c a r r i e d out tests of
commercial s i z e s of c l e a r D o u g l a s - f i r and Hem-fir and observed
a significant decrease in strength with increasing cross
s e c t i o n dimension, the strengths being f a r l e s s than i n small
clear specimens.
This size effect i n c l e a r wood has been d i s c u s s e d by the
author elsewhere (Buchanan 1983).
2.3.2 A x i a l Tension Strength of Timber
a. E f f e c t s of Defects
The a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h of timber with defects received
little attention until recently, in the belief that the
modulus of rupture was a conservative estimate of tension
strength. Renewed i n t e r e s t i n a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h occurred
after in-grade tension t e s t i n g produced s t r e s s e s at f a i l u r e
much l e s s than the modulus of rupture, as d e s c r i b e d above f o r
c l e a r wood.
The e f f e c t s of d e f e c t s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d by s e v e r a l
investigators. Zehrt(1962) i n v e s t i g a t e d the e f f e c t of s l o p i n g
g r a i n on small c l e a r specimens and 38x89mm members and found
that the strength depended not only on the r e l a t i v e tension
s t r e n g t h s p a r a l l e l t o and p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the g r a i n , but a l s o
on the shear s t r e n g t h . Quite good agreement was obtained with
an i n t e r a c t i o n formula developed by N o r r i s ( l 9 5 5 ) for strength
under combined normal and shear s t r e s s e s .

25
Dawe(l964) investigated the effect of knots on the
t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h of European redwood boards and found a strong
c o r r e l a t i o n between s t r e n g t h and knot s i z e . The f i r s t tension
t e s t s on f u l l s i z e timber members were c a r r i e d out i n the mid
1960's. Nemeth(l965) reported some correlation between
t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , but no s i g n i f i c a n t
correlation between strength and density. Both
Littleford(1967) and McGowan(1968) confirmed these f i n d i n g s
and reported that knots, l o c a l l i z e d g r a i n irregularities and
general grain deviations were the predominant factors
a f f e c t i n g t e n s i l e strength. In a l a t e r report, McGowan(1971)
demonstrated that the ASTM strength ratios are not good
i n d i c a t o r s of t e n s i o n strength.
A general f i n d i n g from these s t u d i e s was that l a r g e knots
reduced s t r e n g t h more than small knots, and edge knots more
than centre knots, a r e s u l t confirmed by Kunesh and Johnson
(1972) and by Johnson and Kunesh (1975).
Several attempts have been made to combine various
characteristics such as knot size, f l e x u r a l s t i f f n e s s and
slope of g r a i n to p r e d i c t t e n s i o n strength. Schneiwind and
Lyon (1971),. Gerhards (1972) and Heimeshoff and Glos (1980) a l l
r e p o r t m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s l a r g e r than 0.80, f o r
southern pine, Californian redwood and German spruce
r e s p e c t i v e l y , but these' m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n techniques have
not y e t been i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o grading rules. Heimeshoff and
Glos compare t h e i r r e s u l t s with ten other studies including
those mentioned here.

26
Orosz(l975) used matrix s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s to p r e d i c t
the e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t sizes and locations of knots on
tension strength, considering moments induced by
e c c e n t r i c i t i e s w i t h i n the t e s t specimen. He showed that for
large knots and short l e n g t h s , t e s t machines with pinned ends
and f i x e d ends w i l l produce d i f f e r e n t results.
Although the f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h are still
not w e l l understood, a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s i n design codes have
become more r e l i a b l e as they are now based on the r e s u l t s of
in-grade axial tension t e s t s , at l e a s t in Canada.
b. Size E f f e c t s
R e s u l t s of a very l a r g e in-grade t e n s i o n t e s t i n g programme are
described by Madsen and N i e l s e n (1978b), who t e s t e d more than
25,000 boards i n t e n s i o n . These boards were of s e v e r a l sizes,
grades and s p e c i e s groups, and were loaded with a proof load
that broke approximately 10% of each sample, in order to
produce an accurate estimate of the fifth p e r c e n t i l e strength.
A regression analysis of s t r e n g t h versus s i z e at the fifth
p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l produced q u i t e consistent results for all
species and grades, with the failure s t r e s s in a 38x89mm
member being approximately 1.25 times that in a 38x286mm
member. The current Canadian a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s in t e n s i o n
(CSA 1980) are based on t h i s study.
Similar r e s u l t s are r e p o r t e d by Johnson and Kunesh (1975)
for Douglas-fir and Hem-fir in structural sizes without
defects. For material with knots they found an even more
pronounced s i z e e f f e c t . None of these studies investigated

27
the e f f e c t of member length on s t r e n g t h .
2.4 AXIAL COMPRESSION STRENGTH
2.4.1 A x i a l Compression Strength of Clear Wood
The load capacity of short wood columns depends on the
strength of wood i n compression p a r a l l e l to the grain. When
wood is loaded in compression parallel to the grain i t
e x h i b i t s l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour up to a proportional
limit at approximately two-thirds of the u l t i m a t e strength.
Beyond the p r o p o r t i o n a l limit the s t i f f n e s s drops gradually,
leading to a ductile crushing type of f a i l u r e at u l t i m a t e
load. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c compression wrinkles caused by local
buckling of the wood f i b r e s become v i s i b l e as u l t i m a t e load i s
approached.
The first scientific t e s t s to determine the s t r e n g t h of
wood i n compression p a r a l l e l to the g r a i n were c a r r i e d out on
25mm cubes. Tredgold(1853) r e p o r t s the r e s u l t s of such t e s t s
on s e v e r a l species.
The c u r r e n t standard t e s t f o r compression p a r a l l e l to the
grain (ASTM 1981a) uses a clear straight-grained specimen
51x51mm, 203mm long, and the r e s u l t s of e x t e n s i v e testing
programmes have been p u b l i s h e d (Wood Handbook 1974, Jessome
1977).
28
2.4.2 A x i a l Compression Strength of Timber
The compression strength of timber with defects is
g e n e r a l l y l e s s than that of clear wood. The traditional
method of assessing the e f f e c t of knots or s l o p i n g g r a i n has
been to apply "strength r a t i o s " to the s t r e n g t h of small c l e a r
specimens (ASTM 1981c). A more e f f e c t i v e method i s to carry
out in-grade testing in s t r u c t u r a l s i z e s (ASTM 1981b) with
lateral r e s t r a i n t s to prevent buckling.
An a l t e r n a t i v e test method under development in the
United States uses a short specimen c o n t a i n i n g the worst
v i s i b l e defect in each board, but it is often difficult to
estimate which d e f e c t w i l l have the lowest strength.
Several commercial s i z e s and s p e c i e s of Canadian timber
have been subjected to in-grade testing in long lengths
(Littleford and Abbott 1978), (Madsen and Nielsen 1978b,
I978d). Several i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g s are reported. Failure
is associated with a l a r g e number of d i f f e r e n t d e f e c t s , but
strength i s not strongly correlated with size or type of
visible defect. For 38mm t h i c k m a t e r i a l , there i s a trend
towards d e c r e a s i n g compression s t r e n g t h as width i s i n c r e a s e d ,
but this size effect i s l e s s pronounced than found i n bending
or i n a x i a l tension.
Compression strength of commercial timber" varies
s i g n i f i c a n t l y with changes i n moisture content, in contrast to
t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h which i s e s s e n t i a l l y independent of moisture
content (Madsen 1982).

29
2.4.3 Stress-Strain Relationship
The shape of the stress-strain relationship in
compression i s important input f o r the model developed in this
thesis. Not much test data is available. Although the
standard ASTM test for compression parallel to the g r a i n
s p e c i f i e s the drawing of a load-deformation curve, this has
generally only been used to e s t a b l i s h the e l a s t i c modulus and
the p r o p o r t i o n a l l i m i t stress. Very few studies have been
made regarding the mathematical form of the stress-strain
curve beyond the e l a s t i c range. S e c t i o n 2.2 showed how the
complete curve is r e q u i r e d to understand bending behaviour,
and r e f e r e n c e d s e v e r a l studies. The simple elasto-plastic
bilinear approximation shown i n f i g u r e 2 has been used q u i t e
often. More recently, Malhotra and Mazur (1970) used a
stress-strain equation, p r e v i o u s l y proposed by Y l i n e n ( 1 9 5 6 ) ,
given by
e = i [ c f - (1-c) f c l n [ l - f - ) ] (2.T )
where e i s s t r a i n , f i s s t r e s s , f c i s the maximum compression
stress, E is modulus of elasticity, and c i s a parameter
depending on the shape of the curve. The curve described by
this equation, as shown in figure 7(a) i s tangent to the
e l a s t i c modulus at the o r i g i n , and tangent to the ultimate
compressive stress for large strain.
Malhotra and Mazur describe the curve as a very good
approximation to the r e s u l t s of 144 tests of clear eastern

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7 - Stress-strain relationships in axial
compression
spruce wood at various moisture contents. They give no
c o n s i d e r a t i o n to the p o s s i b l e shape of the curve at strains
beyond the u l t i m a t e l o a d .
0'Halloran(1973) used the data of Goodman and Bodig
(1971) to propose a mathematical equation for the stress-
strain curve for clear dry wood i n compression at v a r i o u s
g r a i n angles and g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n s . The proposed equation i s
f = Ee - Ae n
(2.2)
where f i s s t r e s s , E i s modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , A and n are
equation constants determined, by fitting the equation to a
given set of experimental data. I f the s t r a i n at peak stress
is found to be a c e r t a i n r a t i o , r , of the e q u i v a l e n t s t r a i n
under e l a s t i c c o n d i t i o n s , the parameters A and n can be found
from
31
n = r/(r-1) (2.3)
and E
A =
n-1
n(rf /E)
c
(2.4)
where f c i s the maximum s t r e s s .
A t y p i c a l p l o t of a f i t t e d curve and experimental r e s u l t s
is shown i n figure 7(b). The equation cannot be used beyond
maximum s t r e s s , because i t drops r a p i d l y to negative stress
values. O'Halloran claims that this i s not a serious
limitation, failing to recognize that the shape of the f a l l i n g
branch of the curve i s needed to predict ultimate bending
strength. It i s true that the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
beyond maximum load cannot be q u a n t i f i e d e a s i l y i n an axial
compression t e s t , because i t i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of the t e s t
machine characteristics and the rate of loading, but a
d e s c r i p t i o n of s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour beyond u l t i m a t e load i s
e s s e n t i a l to the development of an u l t i m a t e bending strength
theory.
A simple bilinear proposal by Bazan(!980) has already
been i l l u s t r a t e d in figure 6. Bazan assumed without any
supporting argument that the slope of the f a l l i n g branch i s a
v a r i a b l e which can be a r b i t r a r i l y taken as that value which
produces maximum bending moment f o r any n e u t r a l a x i s depth. A
different assumption used i n t h i s study i s that the slope of
the f a l l i n g branch i s a m a t e r i a l property, whose value can be
estimated as part of the c a l i b r a t i o n of the computer model to
test r e s u l t s .
32
A comprehensive study on the stress-strain relationship
of timber with d e f e c t s , i n compression p a r a l l e l to the g r a i n ,
has been made by G1OS(1978). On the basis of extensive
experimental t e s t i n g Glos proposes a curve of the shape shown
in f i g u r e 7 ( c ) , which i s s i m i l a r to that reported for clear
wood by Bechtel and N o r r i s (1952), Moe (1961), and o t h e r s .
The curve i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by four parameters as shown i n the
figure. The equation of the curve i s given by
e/e, + GAe/e.) 7
f = ± ± ±
G 2 + G (e/ 3 e ; L ) + G (e/
4 e ; L ) 7
(2.5)
f
a
where G1 6E(l-f /f ) s c
G 2 - 1/E
G- = 1/f - 7/6E
3 c
G 4 = G l /f s
where f i s s t r e s s , e i s s t r a i n , E i s modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , f c
is maximum compressive stress, fs is the asymptotic
compression s t r e s s f o r l a r g e s t r a i n and e, i s the strain at
the maximum s t r e s s , as shown i n f i g u r e 7 ( c ) .
Glos has estimated the four parameters to d e f i n e the
shape of the curve from four measurable wood properties;
density, moisture content, knot ratio and percentage
compression wood. Multiple curvilinear regression techniques
have been used t o express expected values of each parameter i n
terms of the four properties, using lengthy regression
equations. The general form of s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve resulting
from Glos's equation has been investigated in this study,

33
without attempting to v e r i f y the dependence of the equation on
the wood p r o p e r t i e s mentioned above.
2.4.4 Column Theory f o r C o n c e n t r i c Loading
The l o a d c a p a c i t y of short columns with c o n c e n t r i c axial
loading is directly r e l a t e d t o the compression s t r e n g t h of the
material. As the length of a c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded column
i n c r e a s e s , there is a v
transition from a crushing type of
failure based on compression s t r e n g t h to a b u c k l i n g type of
f a i l u r e based on l a t e r a l instablility.
For l i n e a r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s , the load c a p a c i t y of long
columns is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the e l a s t i c modulus and i n v e r s e l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l to the square of the l e n g t h , as d e s c r i b e d by the
well known column formula published by Euler in 1744
(Timoshenko 1953)
P = » 2 E I
e L 2 (2.6)
where Pe i s the a x i a l load c a p a c i t y (or E u l e r buckling load)
for a column of length L pinned at both ends. E i s the
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
For materials with non-linear stress-strain
relationships, the combination of both m a t e r i a l and geometric
non-linearities makes analytical treatment much more
difficult. Closed form s o l u t i o n s f o r very simple cases are
a v a i l a b l e , but numerical and other approximate methods are
necessary i n most r e a l s i t u a t i o n s (Chen and Atsuta 1976a).
For a l l materials, the t r a n s i t i o n between short column

34
behaviour and long column behaviour has been the subject of
much debate, and there have been a great many formulae
proposed to d e s c r i b e t h i s behaviour. Test results in this
range tend to have f a r more s c a t t e r than for long or f o r short
columns.
The earliest formulae were e m p i r i c a l expressions which
were only u s e f u l in the l i m i t e d range where they fitted test
results. Subsequent formulae were improved to produce results
consistent with crushing s t r e n g t h f o r short columns and the
E u l e r curve for long columns. Many formulae including the
secant formula and the Rankine formula, which will be
discussed i n Chapter 9, fall i n t o t h i s category. The Rankine
formula (or Rankine-Gordon formula), p u b l i s h e d by Rankine in
1898, was developed by Gordon using an assumed d e f l e c t e d shape
and a limiting f a i l u r e s t r e s s (Timoshenko 1953).
A f u r t h e r development attributed to Engesser in 1889
(Bleich 1952) was the acceptance of the tangent modulus
approach which uses E u l e r ' s formula with the tangent modulus
of elasticity from a c u r v i l i n e a r stress-strain relationship.
T h i s method p r e d i c t s a safe lower bound on s t r e n g t h regardless
of l o a d i n g path but r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d knowledge of the s t r e s s -
strain r e l a t i o n s h i p . Chen and A t s u t a (1976a) summarize the
development of more accurate t h e o r i e s for p l a s t i c b u c k l i n g of
columns, which i n c l u d e allowance for elastic unloading of
portions of the cross section that have been p r e v i o u s l y
s t r e s s e d beyond the p r o p o r t i o n a l limit.

35
2.4.5 Timber Columns
According to Timoshenko(1953), the first recorded
scientific t e s t s on long timber columns were by Musschenbrock
in 1729, who found that the b u c k l i n g strength was inversely
proportional to the square of the length, a r e s u l t proved
theoretically by Euler in 1744. Booth(l964) describes
compression t e s t s of many l a r g e members performed by G i r a r d in
1798, where the ever-present problems of defects, load
duration and end restraint did not allow satisfactory
v e r i f i c a t i o n of E u l e r ' s theory.
The first recorded wood column t e s t s i n America appear to
be those of Bryson (1866) who t e s t e d 40 small specimens of
varying l e n g t h cut from one p i e c e of dry white pine timber.
Bryson obtained good agreement with two formulae a t t r i b u t e d to
Hodgkinson, noting the transition from a crushing type of
failure i n short columns to a b u c k l i n g type of f a i l u r e in long
columns.
Current formulae f o r timber columns appear to date from
the work of Newlin and Trayer (1925) who c a r r i e d out d e t a i l e d
a n a l y s i s of a l a r g e number of c l e a r S i t k a spruce columns. For
a x i a l compression l o a d i n g they r e l a t e d the buckling load to
the stress-strain curve in compression f o r three different
lengths of columns. For long columns, the maximum load was
reached with all s t r e s s e s in the e l a s t i c range as p r e d i c t e d
a c c u r a t e l y by the E u l e r formula. For short columns, failure
occurred by crushing of the wood i n compression p a r a l l e l to
the grain.
36
•d crushing
O strength
O
4 th
power
parabola Euler curve
short intermediate long
slenderness
Figure 8 - A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curve f o r
c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns
For intermediate length columns Newlin and Trayer
suggested a transition between these two types of behaviour
based on a tangent modulus approach. Using some
approximations they obtained a parabolic transition curve
tangent t o the E u l e r curve at two-thirds of the c r u s h i n g
strength. They found the power of the parabola to depend on
the ratio between proportional limit stress and maximum
compressive stress. The e i g h t h power curve i n i t i a l l y proposed
for Sitka spruce was changed to a f o u r t h power curve to
i n c l u d e other s p e c i e s . This fourth power curve was later
verified by Newlin and Gahagan (1930) a f t e r t e s t s on many
l a r g e s i z e columns of s e v e r a l grades and species, and has
remained i n many North American Codes ever s i n c e . The form of
this r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown'in F i g u r e 8. The formulae w i l l be
given i n Chapter 8.
In B r i t a i n , a c c o r d i n g t o Sunley(1955) and Burgess(1977),

37
the development of wood column f o r m u l a e was largely t h e work
of R o b e r t s o n ( 1 9 2 5 ) who u s e d an. 1886 article by Ayrton and
Perry to explain the r e s u l t s of h i s t e s t s on s m a l l clear Sitka
spruce columns. The resulting "Perry-Robertson" formula
assumes t h a t t h e column remains e l a s t i c to f a i l u r e , but has an
initial deviation from s t r a i g h t n e s s . The failure criterion is
a limiting compression s t r e s s . The effects of defects and
material variability c a n be c o n s i d e r e d by v a r y i n g t h e assumed
initial eccentricty. T h i s a p p r o a c h has become the basis of
the British code (BSI 1980).
Larsen(l973) compared column f o r m u l a e from t h e c o d e s of
many c o u n t r i e s , and d e s c r i b e d the background to the formula i n
an international code (CIB 1980). Burgess(1976) has shown
that the CIB formula is essentially t h e same a s t h e Perry-
Robertson formula.
In Canada, M a l h o t r a and Mazur (1970) have re-examined the
tangent modulus formula or "Euler-Engesser" formula, and
propose i t s use for concentric axial loading. T h i s method has
the a d v a n t a g e of b e i n g a c o n t i n u o u s f o r m u l a f o r a l l v a l u e s of
slenderness, and i t has a sound theoretical basis if the
stress-strain c u r v e i s a l w a y s o f t h e assumed form.
Neubauer(1973) has reviewed the background t o the Rankine
formula, and modified i t to a simple cubic form w h i c h gives
good agreement t o wood column test results f o r a wide r a n g e of
slenderness ratios.
Several of t h e s e column formulae w i l l be compared i n more
detail i n Chapter 8.
38
2.5 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD
Combined bending and a x i a l load w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n two
sections. The first i s the failure criterion f o r a cross
s e c t i o n subjected to combined bending and a x i a l loading. The
second i s the behaviour of members of any l e n g t h subjected to
a x i a l and bending loads, including the effects of member

i
deformations.
2.5.1 Cross S e c t i o n Behaviour
To c a l c u l a t e the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of a member subjected
to combined a x i a l and f l e x u r a l l o a d i n g i t i s first necessary
to know the nature of the i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l strength
and f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h at a c r o s s section. This interaction
can be presented graphically as an ultimate interaction
diagram which shows combinations of axial load and bending
moment that a c r o s s s e c t i o n can r e s i s t .
The traditional approach has been to assume a l i n e a r
elastic material with a maximum normal stress failure
criterion. These assumptions produce a s t r a i g h t line ultimate
interaction diagram, as shown by the s o l i d l i n e s in figure
9(a) f o r m a t e r i a l with weak t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h , and f i g u r e 9(b)
for strong tension strength, assuming constant compression
strength.
Most design formulae make the l i n e a r elastic assumption
even more c o n s e r v a t i v e by s p e c i f y i n g design a c c o r d i n g to the
dotted l i n e s i n f i g u r e 9.
If wood i s assumed to have a non-linear stress-strain

39
moment
(a) weak in tension (b) strong in tension
Figure 9 - Ultimate interaction diagrams

for linear behaviour
relationship in compression ( f o r example, a bilinear elasto-
plastic r e l a t i o n s h i p ) the ultimate interaction diagram becomes
curved on the compression side, following the shape
illustrated in figure 10.
This type of interaction curve has been described by
Gurfinkel(1973) and by Larsen and Riberholt (1981), but has
received very little experimental verification. The shape of
the curve above the horizontal axis (for 1

net axial
compression) depends on the ratio of tension to compression
strengths. For high tension strength (outer curve), a
straight line interaction in the compression region is a
reasonable approximation which has been used in many column

40
c
o
Figure 10 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams
for n o n - l i n e a r behaviour
formulae, but this becomes less accurate as the r a t i o of
t e n s i o n t o compression s t r e n g t h decreases.
Newlin(l940) carried out testing which showed some
deviation from a s t r a i g h t line f o r small c l e a r specimens. He
suggested a p a r a b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n equation of the form
r c
where M i s the bending moment, S i s the s e c t i o n modulus, f r i s
the modulus of rupture, P i s the a x i a l load, A i s the section
area and f c i s the compresssive s t r e s s at f a i l u r e f o r a short
column. As d e s c r i b e d by Wood(l950), Newlin conservatively
dropped the exponent of 2 f o r short columns, but f o r slender

41
columns he used the p a r a b o l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p to justify using
bending strength as the l i m i t i n g s t r e s s , r e g a r d l e s s of a x i a l
load. The possibility of a tension failure was not
c o n s i d e r e d , so he may not have r e a l i z e d how h i s r e s u l t s fitted
the more complete r e l a t i o n s h i p shown i n f i g u r e 10.
The a c t u a l shape of the curves i n the compression region
a l s o depends on the nature of the stress-strain relationship
for wood in compression, e s p e c i a l l y the f a l l i n g branch, as
w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n Chapter 6.
In the t e n s i o n r e g i o n , f i g u r e s 9 and 10 both show a
straight line, based on the same extreme .fibre s t r e s s at
failure i n bending or i n t e n s i o n . As discussed earlier, it
has q u i t e r e c e n t l y been determined that the f a i l u r e stress in
an a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t i s considerably less than the maximum
tension stress when a s i m i l a r member f a i l s i n bending. The
transition between axial tension behaviour and bending
behaviour can be e x p l a i n e d by b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e theory (Johns
and Buchanan 1982) which suggests a curve in the tension
region, as shown by the dotted lines in figure 10. Very
similar curves were obtained independently by Kersken-
Bradley(1981) in an a n a l y t i c a l study of glued laminated wood
members with d i f f e r e n t strength properties over the cross
section.
A more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of the shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 6.
42
2.5.2 Members with Combined Bending and Compression
For c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns, i t has been shown that
l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y depends on m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h for short
columns, and on slenderness r a t i o f o r long columns. If the
columns are a l s o subjected to bending moment the problem
becomes more complex because the load c a p a c i t y a l s o depends on
the bending moment.
A conceptual method of c o n s i d e r i n g these e f f e c t s i s shown
in f i g u r e 11, which i s a three-dimensional sketch of load vs.
slenderness vs. moment (Johns and Buchanan 1982). A
member of given slenderness r a t i o can resist any combination
of a x i a l load and moment i n s i d e the surface shown. The curve
on the load vs. slenderness plane i s the relationship shown
in figure 8. The curve on the- load vs. moment plane i s the
a x i a l load vs. moment i n t e r a c t i o n for short columns shown in
figure 10.
The behaviour of timber members under combined bending
and axial loading (or the form of the s u r f a c e shown in figure
11) has r e c e i v e d very little attention. Standard methods are
a v a i l a b l e as long as the wood remains in the linear elastic
range (Timoshenko and Gere 1961). For behaviour beyond the
linear range, Chen and Atsuta (1976a) summarize extensive
s t u d i e s on other m a t e r i a l s such as s t e e l and concrete, none of
which are directly applicable to timber. Differences with
other m a t e r i a l s are that wood behaves d i f f e r e n t l y in tension
and compression, t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by
the size of the s t r e s s e d volume, and the m a t e r i a l properties

43
Axial load
BENDING
STRENGTH
Figure 11 - Three-dimensional sketch of l o a d v s .

slenderness v s . moment
may vary c o n s i d e r a b l y along the l e n g t h of a member. The model
developed i n t h i s t h e s i s addresses these problems.
A comprehensive experimental study of small clear wood
members s u b j e c t e d to combined column and beam a c t i o n by Newlin
and Trayer (1925) has already been mentioned. Small d e f e c t -
f r e e members were subjected to e c c e n t r i c a x i a l l o a d s , and i n

44
another test, concentric axial load and transverse lateral
load together in a constant ratio. Their theory " for
concentrically loaded columns has been briefly described. For
combined bending and axial loading they provided a set of
design curves without much development of the theory.
Subsequently Newlin(l940) developed a formula for combined
bending and axial loading, later amplified and explained by
Woodd950), and adopted for use in the U.S. (NFPA 1982).
The NFPA formula is useful in that it considers
separately the effects of axial load, moment due to eccentric
axial load and moment due to transverse loads. It is based on
assumptions of sinusoidal deflected shape, linear elastic
behaviour to failure, and a limiting compression stress
failure criterion described above, a l l of which need to be re-
evaluated. The formula is discussed further in Chapter 8.
In Europe, the Perry-Robertson formula and the CIB
formula, described above for concentric loading, both include
a term for i n i t i a l out-of-straightness, which can also be used
for large eccentricities to provide a design formula for
combined bending and axial load.
Johnston(1976) describes other applications of the secant
formula, and discourages the use of expressions of this type
because the i n i t i a l yield criterion cannot be applied
rationally to materials with non-linear stress-strain
relat ionships.
Malhotra(1982) found that the Perry-Robertson formula
underestimated the strength of timber columns tested in

45
compression with small end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s . He obtained b e t t e r
agreement with two other formulae. One was the secant
formula, m o d i f i e d to allow f o r higher failure stresses in
bending than i n compression, and the other a formula d e r i v e d
by Jezek who c o n s i d e r e d the s t a b i l i t y of a column of ideal
elasto-plastic material. For wood columns with various
eccentricities and end restraints, Hammond et al.(l970)
obtained good agreement with t e s t r e s u l t s using a theory based
on the assumption of bilinear elasto-plastic behaviour i n
compression, but they d i d not c o n s i d e r s t r e s s e d volume effects
in the t e n s i o n r e g i o n , nor d i d they propose a r e a l i s t i c design
method.
Larsen and T h i e l g a a r d (1979) have developed and verified
a general theory for laterally loaded timber columns that
includes b i a x i a l e f f e c t s and l a t e r a l t o r s i o n a l buckling. The
limitations of this approach are the assumptions of l i n e a r
e l a s t i c behaviour and a simple failure criterion based on
l i m i t i n g compression stresses.
Bleau(l984) has used an energy approach to e x p l a i n i n -
plane behaviour, using the same data as this study for
calibration and v e r i f i c a t i o n . H i s theory, i n c o r p o r a t i n g s i z e
effects in a similar way to t h i s t h e s i s , i s able to give a
reasonable p r e d i c t i o n of experimental results.

46
2.5.3 In-Grade Testing
The'only in-grade t e s t s of commercial grades and s i z e s of
timber under combined a x i a l compression and bending appear to
be those by Zahn(l982) and Malhotra(1982).
Zahn t e s t e d four groups of 1500mm long 38x140mm western
hemlock with various initial eccentricities. He measured
c u r v a t u r e s over a 450mm long gauge length, and used the
resulting moment-curvature curves t o p r e d i c t the behaviour of
longer members, using a Monte C a r l o approach to combine 450mm
long segments with r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s . The p r e d i c t i o n
was checked with tests on 30 boards 2400 mm long. The
computer simulation gave a good indication of average
properties, but d i d not predict the full distribution
accurately. Two disadvantages of Zahn's method are the
difficulty of e x p e r i m e n t a l l y obtaining the moment-curvature
relationship and the expense of carrying out Monte C a r l o
simula't ions .
Malhotra (1982) reported a t e s t i n g programme on 38x89mm
and 64x89mm members of No. 1 grade eastern spruce, with
e c c e n t r i c i t i e s up to 20mm. Reasonable agreement was obtained
with formulae r e f e r r e d to i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n .
2.5.4 Members with Combined Bending and Tension
The strength of timber members under combined axial
t e n s i o n and bending has r e c e i v e d very l i t t l e attention.
Senft and Suddarth (1970) t e s t e d 38x89mm members of high
grade commercial southern p i n e , and S e n f t ( l 9 7 3 ) c a r r i e d out
s i m i l a r t e s t s on a lower grade of western hemlock. For both

47
s e r i e s of t e s t s the members were loaded with a constant
tension load as bending s t r e s s e s were i n c r e a s e d to f a i l u r e .
The results indicated a deviation from the traditional
straight line i n t e r a c t i o n between bending and a x i a l l o a d , the
d e v i a t i o n being l a r g e r f o r the higher quality material, as
would be expected from the sketched curves i n f i g u r e 10.
T h e i r proposed design equation i s very conservative compared
with t h e i r t e s t results.
Suddarth, Woeste and G a l l i g a n (1978) have used the data
obtained i n the above t e s t s as an example f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the
reliability of wood members s u b j e c t e d to combined l o a d i n g .
Their contribution i s not a design method, but is rather a
step towards the development of r e l i a b i l i t y design of wood
structures.
Burgess(1980) used the assumptions of linear elastic
behaviour and simple l i m i t i n g values of s t r e s s f o r f a i l u r e i n
t e n s i o n and compression to c a l c u l a t e the s t r e n g t h of tension
members with lateral loads. He found that equations
previously derived for wood beam-columns with initial
c u r v a t u r e and given slenderness r a t i o can be m o d i f i e d slightly
and used for tension members, i n c o r p o r a t i n g the f a c t that
d e f l e c t i o n s due to l a t e r a l loads will be reduced by axial
tension forces. His linear elastic assumption is more
accurate in tension than in compression because tension
behaviour is g e n e r a l l y l i n e a r to f a i l u r e whereas compression
behaviour i s not. Burgess used simple f a i l u r e c r i t e r i a which
do not include any size effects, so the theory does not

48
e x p l a i n the d i f f e r e n c e i n f a i l u r e s t r e s s e s between bending and
tension tests.
2.5.5 V a r i a b i l i t y i n Wood P r o p e r t i e s
A l l of the column t h e o r i e s d e s c r i b e d to t h i s point have
assumed that the relevant wood properties are known
deterministic qualities. Newton and Ayaru (1972), recognizing
that s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s are very v a r i a b l e i n a population
of wood members, propose using the known d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s and t h e i r known c o r r e l a t i o n to predict
the strength of wood columns. They use the Perry-Robertson
formula and assume that wood p r o p e r t i e s w i t h i n each column are
constant.
Suddarth and Woeste (1977) have attempted to allow for
variability i n s t i f f n e s s along the length of a long column by
computer modelling a 4.4m column with four segments each 1.1m
long. A slender column has been used so the l o a d c a p a c i t y i s
governed by e l a s t i c b u c k l i n g , not strength. A Monte Carlo
simulation was used to c a l c u l a t e the s t r e n g t h of one thousand
columns, the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y f o r each segment selected
from known distributions. Their p r i n c i p a l f i n d i n g was that
safety i n c r e a s e s as v a r i a b i l i t y in stiffness between boards
decreases, but they d i d not compare v a r i a b l e s t i f f n e s s with
constant average s t i f f n e s s along each board, so i t i s not
apparent whether the e x e r c i s e of using four segments f o r each
board was a c t u a l l y necessary.
No s t u d i e s appear t o have been done on members with
s t r e n g t h v a r y i n g along the l e n g t h of the board.

49
2.6 SUMMARY
This chapter has briefly reviewed t h e development of
current knowledge r e g a r d i n g t h e s t r e n g t h of timber members.
It h a s been shown t h a t a l a r g e amount o f r e s e a r c h u s i n g s m a l l
clear wood specimens has failed to produce a good
understanding of structural timber behaviour, but t h a t full
size testing o f t i m b e r members is starting to produce very
useful results. The literature survey i n t h i s chapter i s
continued in the first part of the next chapter, for
d i s c u s s i o n of s i z e effects.
50
III . SIZE EFFECTS
3 . 1 INTRODUCTION
As described b r i e f l y i n the l i t e r a t u r e survey, m a t e r i a l s
such as wood e x h i b i t a s i z e e f f e c t which i s observed i n the
f o l l o w i n g ways:
1. Long members fail at lower s t r e s s e s than similarly
loaded short members.
2. Bending members of a c e r t a i n depth tend to fail at
lower stresses than s i m i l a r l y loaded members of smaller
depth.
3. In a x i a l t e n s i o n , members with l a r g e c r o s s sectional
area tend to fail at lower s t r e s s e s than members with
smaller cross s e c t i o n a l area.
4. For a member of given size, the failure stress
increases as the volume subjected to tension stresses
decreases. For example, the modulus of rupture in a
bending test i s g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r than the f a i l u r e stress
in axial tension.
These s i z e e f f e c t s are widely accepted to be b r i t t l e fracture
phenomena similar to those observed in other brittle
materials. The first part of this chapter reviews
conventional b r i t t l e f a i l u r e theory, and e x p l a i n s why timber

51
members r e q u i r e a somewhat modified theory. A modified theory
i s developed and d i s c u s s e d .
3.2 CONVENTIONAL BRITTLE FRACTURE THEORY
3.2.1 H i s t o r y
It i s now beginning t o be recognized that the s t r e n g t h of
wood i n t e n s i o n is a statistical phenomenon with behaviour
similar to that observed i n other b r i t t l e materials. This
behaviour i s o f t e n e x p l a i n e d by "brittle fracture theory",
sometimes c a l l e d "statistical strength theory".
A theory f o r the s t r e n g t h of b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s has been
developed on the b a s i s of the weakest-link concept proposed by
P i e r c e ( l 9 2 6 ) who s t u d i e d cotton yarns and Tucker(l927) who
studied concrete. Major developments of the theory were made
by Weibull(1939a,b) who v e r i f i e d h i s r e s u l t s with tests on
many d i f f e r e n t b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , but a p p a r e n t l y not wood.
In simple terms, the weakest l i n k theory assumes that a
brittle solid i s made up of a l a r g e number of small elements
with some statistical d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e n g t h . The member
will fail when the a p p l i e d s t r e s s exceeds the s t r e n g t h of the
weakest element (as f o r example the weakest l i n k in a chain),
with no s h a r i n g of load t o other elements. Such m a t e r i a l s are
subject to a size effect because the larger the stressed
volume, the l a r g e r the p r o b a b i l i t y of that volume c o n t a i n i n g a
weak element. The size effect will be more pronounced f o r
m a t e r i a l s having large v a r i a b i l i t y i n the s t r e n g t h properties
of the c o n s t i t u e n t elements.
Alternatively the material may be considered to be a

52
homogeneous m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n i n g a l a r g e number of d e f e c t s with
a statistical d i s t r i b u t i o n of s i z e (Jayatilaka, 1979). The
theory i s the same in e i t h e r case. Such m a t e r i a l i s sometimes
r e f e r r e d to as a " G r i f f i t h m a t e r i a l " .
Weibull showed how the s t r e n g t h of a weakest l i n k system
can be explained by a cumulative distribution of the
exponential type, and how the s t r e n g t h depends on the volume
of the t e s t specimen f o r uniform or v a r y i n g distributions of
s t r e s s w i t h i n the specimen.
Johnson(1953) improved the theoretical basis for
Weibull's theory, r e c o g n i z i n g that the exponential type of
distribution proposed by W e i b u l l i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y the exact
extreme value d i s t r i b u t i o n of the s m a l l e s t value in samples
from any parent distribution, f o r l a r g e sample s i z e . If the
parent p o p u l a t i o n of elements can be. d e s c r i b e d by a Weibull
distribution then the distribution of member s t r e n g t h s i s
exactly a Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n , for any number of elements.
3.2.2 A p p l i c a t i o n s of B r i t t l e F r a c t u r e Theory to Wood
The first study applying Weibull's brittle fracture
theory to wood was that by Bohannan(1966), who used Weibull's
equations to predict the s t r e n g t h of wood beams of v a r i o u s
sizes. He c a l i b r a t e d t h i s model with the average results of
t e s t s on three s i z e s of c l e a r dry s t r a i g h t - g r a i n e d D o u g l a s - f i r
beams.
Bohannan found that the t e s t data was most a c c u r a t e l y
matched by the model if strength was considered to be

53
dependent on length and depth of the test specimen, but
independent of width. A small s e r i e s of t e s t s on other sizes
verified these results. His main c o n c l u s i o n was that for
geometrically s i m i l a r beams, the s t r e n g t h is proportional to
depth to the power 1/9. Bohannan's theory p r e d i c t s no size
e f f e c t with v a r y i n g c r o s s s e c t i o n a l dimensions for an axial
tension test. He d i d not r e p o r t any attempt to compare h i s
bending r e s u l t s with those of axial tension tests. Where
depth effects f o r bending have been included in design codes
they have e i t h e r used in-grade test r e s u l t s d i r e c t l y , or have
used the parameters d e r i v e d by Bohannan.
A comprehensive summary of the development of brittle
f r a c t u r e theory.has been made by Barrett(1974^, who used the
theory to e x p l a i n the e f f e c t of s i z e on perpendicular-to-grain
tension • strength of Douglas-fir. Using test r e s u l t s from
different s i z e s of t e n s i o n and bending specimens reported by a
number of authors, B a r r e t t obtained a straight line log-log
plot of f a i l u r e s t r e s s vs. s t r e s s e d volume, as p r e d i c t e d by
the theory. He used t h i s p l o t to c a l c u l a t e the parameters of
the strength d i s t r i b u t i o n , but showed that i t i s not easy to
d e f i n e the parameters p r e c i s e l y .
B a r r e t t and others have produced further studies on
brittle f r a c t u r e e f f e c t s in wood, i n v e s t i g a t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r -
to-grain tension strength (Barrett, Foschi and Fox 1975),
shear s t r e n g t h (Foschi and Barrett 1975), and bending strength
of glued laminated beams (Foschi and Barrett 1980).
T h i s author (Buchanan 1983) has shown that the accepted

54
theory does not a c c u r a t e l y e x p l a i n the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
bending s t r e n g t h and a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h for clear wood.
S i z e e f f e c t s i n wood are more complex than suggested by simple
brittle fracture theory, but can be e x p l a i n e d . i f separate
parameters are used to quantify length, depth, and width
e f f e c t s , as d e s c r i b e d later in this chapter.
3.2.3 Theory f o r Uniform S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n
For a relatively simple development of this theory,
assume that the parent population of elements has a cumulative
distribution f u n c t i o n ( c . d . f . ) of s t r e n g t h given by a Weibull
distribution
r t x X
o >i (3.1)
F ( x ) = 1 - e x p { - [ — J }
where, x is the strength, x 0 i s a lower l i m i t or minimum
strength c a l l e d the "location parameter", m is a "scale
parameter" with the same u n i t s as x, and k i s a dimensionless
"shape parameter" which r e f l e c t s both the skewness and the
spread of the d i s t r i b u t i o n .
If samples of size n are drawn from this parent
population, i t can be shown (Bury 1975) that the s t r e n g t h of
the weakest element i n each sample has a c . d . f . given by
F(x) = 1 - exp{-n(^-l^) } k
(3.2)
-1 /k
where m has been r e p l a c e d by mn ' . Equation 3.2 can be r e -
arranged t o give the strength at any quantile q i n the
distribution
55
x = x +m i T 1 / k
{ln[^-)} 1 / k
(3.3)
q o 1 q
(For example q=0.5 would give the median or 50th percentile
strength).
Now c o n s i d e r two members of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s c o n t a i n i n g n,
and n 2 elements. Equations 3.3 for each member can be
combined to g i v e the r a t i o of strengths of the two sizes at
any q u a n t i l e q
x (n.) x +m n " 1 / k
{ln( * ) } 1 / k
x (n )
q 2 X Q + m n 2 {M^J}
If the location parameter x 0 i s assumed to be zero, as i s
o f t e n done, the three-parameter model d e s c r i b e d above reduces
to a two-parameter model and equation 3.4 is greatly
s i m p l i f i e d to
x
„ ( i) n
n 0 ,
x (n )
q 2 ^
-M4 = (-i-) 1/k
(3.5)
I t can be seen in this case that size effects can be
quantified by only the shape parameter k, and the r a t i o of
sizes, r e g a r d l e s s of the q u a n t i l e , or the a c t u a l values of n,
and n . 2 A l o g - l o g p l o t of s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t volume becomes a
straight l i n e of slope -1/k as shown i n f i g u r e 12.
In some cases i t may be a poor assumption to use the two-
parameter form of the W e i b u l l distribution, particularly when
e x t r a p o l a t i n g to l a r g e volumes because t h i s assumption implies
strength reducing to zero as the volume becomes infinitely

56
log
stress
x(n )
2
volume
Figure 12 - T y p i c a l l o g - l o g p l o t of f a i l u r e s t r e s s v s .
volume
large.
3.2.4 Theory f o r V a r i a b l e Stress D i s t r i b u t i o n
The above development has assumed that the member is
subjected to a uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s . In the more
general case where s t r e s s e s vary w i t h i n a member, equation 3.2
can be w r i t t e n as
F(x) = l - e x p { - i - J (- dv} (3.6)

v
i v m
where V i s the volume of the member, and V, is a reference
volume associated with the s c a l e parameter m. For the two
parameter case, the i n t e g r a l i n t h i s equation can be evaluated
f o r any non-uniform s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n and the r e s u l t can be
expressed as
57
F(x) (3.7)
where Ve i s an e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s e d volume.
For a beam of span L with two symmetrically placed loads,
distance a a p a r t , and n e u t r a l a x i s at mid-depth, the i n t e g r a l
can be e v a l u a t e d over the tension region (assuming brittle
fracture i n t e n s i o n only) t o g i v e an e q u i v a l e n t volume of
(3.8)
which i s seen to be a q u i t e simple p r o p o r t i o n of the t o t a l
volume V, of the member. The r a t i o of s t r e n g t h s of beams of
two s i z e s can now be p r e d i c t e d using equation 3 . 5 with n, and
n 2 r e p l a c e d by Ve, and V e r e s p e c t i v e l y .
2
For an a x i a l t e n s i o n member the e q u i v a l e n t volume Ve i n
equation 3 . 7 • i s the total volume V, of the member, so the
relative s t r e n g t h s of bending and a x i a l tension members can
also be compared using equation 3 . 5 . The e q u i v a l e n t h i g h l y
s t r e s s e d volume of a member loaded in bending i s much less
than the t o t a l volume of the member s t r e s s e d i n t e n s i o n , and
t h i s e x p l a i n s why t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s at f a i l u r e are greater in
bending t e s t s than i n a x i a l tension tests.
To make a l o g - l o g p l o t of s t r e n g t h v s . equivalent volume
for bending members, a t r i a l and e r r o r approach i s necessary
to f i n d the value of k such that a line of slope -1/k i s
obtained when the same value of k i s used i n equation 3 . 8 to
c a l c u l a t e the s t r e s s e d volume.
58
3 . 2 . 5 C o e f f i c i e n t of V a r i a t i o n
The c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n of the W e i b u l l distribution
i s given by
cv = [rq+2/iQ - r g + i / k ) F
2 2
C V
x /m + r ( l + l / k )
o ( - >
3 9
where r i s the gamma f u n c t i o n (Bury 1975).
For the two-parameter model with x = 0 , o the c o e f f i c i e n t of
v a r i a t i o n becomes a f u n c t i o n only of the shape parameter k. A
simple but accurate approximation i s then given (Leicester
1973) by
cv - -0.922
k ( 3 > 1 0 )
Because the c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n only of k,
strength tests of members of d i f f e r e n t s i z e s should a l l have
the same c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n , and the k value obtained
from equation 3 . 1 0 should be the same as that obtained in a
l o g - l o g p l o t of s t r e n g t h a g a i n s t volume. The same should a l s o
apply f o r a comparison of bending tests and axial tension
tests.
For this ideal case of a perfectly b r i t t l e material
f o l l o w i n g a two-parameter W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n , i t would be
possible, in theory, to carry out only one t e s t s e r i e s on
members of only one s i z e , and to predict the strengths of
other sizes on the b a s i s of a k value obtained from equation
3.10.
59
Unfortunately n e i t h e r c l e a r wood nor timber with defects
behave according t o t h i s model, f o r t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s p a r a l l e l
to the g r a i n . C l e a r wood has been d i s c u s s e d elsewhere by the
author (Buchanan 1983). A discussion of size effects in
timber will follow.
3.3 BRITTLE FRACTURE THEORY MODIFIED FOR TIMBER
Up to t h i s p o i n t , t h i s chapter has been a review of
p r e v i o u s work. Most of the remainder of the chapter describes
a new approach.
The conventional brittle f r a c t u r e theory described i n the
previous section is a very neat and u s e f u l f o r m u l a t i o n f o r
materials that behave in a perfectly brittle manner.
Unfortunately timber s t r e s s e d i n t e n s i o n p a r a l l e l t o the g r a i n
is not as w e l l behaved as t h i s . Observations of s i z e effects
in both c l e a r wood and timber with d e f e c t s show departure from
the simple theory i n the f o l l o w i n g ways:
1. For bending members, modulus of rupture decreases as
length and depth of members are i n c r e a s e d , but not as
width i s i n c r e a s e d . The e f f e c t s f o r l e n g t h and depth are
not always of the same o r d e r .
2. For a x i a l t e n s i o n members the effects of varying
l e n g t h and c r o s s s e c t i o n a l area are d i f f e r e n t .
3. For axial compression members, which fail in a

60
r e l a t i v e l y d u c t i l e manner, s i z e e f f e c t s are observed for
varying l e n g t h and cross section. These e f f e c t s are l e s s
in compression than i n a x i a l t e n s i o n or i n bending, but
are s t i l l significant.
4. The k value which r e l a t e s the strengths of several
sizes (from equation 3.5 or figure 12) i s often not
c o n s i s t e n t with the value obtained from the coefficient
of v a r i a t i o n (equation 3.10).
These departures from c o n v e n t i o n a l brittle f r a c t u r e theory are
discussed below.
3.4 DIFFERENT SIZE EFFECTS IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS
Size effects result from variability of strength
p r o p e r t i e s w i t h i n a, m a t e r i a l , and are much more pronounced in
b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s than in d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l s .
For a more homogeneous material such ' as concrete or
metal, the v a r i a b i l i t y in m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s tends to be the
same i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s w i t h i n a member, and between members.
Timber i s very d i f f e r e n t i n that v a r i a b i l i t y within a member
depends on d i f f e r e n t b i o l o g i c a l and environmental f a c t o r s in
different orientations. V a r i a b i l i t y between members depends
additionally on the d i f f e r e n c e s betweeen d i f f e r e n t trees and
growing sites.
V a r i a b i l i t y along the l e n g t h of a piece of timber is
related to the frequency of knots and other d e f e c t s up the
height of a t r e e . V a r i a b i l i t y within a cross section depends
on the type and l o c a t i o n of d e f e c t s i n the width or depth of

61
any board, and on environmental and other f a c t o r s that may
have a f f e c t e d the p r o p e r t i e s of l a y e r s of wood produced from
year to y e a r .
Because different size effects result from d i f f e r e n t
sources, they w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y here, each being
investigated f o r both t e n s i o n and compression behaviour, and
the results will be used to d i s c u s s bending behaviour.
3.4.1 Size E f f e c t Terminology
S i z e e f f e c t terms are d e f i n e d below.
The term length e f f e c t r e f e r s t o the phenomenon that when
boards of d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s are t e s t e d under similar loading
c o n d i t i o n s , long boards tend t o be weaker than s h o r t e r boards.
The term width e f f e c t i s used to d e s c r i b e the e f f e c t of
c r o s s s e c t i o n width (or breadth) on the s t r e n g t h o f ' a bending
member.
The term "depth" refers to the depth (or h e i g h t ) of a
bending member. For a x i a l l y loaded members the d i s t i n c t i o n i s
not c l e a r , but i n g e n e r a l the l a r g e r c r o s s section dimension
will be c o n s i d e r e d as depth.
The term depth e f f e c t d e s c r i b e s the phenomenon that f o r
several members of given length and width, loaded in
geometrically similar ways, the s t r e s s at f a i l u r e tends to
decrease as member depth i s i n c r e a s e d .
The term stress-distribution effect describes the
phenomenon t h a t , f o r members of given s i z e , the maximum stress
at f a i l u r e tends to decrease as the h i g h l y s t r e s s e d proportion
of the depth i s i n c r e a s e d .
62
The depth e f f e c t and the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n effect are
very c l o s e l y r e l a t e d and could perhaps be q u a n t i f i e d using the
same parameters. However, f o r timber the parameters are
sometimes d i f f e r e n t , so these two e f f e c t s w i l l be considered
separately.
3.5 LENGTH EFFECT
3.5.1 Theory
The s t r e n g t h of a timber board v a r i e s along i t s length.
One e f f e c t of t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y i s that the strength of long
boards is less than the strength of s h o r t e r boards, this
phenomenon occurring not only f o r average values, but
throughout a d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e n g t h v a l u e s . A x i a l tension
and compression a r e the most simple l o a d i n g cases to c o n s i d e r ,
but apparently no results of in-grade axial tension or
compression tests f o r varying lengths have been p r e v i o u s l y
reported. Almost a l l in-grade bending tests have been
performed with a constant span-to-depth ratio of 17, and
third-point loading. Results from these tests combine both
length and depth effects so that n e i t h e r can be estimated
independently.
If a timber board under a x i a l l o a d i n g i s assumed to be a
chain-like material where the s t r e n g t h of any length i s the
s t r e n g t h of i t s weakest l i n k , the theory already d e s c r i b e d can
be used to q u a n t i f y the l e n g t h e f f e c t . Observations from i n -
grade a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression t e s t s confirm that failure
i s u s u a l l y at a s i n g l e c r o s s s e c t i o n . T h i s allows the weakest

63
l i n k theory to be used f o r l e n g t h effects even though the
f a i l u r e may not always be a b r i t t l e fracture.
The theory described i n equations 3.2 t o 3.5 can be used
to q u a n t i f y l e n g t h e f f e c t s and equation 3.5 can be simplified
for design purposes t o
^ - (I ) 1 ( 3
' 1 1 )
x
2 L
l
where x, and x 2 are the s t r e n g t h s of members of length L, and
L 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y , at any p o i n t i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n of strength
and k, i s the length e f f e c t parameter. Note that k, may have
different values f o r t e n s i o n and compression.
3.5.2 Assumptions f o r Length Effect
The assumption of segment strength being randomly
distributed along the length of a board may not always be
v a l i d , depending on the nature of the wood. For example, fast
grown t r e e s of some s p e c i e s may have long clear sections of
wood between l a r g e c l u s t e r s of knots, and the strength of one
segment may not then be independent of the strength of
adjacent segments.
A study by R i b e r h o l t and Madsen (1979) has i n v e s t i g a t e d
the d i s t r i b u t i o n of material strength along a board for
several European species. They considered the distances
between d e f e c t s to be governed by a Poisson type of process,
and used a second distribution to d e s c r i b e the s t r e n g t h at
those defects. The second d i s t r i b u t i o n was suggested to be a
Weibull or log-normal d i s t r i b u t i o n . If a W e i b u l l distribution

64
i s used to d e s c r i b e the s t r e n g t h at defects, the predicted
length effect can be q u a n t i f i e d in e x a c t l y the same way as
done i n t h i s study, except that i t w i l l only be a p p l i c a b l e f o r
lengths long enough to c o n t a i n a c e r t a i n number of d e f e c t s .
R i b e r h o l t and Madsen's technique has not been pursued in
this study because visual i n s p e c t i o n s of the boards t e s t e d
g e n e r a l l y showed a l a r g e number of small •knots and other
defects closely spaced unevenly along each board. This i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the Canadian s p r u c e - p i n e - f i r (SPF) species
group which does not c o n t a i n r e g u l a r l y spaced l a r g e d e f e c t s
which are o f t e n found in f a s t e r grown t r e e s .
In view of other u n c e r t a i n t i e s , the assumption of wood
strength varying in a random manner along each board i s
considered to be a reasonable one.
Another assumption in t h i s development i s that the lower
bound on segment strength is zero, leading to the two-
parameter W e i b u l l formulation. T h i s assumption implies zero
strength for i n f i n i t e l e n g t h , which may be a p p r o p r i a t e for low
grade timber, but may be unreasonable for the h i g h e s t grades.
The assumption i s , i f anything, conservative and i s considered
to be reasonable provided that the theory i s not used f o r
extrapolation f a r beyond the range of data.

65
3.6 DEPTH EFFECT
If depth e f f e c t i s assumed to be a brittle fracture
phenomenon, the same theory used f o r l e n g t h ' e f f e e t can be used
to q u a n t i f y depth e f f e c t , and equation 3.5 f o r depth becomes
JL = (-1) 2
(3.12)
where x, and x 2 are the f a i l u r e s t r e s s e s of members of depths
d, and d 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y , and k 2 i s the depth e f f e c t parameter.
Depth e f f e c t s f o r commercial timber have been i n v e s t i g a t e d in
some detail f o r bending and f o r a x i a l t e n s i o n , but only i n a
few t e s t s f o r a x i a l compression. The trend of d e c r e a s i n g
failure stress with increasing depth has been d e s c r i b e d i n
Chapter 2. For axial tension and compression a l l timber
subjected to in-grade testing, has been of the same width
(nominal 38mm), so the e f f e c t s of v a r y i n g two c r o s s sectional
dimensions are not known.
In axial tension tests, failures are usually sudden
brittle f r a c t u r e s , so b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e theory i s c o n s i d e r e d to
be a p p r o p r i a t e . In a x i a l compression tests, many failures
exhibit some ductility, so b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e theory may be a
l e s s s u i t a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r observed behaviour, but the same
formula (equation 3.12) can be used to q u a n t i f y the effect.
Most bending t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out at constant span-to-
depth r a t i o s i n which case i t i s not possible to separate
length and depth effects. However, the two e f f e c t s can be
separated i f bending t e s t s are c a r r i e d out at d i f f e r e n t span-

66
to-depth r a t i o s as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 5.
3.7 STRESS-DISTRIBUTION EFFECT
3.7.1 Tension Zone
The s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n e f f e c t for tension s t r e s s e s can
be e x p l a i n e d using b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e theory even though some of
the assumptions i n v o l v e d i n that theory may not be satisfied
very p r e c i s e l y .
This theory i s based on the assumption that the depth of
any member i s made up of a large number of small elements, the
strength of each being randomly s e l e c t e d from a distribution
of known parameters. The theory f u r t h e r assumes that the
material i s perfectly brittle such that the f a i l u r e of any one
of these t i n y elements w i l l cause f a i l u r e of the member.
T h i s being the case, the two-parameter form of equation
3.6 can be re-written f o r depth, not c o n s i d e r i n g any length
e f f e c t s or width e f f e c t s .
F(x) = 1 - ex {-^-/
P (|) dy} k3
(3.13)
1 d
where x i s the f a i l u r e s t r e s s , y i s the depth co-ordinate, d
is the depth of the member and 6 y i s the depth of a s i n g l e
element. k 3 and m are the shape and scale parameters,
respectively, of the two-parameter Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n of
strength of the c o n s t i t u e n t elements of depth referred to
above. k 3 will be referred t o as the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n
parameter. The i n t e g r a t i o n only a p p l i e s to that portion of
the c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e s s e d i n t e n s i o n .
67
Consider the case shown in figure 13(a). For a x i a l
Figure 13 - T e n s i o n stress distributions
tension, where s t r e s s i s constant over the depth as shown in
figure 13(b), x=ft, and e q u a t i o n 3.12 becomes
(3.14)
F(x) = 1 - exp{-
For the case shown in figure 1 3 ( c ) o r ( d ) , where s t r e s s e s vary
linearly over the depth, the s t r e s s x a t any d e p t h y from t h e
neutral axis i s
x = Z_f
cd m
or x = rf where r = ^—r
m cd
and equation 3.13 becomes

68
F ( r V - 1--,|-?J C ^ 3
* } ( 3
- 1 6 >
1 r
Under c o n d i t i o n s of l o a d i n g such as shown i n f i g u r e 13(c) or
(d) the extreme f i b r e s t r e s s at f a i l u r e , fm, can be c a l c u l a t e d
as a ratio of the axial tension strength ft. For any
p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e ( f o r example, the median s t r e n g t h with
F(x)=0.5) equations 3.14 and 3.16 can be equated and
rearranged t o give
k " 1 / k
3
f m = 1/ r dr] f t ( . 3 1 7 )
r
For the n e u t r a l a x i s w i t h i n the member depth as shown in
figure 13(c), t h i s becomes
= [ ' ] 3
f (3.18)
m k^+l t
f L i
which f o r the special case of neutral a x i s at mid-depth
becomes
1/k,
f = [ 2(k,+l)l J
f (3.19)
m 3 t
The line i n f i g u r e 14(a) marked c=0.5 shows this equation
p l o t t e d f o r a range of values of k . 3 T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p can be
used to estimate the value of k 3 from the r a t i o of s t r e n g t h of
axial tension t e s t s to bending t e s t s . I f the t e s t specimens
are of d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s , then l e n g t h corrections should be
made first.
69
J f f Q
-
J — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i i i i i i i i i i i_
ao 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 !8JJ 50.3
STRESS DISTRIBUTION PARAMETER k,
(a)
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r i r
c=ao
i-
cc
0.0 2.3 4.0 €.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 LB.O 20.0
STRESS DISTRIBUTION PARAMETER k 3
(b)
Figure 14 - Ratio of a x i a l tension strength to maximum
s t r e s s i n extreme f i b r e
Equation 3.19 assumes that the n e u t r a l a x i s i s at mid-
depth. The two dotted l i n e s i n f i g u r e 14(a) show that there
is not a l o t of d i f f e r e n c e i f the n e u t r a l a x i s i s at 40% or
45% of the depth from the tension surface.
When the n e u t r a l a x i s i s outside the beam depth as shown
i n f i g u r e 13(d), the i n t e g r a t i o n y i e l d s
70
f = { c u _ l ^ " 1
^ (3.20)
m 3 J J
t
Figure 14(b) shows the ratio of a x i a l t e n s i o n strength to
maximum s t r e s s i n the extreme t e n s i o n fibre for a wide range
of neutral axis depths, using e q u a t i o n s 3 . 1 9 and 3.20.
3.7.2 Compression Zone
The assumptions of brittle fracture theory cannot be
applied to a ductile material like wood in compression.
However i t i s possible that some o t h e r mechanism c o u l d result
in the maximum c o m p r e s s i o n stress increasing as t h e percentage
of the depth stressed i n compression decreases. For example,
a wide face centreline knot c o u l d reduce the a x i a l compression
strength at the c r o s s section w i t h o u t h a v i n g any s i g n i f i c a n t
effect on bending strength. The "fibre support theory"
described i n Chapter 2 i s also consistent with a within-member
depth e f f e c t in compression.
As a mathematical t o o l to i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s phenomenon,
the t h e o r y d e v e l o p e d above for tension will be extended to
include compression behaviour. Assume that wood in
compression has an e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Consider the cross section shown in figure 15(a). When
stressed in axial compression wood y i e l d s a t a s t r e s s f c as
shown i n f i g u r e 15(b). In t h e c a s e s shown in figures 15(c)
and (d) the yield stress fern i s g r e a t e r than the s t r e s s f c
depending on the percentage of the section depth that is
highly stressed.
The same procedure used in tension c a n be used here to

71
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 15 - Compression s t r e s s distributions
give
f
cm
- [+ L
a
k^+l J
3
f c
(3.21 )
cm - u + ^> V b
k +l
3
k3+ 1/k3
f (3.22)
for the cases shown i n f i g u r e s 15(c) and (d) respectively,
where the r a t i o s a, b, and c are d e f i n e d i n the f i g u r e .
3.8 WIDTH EFFECT
Conventional brittle fracture theory suggests that
f a i l u r e s t r e s s e s should decrease f o r any increase in member
volume. For wood bending members a s i z e e f f e c t has been,
observed with l e n g t h and depth of member, but not with width.
For c l e a r wood, Bohannan(1966) found that modulus of rupture
was independent of width, and e x p l a i n e d t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n using

72
an intuitive argument. He p o i n t e d out that bending s t r e s s e s
vary as the square of the depth of a member, but only linearly
with the width, so that some small i n i t i a l reduction i n depth
would be more likely t o cause a "cascading" type of member
f a i l u r e than a r e d u c t i o n in width. An extension to this
argument can be made i f shear s t r e s s e s are c o n s i d e r e d , and i t
i s assumed that a f l e x u r a l failure is initiated i n some way by
a l o c a l shear f a i l u r e . In a beam consisting of parallel
longitudinal fibres, subjected to a shear f o r c e , shear i s
transferred from f i b r e s to adjacent ones above and below, but
not to adjacent fibres side by side. For t h i s reason an
increase i n beam depth may c o n t r i b u t e to a size effect more
than an increase in beam width. These arguments are not
unreasonable, but f a i l to e x p l a i n a c r o s s section effect in
axial tension, which i s of s i m i l a r or g r e a t e r magnitude than
that observed i n bending.
Another p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the absence of a width
effect i n c l e a r wood could be that the c e l l s i n each new l a y e r
added to a tree's circumference are of very similar
p r o p e r t i e s , but that v a r i a b i l i t y between layers and between
annual rings causes depth effects. This theory i s only
s t r i c t l y a p p l i c a b l e i f a l l members are "quarter-sawn" or "edge
sawn" as shown i n f i g u r e 16., There i s no suggestion that a l l
members t e s t e d have been sawn i n t h i s way, but the theory may
still c o n t r i b u t e to a s i z e e f f e c t which i s a f f e c t e d by only
one c r o s s s e c t i o n a l dimension, not two.
For commercial timber, Madsen and S t i n s o n (1982) have

73
Figure 16 - Quarter-sawn board
found a significant increase in modulus of rupture with
i n c r e a s i n g width, contrary to the predictions of brittle
f r a c t u r e theory. They attempted to e x p l a i n these o b s e r v a t i o n s
by looking at the projections of knots allowed by grading
rules for various widths of timber, but were unable to
separate grading e f f e c t s from b r i t t l e fracture effects.
No r e s u l t s have been r e p o r t e d f o r in-grade bending tests
of s t r u c t u r a l timber about the weak a x i s . Results for strong
axis bending would suggest that the f a i l u r e s t r e s s f o r weak
a x i s bending should be significantly greater, because of
additive factors of d e c r e a s i n g depth and i n c r e a s i n g width.
Such an e f f e c t was found f o r some but not a l l s i z e s t e s t e d in
t h i s study, as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 5.
Width effects are pursued no further in this thesis,
because a l l the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r combined l o a d i n g are for a
s i n g l e width of 38mm with bending about the s t r o n g a x i s .

74
3.9 EFFECT OF GRADING RULES
When i n v e s t i g a t i n g size effects in timber members with
defects, i t i s very d i f f i c u l t to separate the e f f e c t of member
s i z e s from the e f f e c t of grading rules.
Consider f o r example the e f f e c t of member depth. Some
d e f e c t s are l i m i t e d to a c e r t a i n size independent of member
depth, others are permitted to be a c e r t a i n percentage of the
depth, so s t r e n g t h d i f f e r e n c e s between d i f f e r e n t s i z e s can be
affected by the way in which grading rules control such
defects.
A s i m i l a r problem e x i s t s with member l e n g t h . When graded
timber i s cut i n t o short p i e c e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e length e f f e c t s ,
many of the short pieces become >a higher grade than- the
original p i e c e s because there may be only one l i m i t i n g defect
in a given long board. Conversely, i f a defect (such as wane)
i s l i m i t e d to some percentage of the member length, then
cutting into smaller lengths may down-grade a board. For
these reasons, i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o s i z e e f f e c t s using in-grade
t e s t i n g must be reported and i n t e r p r e t e d carefully. In this
study i t i s simply stated that the r e s u l t s obtained are
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a t e r i a l purchased as Number 2 and Better
Grade i n 4 . 8 8 m l e n g t h s , subsequently cut i n t o shorter lengths
for testing.
75
3.10 SUMMARY
T h i s chapter has reviewed c o n v e n t i o n a l s i z e e f f e c t theory
which i s based on a s t a t i s t i c a l strength theory for brittle
materials. The theory can be modified and improved f o r
application to timber, with size effects in different
directions receiving separate consideration. The modified
theory has been developed and discussed.

76
IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
T h i s chapter d e s c r i b e s experimental procedures f o r a number of
different t e s t s c a r r i e d out to p r o v i d e input to t h i s thesis.
The experiments served a number of d i f f e r e n t purposes,
and the r e s u l t s w i l l be referred to in several subsequent
chapters. Most of the r e s u l t s r e l a t e to the s t r e n g t h model
which w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 6. Some results provide
basic input to the model, some are used to c a l i b r a t e the
model, and many more are used for v e r i f i c a t i o n .
Readers who wish to f o l l o w the t h e o r e t i c a l development of
the t h e s i s may proceed d i r e c t l y to Chapter 6.
4.1 EXPERIMENTAL STAGES
The experimental work described in this thesis was
carried out in five stages under a co-operative testing
programme. The experimental stages are summarized i n Table I,
and the s i z e s and lengths tested in stages 1 to 5 are
summarized i n Table I I .
Stage 1 which was initiated and s u p e r v i s e d by Dr. Ken
Johns of the U n i v e r s i t y of Sherbrooke, Quebec, consisted of
eccentrically loaded compression t e s t s on 38x140mm boards at
the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia (UBC) in early 1981. A
detailed analysis of these r e s u l t s by the author i n mid-1981
i d e n t i f i e d s e r i o u s d i s c r e p a n c i e s between current theory and
a c t u a l behaviour, s t i m u l a t i n g the subsequent work d e s c r i b e d i n
this thesis.
Stage 2 which was s u p e r v i s e d by the author, c o n s i s t e d of

77
Test
Stage Material Size Location, Description
(Source) Date
1 SPF 38x140 UBC E c c e n t r i c compression
(BC) (1981)
2 SPF 38x140 UBC Bending

(BC) (1982) Axial tension
Axial compression
Combined bending & t e n s i o n
3 SPF 38x89 Sherbrooke Eccentric compression
(Quebec) (1982-83)
4 SPF 38x89 UBC Bending

(Quebec) (1983) A x i a l t e n s i o n ( s h o r t & long)
A x i a l compression ( s h o r t & long)
Eccentric tension
5 SPF 38x140 UBC Bending ( d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s &

(BC) (1983) load configurations)
T e n s i o n ( s h o r t and l o n g )
Table I - Summary of experimental stages
bending t e s t s , compression t e s t s , t e n s i o n t e s t s , and combined
bending and t e n s i o n t e s t s , a l l u s i n g 38x140mm boards from the
same sample as the Stage 1 tests. These t e s t s were c a r r i e d
out at UBC i n e a r l y 1982. Stages 1 and 2 have been summarized
by Johns and Buchanan (1982).
Stage 3 was c a r r i e d out on the same machine as Stage 1,
relocated to the University of Sherbrooke, Quebec. This
stage, which was supervised by Dr. Johns and Mr. Raymond
Bleau, c o n s i s t e d of e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded compression t e s t s on
38x89mm boards, i n l a t e 1982 and e a r l y 1983. More d e t a i l s are

78
Material Approx. Eccentric Axial Loading Axial Axial Combined Bending

length Compression Tension Tension &
(o) Eccentricity (nnn) Bending
2 12 18 39 75 202
COMPRESSION
38x140 0.21 X
SPF 0.91 X X X X X
(BC) 1.82 X X
2.44 X X X X X X
3.00 X X X
3.35 X X
4.27 X X
0.135 X
0.45 X X X X X
0.91 X
0.84 X
1.30 X X X
38x89 1.50 X
SPF 1.80 X X X X X
(Quebec) 2.0 X X
2.3 X X X
3.2 X X X
X X
TENSION
0.45 X X X X
Each x represents a test of approximately 100 specimens.
Table II - Summary of lengths and s i z e s tested

(stages 1 to 4)
p r o v i d e d by B l e a u ( l 9 8 4 ) .
Stage 4 was c a r r i e d out at UBC by the author in early
1983. This stage repeated the t e s t s of Stage 2 f o r 38x89mm
boards from the p o p u l a t i o n of the Stage 3 tests. It also
included short compression t e s t s , short t e n s i o n t e s t s , short
bending t e s t s , machine s t r e s s grading and e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded
t e n s i o n t e s t s , a l l d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l below.
Stage 5 was a s e r i e s of t e s t s to i n v e s t i g a t e the effects
of member length and load configuration on the bending
strength of 38x140mm timber members. These tests were

79
designed and supervised by P r o f e s s o r Borg Madsen as part of a
separate r e s e a r c h program (Madsen 1983). Some preliminary
results which are r e l e v a n t to t h i s study w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n
this thesis.
4.2 TEST MATERIAL
4.2.1 S p e c i e s
The experiments d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s t h e s i s were c a r r i e d out
on boards from three separate groups. The first group for
stages 1 and 2 was 38x140mm (nominal 2x6 inch) s p r u c e - p i n e - f i r
(SPF) timber from central interior B r i t i s h Columbia. The
second group f o r stages 3 and 4 was 38x89mm (nominal 2x4 inch)
SPF timber from Quebec. The t h i r d group of boards f o r stage 5
were SPF from northern i n t e r i o r B r i t i s h Columbia. No attempt
was made to q u a n t i f y the a c t u a l s p e c i e s i n each group, but a l l
three groups appeared to be predominantly spruce.
The t e s t r e s u l t s are b e l i e v e d to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the
commercial SPF s p e c i e s group i n B r i t i s h Columbia and i n Quebec
respectively.
4.2.2 Grading
The first two groups were purchased as "Number Two and
B e t t e r " grade i n 4.88 m l e n g t h s . A f t e r c u t t i n g to l e n g t h , a l l
the boards were regraded by a q u a l i f i e d grader. Almost two-
t h i r d s of the i n i t i a l lengths were of S e l e c t S t r u c t u r a l Grade.
A f t e r c u t t i n g to short lengths more than t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of the
sample became Select S t r u c t u r a l Grade. For example, a long
Number Two board with one d e f e c t could produce s e v e r a l Select
Structural segments.
80
In the data a n a l y s i s a p r e l i m i n a r y attempt was made to
separate by grade but there were too many Select Structural
grade boards to produce s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s f o r the lower
grades. A small number of boards down-graded f o r l a r g e knots
or serious s t r u c t u r a l d e f e c t s were n o t i c e a b l y weak, but many
boards down-graded f o r wane or cosmetic defects were very
strong. A l l the. r e s u l t s described are f o r a l l grades
combined. These r e s u l t s are b e l i e v e d to be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
"Number Two and B e t t e r " m a t e r i a l as graded i n 4.88m l e n g t h s .
The boards tested in stage 5 were purchased i n two
separate grades, S e l e c t S t r u c t u r a l and Number 2. The axial
t e n s i o n t e s t s and the f l a t - w i s e bending t e s t s were c a r r i e d out
on Number 2 grade o n l y . The bending t e s t s were c a r r i e d out
s e p a r a t e l y on both grades.
4.2.3 Moisture Content
All boards were purchased kiln-dried. No climate-
controlled storage areas were available in either testing
location. A l l the boards were kept indoors, and moisture
content recorded at the time of t e s t i n g using an e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t a n c e moisture meter.
For the Stage 1 tests, the moisture content varied
between 11% and 16% with an average value of 14.25%. At the
time of the Stage 2 t e s t s the average moisture content was
13.8%.
The Stage 3 and 4 t e s t i n g was c a r r i e d out over a p e r i o d

81
of s e v e r a l months, and there were some minor moisture content
changes during t h i s period. The moisture content v a r i e d from
7% t o 13%, with an average value of 10.4%. The test results
are b e l i e v e d t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of m a t e r i a l of t h i s moisture
content range.
4.2.4 Sample S e l e c t i o n
Stages 1 and 2 (38x140mm)
On arrival i n the l a b o r a t o r y , s u f f i c i e n t timber f o r a l l
the Stage 1 t e s t i n g was designated, and samples f o r each
length and eccentricity were selected randomly from that
material. The Stage 2 testing was carried out from the
remainder of the shipment.
Stages 3 and 4 (38x89mm)
The whole of t h i s group was randomly a s s i g n e d to samples
for combined bending and compression t e s t i n g i n Stage 3. When
i t was decided to not t e s t every l e n g t h at every e c c e n t r i c i t y ,
approximately 300 boards 2.9m long and 200 boards 1.9m long
became a v a i l a b l e f o r s h i p p i n g t o UBC f o r Stage 4 t e s t i n g .
For the Stage 4 t e s t i n g , two samples of 90 boards 2.9m
long were s e l e c t e d f o r the long t e n s i o n and compression tests.
Two samples of 90 boards 1.9m long were s e l e c t e d f o r bending
tests. One sample was t e s t e d f u l l l e n g t h , the other was c u t
i n two h a l v e s , one h a l f length tested edgewise, the other
flatwise. Ten boards 2.9m long were cut up for short
compression t e s t s . The remainder of the boards were cut into
0.97m lengths f o r combined bending and t e n s i o n t e s t s . Four
samples of 80 boards ( f o r four e c c e n t r i c i t i e s ) were selected

82
at random such that no sample had more than one segment from
any board.
Stage 5 (38x140mm)
The samples for d i f f e r e n t t e s t s were s e l e c t e d randomly on
the basis of long-span flexural modulus of elasticity as
described by Madsen(1983).
4.3 SAMPLE SIZES AND CONFIDENCE
4.3.1 Sample Sizes
The intention for most t e s t s was to have a sample s i z e of
100. In practice the useful sample sizes were usually
slightly l e s s due to minor problems. The sample size for
combined bending and tension in Stage 4 was reduced to 80, in
order to obtain data at four e c c e n t r i c i t i e s from the limited
number of boards a v a i l a b l e .
The sample s i z e s used allow c a l c u l a t i o n of mean or median,
values with c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f i d e n c e , and upper and lower tail
v a l u e s with s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s c o n f i d e n c e . The 5th and 95th
percentile values (.05 and .95 quantiles) have been used
throughout t h i s study as i n d i c a t o r s of behaviour at the tails
of the distribution. Percentiles can be c a l c u l a t e d d i r e c t l y
from a cumulative p l o t of the ranked data, either using the
two points either side of the percentile, or a weighted
average of s e v e r a l points i n the vicinity.
An a l t e r n a t i v e approach, using a l l of the data, i s to f i t
an a p p r o p r i a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l model to the data, then to

83
c a l c u l a t e the p e r c e n t i l e values from the f i t t e d distribution.
T h i s method has been used throughout this study, using the
Weibull distribution.
4.3.2 Weibull Distribution
The W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a f l e x i b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n which
has been widely used f o r studying the s t r e n g t h of wood and
other m a t e r i a l s .
The Weibull distribution is most appropriate for
describing material strength properties because for large
sample s i z e s i t i s the a s y m p t o t i c a l l y exact distribution for
extreme values from any initial d i s t r i b u t i o n that i s bounded
in the d i r e c t i o n of the extreme v a l u e . M a t e r i a l strength fits
t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n because it tends to be governed by the
strength of the weakest one of a l a r g e number of elements,
particularly when brittle failures occur.. None of the
elements can have negative s t r e n g t h , so there i s a lower bound
at zero (or hi-gher in some c a s e s ) . In t h i s study, three-
parameter Weibull .distributions have been fitted to
experimental data by e s t i m a t i n g the W e i b u l l parameters with
maximum l i k e l i h o o d equations.
4.3.3 Confidence Calculation for Q u a n t i l e s
C a l c u l a t i o n of confidence i n t e r v a l s depends on the type
of model f i t t e d to the data, and on the number of data p o i n t s .
An estimate of a quantile value can be assumed to be
a s y m p t o t i c a l l y normally d i s t r i b u t e d , f o r large sample size,
regardless of the distributional form of the parent
p o p u l a t i o n , with v a r i a n c e given by Bury (1975), as

84
var(x ) = (4.1 )
q
n[f(x )] q
2
where q i s t h e q u a n t i l e under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , n i s t h e sample
size, x q i s t h e q t h q u a n t i l e o f t h e v a r i a b l e x, a n d f(xq) i s
the probability density function (p.d.f.).
For the Weibull distribution
x q = x o + m [ l n ( l / ( l - q ) ) ] 1 / k
(4.2)
and
x - x , . x^ - x„
, . k x
q ~ o^k-i
x
r x
q %M (4 3)
;-3 ^ ) exp{-(-^—
c r k _ 1 r
m v
m m
which combine to give
f(x ) q = i [ l n ( l / ( l - q ) ) ] ( 1
- 1 / k )
exp{-ln(l/(l-q))} (4.4)
where x , k, a n d m a r e t h e l o c a t i o n p a r a m e t e r , shape
0 parameter
and s c a l e parameter r e s p e c t i v e l y , of the W e i b u l l distribution.
Suppose we want to be 100 p % confident that the
estimated quantile is within an interval of plus-or-minus
100 r % of the population q u a n t i l e , then t r a n s f o r m i n g to a
standard normal variable
2r x = 2 z ,„ /var(x ) (4.5)
q P/2 q'
where p / 2 *
z s t
^ i e v a
l u e
°f t h e s t a n d a r d normal variable such
that t h e a r e a under the standard normal curve i s p / 2 .

85
If we, have a sample of s i z e n, we can c a l c u l a t e the
confidence p by r e a r r a n g i n g these equations to give
=
p/2
Z
f (
V/^q7 <'> 4 6
The value of Zp/2 c a n D e

r e f e r r e d to standard normal t a b l e s to
o b t a i n the confidence p, f o r a two-sided test.
Of course the Weibull parameters are not known in
advance, but values obtained from s i m i l a r t e s t s on the same
m a t e r i a l can be used to make a reasonable estimation of
confidence. C a l c u l a t i o n s were made to estimate the confidence
with which quantiles, calculated from the fitted Weibull
d i s t r i b u t i o n , were i n the i n t e r v a l plus-or-minus 10% of the
population values, for a sample size of 90. Weibull
parameters were obtained from both bending and tension tests
of SPF timber in two s i z e s (38x89mm and 38x135mm) f o r both
S e l e c t S t r u c t u r a l and No. 2 grades.
As an example c o n s i d e r the figures f o r No. 2 grade
38x89mm timber in bending. The l o c a t i o n , shape and s c a l e
parameters are 10.1, 1.70 and 34.3, respectively. With
r=0.l0, n=90 and q=0.05, equation 4.6 gives a value p/2 °^ z
0.97, which corresponds to an area of 0.335 under the standard
normal curve, or a confidence of 67% that the estimated 5th
percentile i s within the i n t e r v a l between 0.9 times and 1.1
times the p o p u l a t i o n v a l u e .
T h i s procedure is illustrated in figure 17. The solid
line i s the p.d.f. of the u n d e r l y i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n (the parent

86
00
CN
- 5%ile
.1
I'IS
50%ile
m
ec
m
o
or CN p.d.f of quantile
Area p f estimator,
95%ile using:
I
p.d.f of
/'I/ '\y order statistics
underlying
distribution
normal
Y approximation
I " — I 1
o.o 60.0 70.0
STRESS (flPfl)
Figure 17 - P.d.f. of q u a n t i l e e s t i m a t o r s
population). The dotted lines are the p.d.f.'s of the
estimated q u a n t i l e s at the 5th, 50th, and 95th percentile
levels, for a sample s i z e of 59, using two d i f f e r e n t methods
of c a l c u l a t i o n . The two dotted l i n e s are very c l o s e , showing
that the normal d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a very good approximation to a
more exact curve obtained using order s t a t i s t i c s (Bury 1975),
even f o r t h i s case with a small sample size and low shape
parameter. The terms p and r, referred to above, are
illustrated f o r the 50th p e r c e n t i l e case o n l y .
Using a l l the samples r e f e r r e d to above, the following

87
c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn regarding the t e s t s i n t h i s study:
1. 5th percentile values have been estimated with
approximately 70% confidence that they are w i t h i n 10% of
population values.
2. Median v a l u e s (50th p e r c e n t i l e s ) have been estimated
with approximately 90% confidence that they are within
10% of p o p u l a t i o n v a l u e s , or approximately 65% confidence
that they are w i t h i n plus-or-minus 5%. Confidences on
mean v a l u e s are similar.
3. 95th p e r c e n t i l e s have confidence l i m i t s about midway
between the v a l u e s quoted f o r 5th and 50th percentiles.
These confidence i n t e r v a l s are c o n s i d e r e d q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y
in view of the variable nature of wood and various
uncertainties regarding grade, s p e c i e s , source of supply and
testing procedures.
4.4 TEST PROCEDURES
4.4.1 Bending
Bending t e s t s were c a r r i e d out on each group of timber as
shown i n Table I I , to obtain data for calibration of the
strength model. Several lengths were t e s t e d to i n v e s t i g a t e
length e f f e c t s i n bending.
Bending t e s t s were performed on an Olsen 900 kN universal

88
testing machine. Load was applied mechanically at a
controlled displacement rate of approximately 30 mm/min which
produced f a i l u r e i n about one minute. Lateral supports near
the load p o i n t s prevented l a t e r a l b u c k l i n g . Maximum load was
recorded from the load i n d i c a t o r attached to the machine.
Figure 18 - Loading arrangement f o r bending t e s t
All the bending t e s t s l i s t e d i n Table II were c a r r i e d out
with simple supports and one-third point loading as shown
schematically i n f i g u r e 18. A l l of these t e s t s had a span-to-
depth ratio of 17, except f o r the short span t e s t of 38x89mm
boards which was t e s t e d at a r a t i o of 9.5. One sample of
boards was a l s o t e s t e d i n f l a t - w i s e bending at t h i s span.
For the stage 5 bending t e s t s reported in this thesis,
the boards were t e s t e d with simple supports and three load
configurations; two loads at o n e - t h i r d points, two loads one-
quarter span apart, and a c e n t r a l point load. Each of these
tests was carried out at two spans of 1.5m and 3.0 m, and
separately f o r S e l e c t S t r u c t u r a l and Number 2 grades. One
sample of Number 2 grade boards was tested in flat-wise

89
.bending at the s h o r t e r span.
4.4.2 Axial Tension
a. Long Boards
T e s t s of long boards were c a r r i e d out under s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s
to previous in-grade a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s (Madsen and Nielsen
1978b). The r e s u l t s of these t e s t s are used as b a s i c input to
the s t r e n g t h model d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 6.
Tension tests were carried out on an axial loading
machine d e s c r i b e d by Madsen and Nielsen (I978d) and shown
schematically in figure 19(a). This machine has friction
g r i p s 450mm long at each end, with polyurethane-covered steel
plates which grip the board when forced together by a
hydraulic j a c k i n g system. The specimen i s s t r e s s e d in t e n s i o n
when the l e n g t h of the whole machine is increased, using a
second hydraulic jacking system. F a i l u r e load i s recorded
from a c a r e f u l l y c a l i b r a t e d h y d r a u l i c f l u i d pressure gauge.
The friction grips are r i g i d l y mounted to prevent r o t a t i o n
about any axis. The 38x140mm boards were tested at the
machine's standard l e n g t h with a f r e e length of 3.0m between
grips. The 38x89mm boards were t e s t e d over a f r e e length of
2.0 m, a l l other d e t a i l s remaining the same.
The g r i p pressure was c o n t r o l l e d manually throughout the
t e s t s , being increased g r a d u a l l y i f the specimen began to slip
in-the g r i p s , with care not to cause excessive crushing
perpendicular to the grain. The l o a d i n g was at a uniform
displacement rate c o n t r o l l e d by the electric pump on the
hydraulic j a c k i n g system. F a i l u r e g e n e r a l l y occurred in about

90
Figure 1 9 - Loading arrangement f o r a x i a l tests

(a) t e n s i o n (b) c o m p r e s s i o n
30 s e c o n d s i f there was no s l i p p a g e i n the g r i p s .
Although these test are referred t o as a x i a l tension
tests, there was p r o b a b l y some b e n d i n g induced i n most boards
due to v a r i a t i o n s i n wood p r o p e r t i e s w i t h i n each board. Any
such bending has been n e g l e c t e d , and t h e t e n s i o n s t r e s s i n the
b o a r d s has been c a l c u l a t e d by s i m p l y dividing the a x i a l force
by the cross s e c t i o n a l area.
b. Short Boards
Short boards were tested in axial tension to obtain
information on l e n g t h effects. The tension testing machine
described above was m o d i f i e d t o accept any l e n g t h as s m a l l as
0.9m. The g r i p s a t one end were used unmodified. At the
modified end, new g r i p s were made from a p a i r o f s t e e l plates
faced with coarse sandpaper cut from a heavy duty sanding

91
belt. These plates were clamped together by the same
hydraulic system used f o r the o r i g i n a l g r i p s . The p l a t e s were
connected to the r e s t of the machine through a t e n s i o n member
of variable length. The new connection was not as r i g i d as
the o r i g i n a l one, as i t allowed r o t a t i o n about the strong a x i s
of the board and some t o r s i o n a l r o t a t i o n , but previous tests
i n d i c a t e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n r e s u l t s from t h i s source
(Madsen and N i e l s e n I978d).
4.4.3 A x i a l Compression
a. Long Boards
Axial compression t e s t s of long boards were c a r r i e d out under
s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s to p r e v i o u s in-grade compression tests.
The r e s u l t s of these t e s t s provide b a s i c input i n f o r m a t i o n f o r
the s t r e n g t h model. . /
Compression tests of long boards were performed i n the
same machine as the t e n s i o n tests, with the loading jacks
reversed. A system of l a t e r a l supports faced with t e f l o n pads
prevented lateral b u c k l i n g i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , as d e s c r i b e d
by Madsen and N i e l s e n (1978c) and i l l u s t r a t e d schematically in
figure 19(b). The l a t e r a l supports were located with just
enough clearance f o r the boards to be i n s e r t e d e a s i l y without
adjustment f o r each board. No attempt was made to f o r c e each
board into a perfectly s t r a i g h t c o n d i t i o n , so a very small
amount of bending moment may have been present in addition to
the a p p l i e d a x i a l l o a d . Any such bending has been neglected.

92
b. Short Segments
A number of boards were cut i n t o short segments t o i n v e s t i g a t e
the variation i n compression s t r e n g t h w i t h i n each board, as a
means of quantifying length effects i n compression. The
segment length was 210mm f o r the 38x140mm boards, and 140mm
for the 38x89mm boards.
These segments were loaded i n a x i a l compression parallel
to the g r a i n . The t e s t i n g machine was an Amsler universal
testing machine of 1.0 MN capacity. Load was applied
hydraulically through steel platens which were not free t o
rotate. Platen displacement and load were recorded
c o n t i n u o u s l y and p l o t t e d on an x-y r e c o r d e r . Loading r a t e was
approximately 4 mm per minute, which corresponds to a s t r a i n
r a t e of approximately 0.02mm/mm per minute.
4.4.4 Eccentric Compression
E c c e n t r i c compression t e s t s were performed in a special
purpose testing machine described by Johns and Buchanan
(1982). Each end of the t e s t specimen fitted snugly into a
steel "boot" through which a x i a l compression was a p p l i e d at a
pre-determined e c c e n t r i c i t y about the strong a x i s as shown i n
figure 20(a). A system of roller bearings and lateral
supports prevented b u c k l i n g about the weak a x i s . The machine
can test lengths up t o 5.0m a t e c c e n t r i c i t i e s up t o 202mm.
Equal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s were used f o r a l l t e s t s . The actual
l e n g t h s and e c c e n t r i c i t i e s t e s t e d a r e shown i n t a b l e I I .
Axial load was p r o v i d e d by a h y d r a u l i c jack at one end,
connected i n s e r i e s with a load c e l l . Lateral displacements

93
Eccentricity
varies
2mm to 202mrn
Test specimen
140 mm
or 8 9 m m
(a) (b)
F i g u r e 20 - E c c e n t r i c a x i a l l o a d i n g
(a) C o m p r e s s i o n (b) T e n s i o n
were measured at three locations along each specimen with
linear variable displacement transducers (LVDT's). The load
cell a n d LVDT's were s c a n n e d throughout the t e s t by a computer
based data a c q u i s i t i o n system. L o a d was a p p l i e d at a constant
displacement rate until maximum load had c l e a r l y been reached.
Time t o f a i l u r e averaged about one m i n u t e .

94
4.4.5 Combined Bending and Tension
Combined bending and tension t e s t s were c a r r i e d out i n
two separate and q u i t e d i f f e r e n t experiments.
a. Bending Followed by Tension
As part of the Stage 2 testing approximately 200 38x140mm
boards 4.8m long were t e s t e d to f a i l u r e i n combined bending
and tension as d e s c r i b e d by Johns and Buchanan (1982). These
tests were carried out i n the machine already described for
the long tension and compression tests. As shown
schematically i n f i g u r e 21(a) each board was i n i t i a l l y loaded
in bending as a simply supported beam with a g r a v i t y load at
the one-third points, before the ends were clamped with the
h y d r a u l i c g r i p s and a x i a l tension load . a p p l i e d to produce
f a i l u r e , as shown i n f i g u r e 21(b).
The tension load was recorded as i n the a x i a l tension
tests. The bending moment at failure was calculated by
superposition of three separate e f f e c t s ; moment due to g r a v i t y
load bending, moment due to e c c e n t r i c i t y of a x i a l load, and
secondary moment developed because the ends of the boards were
partially restrained against r o t a t i o n during the t e s t .
These boards were t e s t e d i n two groups with different
levels of initial' gravity load. Several boards broke i n
Bending before any t e n s i o n f o r c e was a p p l i e d . For the group
with high g r a v i t y loads about h a l f broke i n t h i s manner.
This t e s t i n g procedure was not very s a t i s f a c t o r y because
i t was not p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e bending moment and a x i a l load
concurrently and because some slipping in the g r i p s gave

95
(b)
F i g u r e 21 - Combined bending and t e n s i o n test

(a) f i r s t stage (b) second stage
erroneous moment readings f o r the stronger boards i n the
sample.
b. E c c e n t r i c Tension
A much more s a t i s f a c t o r y t e s t i n g procedure was used f o r the
38x89mm boards i n Stage 4. Combined bending and t e n s i o n tests
were performed on four groups of 80 boards, each 970mm long.
The boards were stressed i n tension with equal end
e c c e n t r i c i t i e s as shown schematically in figure 20(b), a
different eccentricity f o r each group. T h i s type of in-grade
t e s t i n g has not been r e p o r t e d elsewhere.
A 275mm l e n g t h a t each end of each board was clamped
between sandpaper-faced steel plates with the m o d i f i e d
hydraulic j a c k i n g system used i n the long t e n s i o n t e s t s . The
bottom grip p l a t e s were connected t o the f l o o r with a saddle

96
which allowed r o t a t i o n about the strong axis but no other
movement. The top g r i p p l a t e s were connected to the l o a d i n g
system with a s i m i l a r saddle which allowed r o t a t i o n about the
strong axis, and about the l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . The load was
a p p l i e d through a 450 KN c a p a c i t y MTS jack and load cell in
series. The system was operated under stroke c o n t r o l with a
displacement rate of approximately 1.5mm per second, producing
failure i n 15 to 30 seconds.
G r i p pressure was controlled manually as in the long
tension tests. L a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n s were measured with three
LVDT's. Load and d e f l e c t i o n were scanned continuously with
the computer-based data a c q u i s i t i o n system. Maximum load and
the corresponding d e f l e c t i o n s were recorded.
4.4.6 Data Aquisition
For a l l the combined bending and axial load testing
carried out at UBC, a computer data a c q u i s i t i o n system was
used. T h i s system c o n s i s t s of a NEFF scanner on l i n e with a
PDP-11 digital computer. The scanner can scan up to 60
channels of input at high speed. A data a c q u i s i t i o n programme
writes the data to disk file at predetermined load or
deflection increments. A similar system was used f o r the
Stage 3 t e s t i n g at Sherbrooke.
4.4.7 Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y is required for predicting the
buckling strength of long columns, and for input to the
s t r e n g t h model. Three methods were used to assess modulus of
elasticity.
97
1. A random sample of a l l the boards were s u b j e c t e d t o a
static bending test, and" the measured d e f l e c t i o n used to
c a l c u l a t e the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y . Approximately one fifth
of the boards were t e s t e d .
2. For the boards tested i n combined bending and
compression at Sherbrooke, a Southwell plot was made. A
d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s i s given by B l e a u ( l 9 8 4 ) . For the
long length boards with small e c c e n t r i c i t y , the modulus of
e l a s t i c i t y determined i n t h i s manner was very close to that
obtained i n s t a t i c bending.
3. A l l of the 38x89mm boards subsequently t e s t e d i n
t e n s i o n and compression were s u b j e c t e d to flexural stiffness
measurements. The boards were passed through a Cook-Bolinder
s t r e s s - g r a d i n g machine a t the Western Laboratory of Forintek
Canada Corp. This machine bends each board as a plank,
passing i t between three r o l l e r s , the c e n t r e one offset to
provide a midspan d e f l e c t i o n over a 910mm s i n g l e span. Each
board i s passed through twice, rotated 180 degrees between
passes and the r e s u l t s averaged t o e l i m i n a t e the e f f e c t of
crook. The load on the c e n t r e r o l l e r i s recorded every 100mm
of board travel. An average modulus of e l a s t i c i t y over the
910mm span i s calculated from the l o a d , the d e f l e c t i o n , and
the board dimensions.
The imposed d e f l e c t i o n of 5mm and the rate of t r a v e l of
40 m/min were both c o n s i d e r a b l y lower v a l u e s than used in a
typical commercial application i n order to increase accuracy

98
and reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y of damage.
4.5 SUMMARY
T h i s chapter has described sample selection, testing
machines, and experimental procedures used f o r t e s t i n g more
than 4000 t e s t specimens i n bending, t e n s i o n , compression, and
combined l o a d i n g . R e s u l t s are d e s c r i b e d i n the next chapter.

99
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This chapter contains a brief description of experimental
results, with some d i s c u s s i o n and explanation for observed
behaviour. Combined bending and axial loading results are
discussed i n some d e t a i l , as are those relating to length
effects. Some of the other experimental results are analysed
in more d e t a i l in subsequent chapters.
5.1 COMBINED BENDING AND AXIAL LOADING RESULTS
5.1.1 Presentation
As described previously, five different lengths of boards
were t e s t e d at several different eccentricities, for both
38x140 and 38x89mm sizes, with about 100 boards in each
sample.
Within each sample there is a large amount of scatter in
the results. The simplest method of comparing one sample with
another is to compare sample means, but this does not
necessarily describe relative behaviour at the high or low
ends of the distribution. R e s u l t s can be compared a t various
quantiles within the distribution. Throughout this study,
comparisons will be made a t the 5th percentile, mean and 95th
percentile levels, the percentiles being obtained from fitted
Weibull distributions.
There are several methods of presenting results for
combined b e n d i n g and axial load for given lengths. The two
most useful methods a r e to plot axial load-moment interaction

100
diagrams f o r each l e n g t h , or t o p l o t a x i a l load a g a i n s t length
(or slenderness) f o r given e c c e n t r i c i t i e s . The two methods
are r e l a t e d as shown i n f i g u r e 11.
5.1.2 I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Short Members
a. Test Results
The s h o r t e s t members t e s t e d had lengths between g r i p s of 900mm
and 450mm f o r the 38x140 and 38x89mm sizes, respectively.
Buckling effects a r e very small at these l e n g t h s , so maximum
recorded values of axial load and moment represent the
m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h of the weakest c r o s s s e c t i o n i n each board.
Figures 22(a) and (b) show the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the
s h o r t e s t l e n g t h of 38x89 and 38x140mm boards, respectively.
Each dot represents the a x i a l load and mid-span moment a t
failure f o r one board. The mid-span moment was c a l c u l a t e d as
the product of the a x i a l load and the maximum d e f l e c t i o n from
the l i n e of t h r u s t . For each value of end eccentricity, the
points shown deviate from a r a d i a l l i n e because of d i f f e r e n t
amounts of d e f l e c t i o n i n each board. For each cloud of p o i n t s
r e p r e s e n t i n g one end e c c e n t r i c i t y , each p o i n t was defined in
polar co-ordinates, and the c e n t r e of g r a v i t y of the c l o u d
located. A l l p o i n t s were assumed to be on a radial line
through the centre of gravity. A three parameter Weibull
d i s t r i b u t i o n was f i t t e d t o a l l the r a d i i , and 5th and 95th
percentile values of radius were calculated from the
distribution parameters.
T h i s procedure r e s u l t e d i n each cloud of points being
reduced to three characteristic s t r e n g t h values as shown i n

101
Length 0.45m.
2 mm
12mm eccentricity
•• •
CO
•
d
O •
39 mm
Jo.
»—«
CE 75 mm
202mm
mm mm""
— ——
-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—
0.D 0.5 J.O 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
niD-SPRN HOriENT (KN.M)
(a) 38 x 89 m m
L e n g t h 0.914 m.
2 mm
18mm eccentricity
t• • •
_ V- •
•
. ••*. 39 m m
Co
» r. •
•
a •V .- s
jl? f
75 m m
CXoc _ a
•• • j * " •
••
. * 202mm
9-
^ •
n 1 1 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i i r
0.0 J.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 "?.0 B.O
niD-SPflN HOriENT (KN.n)
(b) 38x1 AO mm
Figure 22 - T e s t results f o r shortest length in eccentric

compression
102
Length CU5m.
5do
CL
o
CT.1D
X
cc
si-
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
0.0 O.S 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
rflD-SPRN MOMENT (KN.M)
(a) 38 x 89 mm
Length 0.9Hm.
CEa
dice
9-
i i i i i i i i i ; i i i i i i
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 €.0 "7.0 B.D
MID-SPRN MOMENT (KN.M)

(b) 38x140mm
F i g u r e 23 - P e r c e n t i l e r e s u l t s for s h o r t e s t length
e c c e n t r i c compression
103
f i g u r e 23. The three lines sketched through the points
represent typical behaviour at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e , mean and
95th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l s of the d i s t r i b u t i o n . A l l the curves i n
f i g u r e 23 a r e convex away from the origin. Furthermore a
significant feature i s displayed at the f i f t h percentile
level. As a x i a l compression i s increased from zero, moment
capacity i n c r e a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y before decreasing to zero at
high l e v e l s of a x i a l compression. The simple explanation for
this behaviour i s that when t e s t e d i n bending, these weaker
boards e x h i b i t a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e due to d e f e c t s i n the t e n s i o n
zone. When subjected to bending under the action of a
moderate axial compression force, the tension failure is
suppressed and moment c a p a c i t y i s increased. The resemblance
to r e i n f o r c e d concrete behaviour i s s t r i k i n g .
The behaviour of these short members i s c l a r i f i e d i f we
add the r e s u l t s of combined bending and tension tests, as
shown in figure 24 f o r 38x89mm m a t e r i a l . T h i s data i s not
a v a i l a b l e f o r 38x140mm m a t e r i a l . The top h a l f of f i g u r e 24(a)
is i d e n t i c a l to f i g u r e 22(a) and the top h a l f of f i g u r e 24(b)
is i d e n t i c a l to f i g u r e 23(a). Tension r e s u l t s have been added
below the bending a x i s . A striking feature of t h i s f i g u r e i s
the much larger strength variability in tension than in
compression. T h i s d i f f e r e n c e produces changes i n the r a t i o of
tension to compression s t r e n g t h through the d i s t r i b u t i o n of
strength values.
The ratio of tension to compression strength has a
pronounced e f f e c t on the shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n curve. At

104
2mm Length 0.45m.
k <••; ' 12mm eccentricity
Z
o
—
v.-
g
to -.4*-. 39 mm
UJ
ct
0. tf •
o
75mm
X
< 202mm
o
o
202mm
1;
•*
39 mm
o
cn
z
X* -
<
12 mm
2 mm
0.0 1.0 2.0 3D A.0 5.0
niD-SPRN nOHENT (KN.M)
(a) data points

F i g u r e 24 - Test r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm boards i n e c c e n t r i c
compression and t e n s i o n
C
ro
AXIAL TENSION (KN) A X I A L COMPRESSION (KN)
K) 200 150 100 50 0.0 50 100
p • i m • i f l I I I i I I l i I i 1 i I i J 1 1 1 1 1—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—L
>-••
3 —~
O
CO o
o 3
o rt
o>
3 3
rt C
»1 ro
a
O '
o i
o
3 -3
Xi f D
CO
ro n-
cn
cn I-I
ro
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3 c
CU •n-
3 to
a
ri- O
ft) i-(
3
01 to
00
O
3
oo
vo
3
3
CD"
tr
o
PJ
>-t
co
106
the 5th percentile level the low ratio of tension to
compression s t r e n g t h r e s u l t s i n the "nose" of the curve being
high i n the compression region. At the 95th p e r c e n t i l e level
the t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h i s much greater than the compression
s t r e n g t h , so the "nose" of the curve i s w e l l below the bending
axis and the i n t e r a c t i o n curve i n the compression region i s
c l o s e t o the s t r a i g h t l i n e assumed i n design codes.
Behaviour at the 95th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l i s of s i m i l a r form
to that expected at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l for clear wood
specimens. Hence the shapes of the the 5th and 95th
p e r c e n t i l e curves on figure 24(b) are indicative of the
differences between timber and c l e a r wood behaviour referred
to i n Chapter 2.
b. Mode of F a i l u r e
For the i n t e r a c t i o n curves shown i n f i g u r e 24(b), the nose of
the curve marks the t r a n s i t i o n between a compression dominated
failure above, to the t e n s i o n dominated f a i l u r e below. In
r e i n f o r c e d concrete terminology, a f a i l u r e at the nose of the
curve would be c a l l e d a "balanced failure."
The observed failure modes generally followed this
p a t t e r n , with f a i l u r e in the compression dominated failure
region being a s s o c i a t e d with d u c t i l e c r u s h i n g of wood on the
compression face, and f a i l u r e i n the t e n s i o n dominated failure
region being a s s o c i a t e d with b r i t t l e failure in the tension
part of the board. This i s purely a q u a l i t a t i v e assessment
because i t i s extremely d i f f i c u l t to q u a n t i f y the l a r g e number
of f a i l u r e modes observed.
107
5.1.3 I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Long Members
The test results illustrated as clouds of p o i n t s i n
f i g u r e 22 and as p e r c e n t i l e s in figure 23 have also been
produced for the more slender boards. These are a l l
illustrated i n Appendix C, with the percentiles superimposed
on the i n d i v i d u a l data points.
To illustrate the general r e l a t i o n s h i p between strength
and i n c r e a s i n g slenderness, mean v a l u e s for various lengths
have been p l o t t e d on f i g u r e 25. In a l l cases the a x i a l load
at f a i l u r e decreases with i n c r e a s i n g slenderness, this being
caused by a transition from a material failure f o r the
shortest boards to an i n s t a b i l i t y failure f o r the more slender
boards. For low l e v e l s of a x i a l load the bending moment at
failure also tends to reduce with i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h . This
e f f e c t , which i s much l e s s pronounced than the- decrease in
axial load capacity, i s l a r g e l y due to the s i z e e f f e c t with
length introduced i n Chapter 3 and q u a n t i f i e d later in this
chapter.
5.'1.4 A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves
The test results described above can be presented i n a
d i f f e r e n t way by plotting axial load against slenderness
ratio, defined as L/d where L i s the length of the member and
d i s the r e l e v a n t cross section dimension of a rectangular
member. The r e s u l t i n g curves a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 26(a) and
(b) f o r the 38x140mm and 38x89mm boards r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r mean
v a l u e s of a x i a l load at f a i l u r e . Behaviour at the 5th and
95th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l s follow a s i m i l a r trend.

108
LENGTH
O O 0.45m
H +. ! , 3 0 m
<5 e> 1.80 m
x- X 2.30 m
LB- B 3.20 m
i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i i i 1
00 0.5 1.0 L5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

MID-SPAN MOMENT (KN.M)
(a) 38 x 89 mm
LENGTH
a B 0.31 m
O- - - 0 1.82 m
A — — A 2.44 m
B H 3.35 m
^ —TO Q. (j) 4 2 7 m
4
**
—i 1 1 1—~ —i 1 1 1
30 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.U

H l D - S P f l N MOHENT (KN.M)
(b) 38x140mm
25 - I n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m f o r mean t e s t results
all lengths i n eccentric compression
109
ECCENTRICITY
0 O 2mm
H + 12mm
<$— . —0 39 m m
\ \ X X 75mm
\ N
\ •- CD 2 0 2 m m
\
a \
cc
o 1- \
\
\
1
\
ex
\
I—I
cr *>- v..
X-. — ^
CS ~ -x
O.D B.O 16.0 24.0 32.D 40.0 48.0

SLENDERNESS (L/D)
(a) 38x89 mm
I.
ECCENTRICITY
CB ED 2 m m
\ +- h 18mm
\ \ o — - —e> 39 m m
\ ts . X- X 75mm
o \ B- CD 202mm
CEg-
M
X
<X •
-H
I i i i r
O.D 16.0 24.0 32.D 40.0 48.a
B.O
SLENDERNESS [L/D)
(b) 38x140mm
F i g u r e 26 - A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curves. Mean t e s t
r e s u l t s f o r a l l lengths t e s t e d i n e c c e n t r i c compression
110
In each case the curve of most i n t e r e s t i s the top curve,
representing 2mm nominal e c c e n t r i c i t y . This loading condition
•is c l o s e t o c o n c e n t r i c loading. The failure condition for
small slenderness v a l u e s , at the l e f t hand side of the f i g u r e ,
represents a material f a i l u r e under almost c o n c e n t r i c axial
compression. The failure condition for large slenderness
values represents a l i n e a r e l a s t i c buckling failure. These
curves are s i m i l a r t o the form shown p r e v i o u s l y in figure 8,
and w i l l be compared with e x i s t i n g design code requirements i n
Chapter 9.
5.2 SEPARATE BENDING AND AXIAL LOADING RESULTS
5.2.1 Test Results
As described previously, testing was carried out i n
bending, in axial tension, and in axial compression
( r e s t r a i n e d to prevent b u c k l i n g ) , f o r both the 38x89mm and the
38x140mm sizes. The r e s u l t s of these t e s t s f o r the stage 2
and stage 4 t e s t i n g are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Appendix C, with a p l o t
of the cumulative d i s t r i b u t i o n of the ranked data, overlayed
with the f i t t e d Weibull d i s t r i b u t i o n and a number of relevant
statistics. The bending t e s t r e s u l t s from stage 5 have not
been included in Appendix C because they w i l l be reported
elsewhere (Madsen 1983).
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to compare the modulus of rupture with
the a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression strengths f o r a given grade
and size of material. Figures 27(a) and (b) show this
comparison for the two sizes. There are s e v e r a l p o i n t s of
interest. The s t r e n g t h in a x i a l tension i s much more v a r i a b l e

111
— TENSION
•- COMPRESSION
— BENDING
£2-
m *©_
<X o
m
o
in
Q _ tfi
o"
LLi
CC o
=1m
O o-
1 r~—r— 1 r - i r n i r
80.0 ao.o mo
<0.0 50.0 6a 0 70.0
STRENGTH IrlPfl)
(a) 38 x 89 mm
TENSION ' /
COHPRESSION / / /
BENDING 1 / /
l / /
; / /'
< / /
7 /
m
/
1
I
rx <
CQ 1 1
\
cc
Q_ i
i
7
UJ
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cx ,
(_)
/ < /"
/ < /
/ ' 7
/ • /
0.0 10.0 2ao 30J) 40.0 so.a eao 70J 30.0 100.0
STRENGTH (flPfl) '
(b) 3 8 x U 0 m m
F i g u r e 27 - Comparison of t e n s i o n , compression and
bending t e s t r e s u l t s
112
than i n a x i a l compression, t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h being greater than
compression s t r e n g t h at the strong end, l e s s at the weak end.
The modulus of rupture is much greater than the tension
strength throughout the distribution, and has a similar
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n .
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between these three s t r e n g t h properties
w i l l be explored in d e t a i l later.
In figure 24(b) i t was shown how the shape of the
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t at various levels in
the distribution of strength. The differences are not a
r e s u l t of the a c t u a l levels in the distribution, but are
rather a r e f l e c t i o n of the changes i n the r e l a t i v e values of
t e n s i o n and compression s t r e n g t h s , shown i n f i g u r e 27.
5.2.2 Modes of F a i l u r e
A very large number of different failure modes were
observed, many of them related to s p e c i f i c d e f e c t s i n the
boards.
In t e n s i o n most f a i l u r e s were at a s i n g l e cross section
or in a length of board l e s s than two or three times the
l a r g e s t c r o s s s e c t i o n dimension, with little d i s t r e s s observed
elsewhere i n the board. Some failures were preceded by
visible and audible crack growth, usually in tension
perpendicular t o the g r a i n . A l l the failures were sudden
brittle fractures associated with sudden r e l e a s e of stored
energy. Many failures were associated with local or
g e n e r a l i z e d s l o p i n g g r a i n , o f t e n around knots.'
For axial compression restrained against buckling,

113
failures tended to f a l l i n t o two categories. The first was a
ductile crushing type of failure with v i s i b l e compression
w r i n k l e s , as d e s c r i b e d f o r c l e a r wood. The second was a more
brittle f a i l u r e mode when two halves of the specimen separated
and buckled sideways between lateral supports, with a
longitudinal splitting failure. This type of failure was
usually i n i t i a t e d at a knot near the centre of the board where
the stress concentration induces tension stresses
perpendicular to the grain. In both cases compression
yielding was often visible at several cross s e c t i o n s as
maximum load was approached.
F a i l u r e modes i n bending tended to be consistent with
those a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d f o r t e n s i o n and compression. Many of
the weaker boards f a i l e d suddenly i n the t e n s i o n zone with no
sign of compression yielding. Some of these failures were
without warning, others were preceded by v i s i b l e and audible
cracking. The most common mode of f a i l u r e was compression
y i e l d i n g near the top s u r f a c e at one or more cross sections,
e v e n t u a l l y followed by a b r i t t l e failure in the t e n s i o n zone.
Some boards snapped i n t o two p i e c e s while others hung together
with a less sudden reduction in -load. Almost a l l boards
failed i n the c e n t r a l o n e - t h i r d of the span. No horizontal
shear f a i l u r e s were observed, even f o r the s h o r t e s t span.

114
5.3 LENGTH EFFECTS
5.3.1 Introduct ion
A small but important part of the experimental procedure
was designed to produce i n f o r m a t i o n on l e n g t h e f f e c t s in a x i a l
compression, a x i a l t e n s i o n , and i n bending. T h i s s e c t i o n uses
test results to estimate values of the parameter k, in
equation 3.11.
If c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h i s a .quantity that v a r i e s along
the length of a t y p i c a l board, then the average s t r e n g t h of
long boards can be expected to be lower than that of short
boards. If c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h i s assumed to be a random
v a r i a b l e with l e n g t h , knowledge of the amount of variability
within a typical board can be used to q u a n t i f y the length
effect. The v a l i d i t y of this.assumption has been d i s c u s s e d i n
Chapter 3.
There are apparently no previous reported s t u d i e s on the
effects of specimen length on the s t r e n g t h of timber in a x i a l
t e n s i o n or compression. Bending t e s t s are u s u a l l y c a r r i e d out
at a constant span-to-depth ratio, producing lower failure
stresses f o r longer and deeper members, but such t e s t s do not
allow l e n g t h effects and depth effects to be quantified
independently. Madsen and Nielsen (1976) r e p o r t a p r e l i m i n a r y
study into the effect of l e n g t h on bending s t r e n g t h , which
produced r e s u l t s s i m i l a r to those d e s c r i b e d below.

115
5.3.2 Compression .Strength
Ten boards of 38x89mm s i z e , 2.9m long were c u t i n t o 135mm
long segments. Ten boards of 38x140mm s i z e 4.0m long were c u t
i n t o 210mm long segments. In both cases the number of
segments v a r i e d from 15 t o 19. The segments were c o n s e c u t i v e
along each board, although occasionally a small amount of
clear wood was e l i m i n a t e d between segments i n order to l o c a t e
a s i g n i f i c a n t d e f e c t near the c e n t r e of a segment.
Each segment was t e s t e d to f a i l u r e in axial compression
as described i n Chapter 4. The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s was made
for the segments within each board. The coefficient of
variation of segment strength within each board was
calculated. For both s i z e s the c o e f f i c i e n t of variation of
segment s t r e n g t h s w i t h i n each board was i n the range of 7% t o
13% with an average value of 9%.
A two parameter W e i b u l l model was f i t t e d to the segment
strengths within each board using a maximum likelihood
routine. For both s i z e s the shape parameter v a r i e d between 9
and 19, the average value being close to 13. This i s
c o n s i s t e n t with the c o e f f i c i e n t of variation reported above
using equation 3.9. The possibility of a three-parameter
Weibull distribution giving a different result was
investigated. In t h i s case, however, the d i s t r i b u t i o n a l form
of the data i s such that there i s very little difference
between the two d i s t r i b u t i o n s and both p r e d i c t s i m i l a r length
effects, so the two parameter form has been used.
Length e f f e c t s can be c a l c u l a t e d from equation 3.11. A

116
parameter of k,=13 produces a s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r of
0.948 f o r d o u b l i n g length. Because of the assumption of a
two-parameter Weibull distribution, the predicted length
effect i s the same at a l l s t r e n g t h l e v e l s from the weakest to
the s t r o n g e s t . T h i s average f i g u r e , p r e d i c t i n g a 5% r e d u c t i o n
in strength for doubling l e n g t h , c o u l d vary for individual
boards, but i t w i l l be used as the length effect factor in
compression f o r the r e s t of t h i s study.
5.3.3 Tension Strength
It is not possible to carry out tension tests of
consecutive segments of a board as done in compression,
because a c o n s i d e r a b l e length of board i s r e q u i r e d i n g r i p s at
each end of the t e s t specimen. Two approaches have been- used.
A direct approach is to carry out a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s of
boards of d i f f e r e n t lengths. A second approach i s to use the
results of bending tests of different lengths on the
assumption that bending s t r e n g t h i s governed by failures in
the t e n s i o n zone.
a. 38x89mm Boards
Axial t e n s i o n t e s t s were c a r r i e d out on two lengths of boards
as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 4. The strength distributions are
shown with the other test results i n Appendix C. The fitted
distributions have been used to c a l c u l a t e the ratio of the
t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h s of long boards to those of short boards, f o r
the whole distribution. The resulting plot is shown i n
figure 28. I f the r a t i o i s taken to be 0.91 throughout the
distribution, then we can c a l c u l a t e the shape parameter f o r

1 17
T
O.D 0.4 0.5 0.6 3.0
F i g u r e 28 CUMULATV
IE RANK
R a t i o of t e n s i o n strengths of 38x89mm boards
2.0m and 0.914m long
w i t h i n board segment strengths from equation 3.11, giving a
value of k,=8.3, which corresponds to a s t r e n g t h reduction
f a c t o r of 0.92 f o r doubling the l e n g t h .
b. 38x140mm Boards
The 38x140mm m a t e r i a l used i n experimental stages 1 and 2 was
not the subject of any l e n g t h e f f e c t investigation in tension.
At a l a t e r date however, comparative t e s t i n g was c a r r i e d out
on two lengths of 38x140mm timber i n Stage 5. Approximately
100 boards were tested a t each length of 3.0m and 0.91 m.
F i g u r e 29 shows the r a t i o between the strengths of the two
l e n g t h s , over the whole d i s t r i b u t i o n .
The difference i s much larger than observed f o r the
38x89mm size. A possible explanation for this large
difference i s that the m a t e r i a l was ordered as No. 2 grade
with as many s t r e n g t h reducing d e f e c t s as possible. If the
ratio of s t r e n g t h of long boards t o short board.s i s taken to

1 18
T i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 D.l D.B O.S 1.0
CUMULATIVE RANK
F i g u r e 29 - R a t i o of t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h s of 38x140mm boards
3.0 and 0.914m long.
be 0.67, that corresponds to a shape parameter of k,=3.0,
which i m p l i e s a s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r of 0.80 f o r doubling
the l e n g t h , from equation 3.11.
5.3.4 Bending Strength
A central hypothesis of this study i s that bending
behaviour can be p r e d i c t e d from a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression
behaviour. Accordingly, length e f f e c t s i n bending should be
able to be q u a n t i f i e d from length effects in tension and
compression. If flexural strength i s governed s o l e l y by
tension strength, length e f f e c t s should be the same i n bending
and i n tension. Commercial timber tends to be r e l a t i v e l y weak
in t e n s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y at the low end of the strength
distribution. In this case the length e f f e c t i n bending i s
expected t o be s i m i l a r to that observed i n a x i a l tension.
As the ratio of tension to compression strength
increases, the compression strength of the m a t e r i a l has an

119
i n c r e a s i n g i n f l u e n c e on the bending s t r e n g t h , so for timber
with high tension strength the length e f f e c t i n bending i s
expected to approach a x i a l compression values.
In order to investigate length effects in beams, it
becomes necessary to have an expression for the highly
s t r e s s e d l e n g t h of the beam. Earlier it was shown how the
integral i n equation 3.6 can be evaluated over the volume of a
beam to give the e q u i v a l e n t volume of equation 3.7. If depth
e f f e c t s are excluded,, an e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s e d l e n g t h Le can be
calculated as
1 +
r i
k
L
e " T^rl L
(5.1)
where L i s the span- of the beam, a i s the d i s t a n c e between two
symmetrical point loads and k, i s the r e l e v a n t length effect
factor.
a. 38x89mm Boards
Bending t e s t s of two different lengths of 38x89mm timber were
carried out as described in Chapter 4. F i g u r e 30 shows the
r a t i o of s t r e n g t h s of the long to the short boards. As
expected there i s a greater, l e n g t h e f f e c t f o r the weak boards
than f o r the strong boards in the d i s t r i b u t i o n , but the a c t u a l
magnitude of the l e n g t h e f f e c t i s l a r g e r than predicted from
the tension and compression parameters, p a r t i c u l a r l y at the
weak end. The reasons for t h i s discrepancy are not clear.
One possible factor is the short stressed length in the
bending t e s t s . At the weak end, bending strength depends

1 20
"T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 ] .D
CUMULATIVE RRNK
F i g u r e 30 - R a t i o of bending strengths of 38x89mm boards
1.5 and 0.84m long
entirely on tension strength with no contribution from
compression s t r e n g t h . The tension strength length effect
parameters were d e r i v e d from t e s t r e s u l t s at lengths of 0.9lm
and 2.0m. In the short span bending t e s t r e f e r r e d to here the
span was 0.84m so the h i g h l y s t r e s s e d length was less than
0.3m. It i s p o s s i b l e that lengths as short as t h i s may not
c o n t a i n many of the d e f e c t s found i n longer l e n g t h s , hence the
unexpectedly high s t r e n g t h values.
b. 38x140mm Boards
R e s u l t s from bending t e s t s at two spans are a v a i l a b l e from the
stage 5 t e s t i n g . F i g u r e 31(a) shows the r a t i o of strengths of
the 3.0m span t o the 1.5m span f o r three load configurations,
for select s t r u c t u r a l grade. The three samples do not behave
i d e n t i c a l l y , but there i s a c o n s i s t e n t o v e r a l l trend f o r the
s t r e n g t h of the long boards t o be about 0.89 times that of the
shorter boards, which corresponds t o a shape parameter from

121
LU '
CH
CO ^
2 a'
o
X
CO
o
O
cr
0.0 1 1
0.1
r
1 0.2 ~\
0.3 1 1
0.4 1 1
0.5 1 1
0.6 r o.i i 1
0.6 1 r
0.9 1.0
CUMULATIVE RANK
(a) Select Structural Grade
cn D ' 1 1 1 1 1 r—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0.0 0.1 ' 0 . 2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.1 i r I.D
CUMULATIVE RANK 0.8 0.9
(b) Number 2 Grade
F i g u r e 31 - R a t i o of bending strengths of 38x140mm

boards, 3.0 and 1.5m long
equation 3.11 of k,=5.9. The range of values observed i s from
0.80 t o 1.02. This result i s very c l o s e to that obtained in
the d i r e c t a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s , and a trend towards decreasing
length effect at. the strong end of the d i s t r i b u t i o n can be
seen as p r e d i c t e d .
122
F i g u r e 31(b) shows the same plot f o r Number 2 grade
boards, where a somewhat g r e a t e r l e n g t h e f f e c t can be seen.
The three load c o n f i g u r a t i o n s produce very similar results
with an average r a t i o of about 0.84, which i s a l i t t l e more
than the f i g u r e of 0.80 obtained from d i r e c t t e n s i o n t e s t s on
the same m a t e r i a l . The range of observed v a l u e s i s from 0.79
to 0.90. A f a c t o r of 0.84 corresponds to a shape parameter of
k,=4.0.
5.3.5 Summary of Length E f f e c t s
The r e s u l t s presented in this section show considerable
variabilitybut the f o l l o w i n g c o n s i s t e n t trends can be seen:
1. For axial compression the observed length effect
produces a s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r of about 0.95 f o r
doubling length.
2. For axial tension and , for bending, the observed
l e n g t h e f f e c t appears to be grade dependent. For Select
Structural grade the strength reduction factor for
doubling l e n g t h i s approximately 0.89. This figure will
be used f o r the remainder of t h i s study. For Number 2
grade, the s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r f o r doubling length
i s approximately 0.84.
123
5.4 WEAK A X I S BENDING
The size effect theory derived f o r timber members
suggests that f o r boards of a given l e n g t h , modulus of rupture
should be l e s s f o r edgewise bending than f o r f l a t w i s e bending.
The reasons f o r t h i s have been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3.
For each of the two c r o s s s e c t i o n s i z e s used i n t h i s
study, a comparative t e s t was made of bending strength about
each principal axis. The same span was used f o r each, loading
o r i e n t a t i o n to e l i m i n a t e any p o s s i b l e length e f f e c t . From the
r e s u l t s of these t e s t s , the r a t i o s of the s t r e n g t h s a r e shown
in f i g u r e 32. The unexpected r e s u l t shown i n f i g u r e 32(a) is
that the two orientations have almost exactly the same
strength f o r the 38x89mm size. No obvious e x p l a n a t i o n i s
a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s behaviour. T h i s r e s u l t would be predicted
from brittle fracture theory a p p l i e d to a p e r f e c t l y brittle
m a t e r i a l , because the h i g h l y s t r e s s e d volume i s the same in
each orientation, but i t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with other r e s u l t s
observed i n timber members.
For the l a r g e r s i z e , f i g u r e 32(b) shows a significant
difference between the two o r i e n t a t i o n s , as expected, because
there i s a l a r g e decrease i n depth and i n c r e a s e i n width when
the orientation i s changed from edgewise to f l a t w i s e .
The tentative conclusion from these few t e s t s i s that
bending s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o b t a i n e d from strong a x i s bending
tests can be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y used t o p r e d i c t weak a x i s bending
s t r e n g t h , the degree of c o n s e r v a t i s m probably increasing as
depth t o width r a t i o i s i n c r e a s e d .
124
~i 1 1 1—n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
O.D
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.8 0 9
I.D
CUMULATIVE RANK
(a) 38 x 89 mm
—
I
CO
a 10
2 a'-
LU
CO
l-H
CT
_J
Ll_
LU
CO
Lu => I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 D.6 0.1 0.8 0.9 1.0
CUMULATIVE RANK
(b) 38xU0mm
Figure 32 - R a t i o of edgewise t o f l a t w i s e bending
strength
5.5 SUMMARY
T h i s chapter has d e s c r i b e d the trends observed i n a l a r g e
experimental programme, and has r e f e r r e d t o Appendix C where
many more results are summarized. The results of most
interest are those f o r eccentric a x i a l loading t e s t s which

125
h a v e n o t been c a r r i e d o u t on t h i s scale previously.
E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s have been u s e d to quantify length
effects, which a l s o have n o t been p r e v i o u s l y investigated to
this extent.
126
VI. STRENGTH MODEL
6.1 INTRODUCTION
T h i s chapter d e s c r i b e s a t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r p r e d i c t i n g
the s t r e n g t h of timber members. The model uses tension and
compression strength information from in-grade t e s t i n g to
predict strength i n bending or i n e c c e n t r i c a x i a l loading for
members of any l e n g t h .
The theory and assumptions in the model will be
described, along with the b a s i s of the computer program used
to make the necessary numerical calculations. The program
w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n two separate parts. The first part of
the computer program calculates the behaviour of a c r o s s
s e c t i o n of given geometry and m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s . This part
has been w r i t t e n s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r timber. The second part of
the program uses this information to calculate the load
capacity of an e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded column of any length, and
can be used f o r members of any m a t e r i a l .
The o r g a n i z a t i o n of the program i s based on a similar
program developed by Nathan(1983a) for reinforced and
p r e s t r e s s e d concrete, and verified f o r those materials by
Alcock and Nathan (1977). The f i r s t part has, however, been
completely r e - w r i t t e n because the f a i l u r e mechanisms i n wood
are quite different from those i n c o n c r e t e . The second part
i s almost e x a c t l y as d e s c r i b e d by Nathan.
127
6.2 ASSUMPTIONS
The f o l l o w i n g assumptions are made:
1. Plane s e c t i o n s remain plane.
2. Timber stressed i n tension behaves in a linear

elastic manner u n t i l brittle fracture occurs at a
l i m i t i n g tension s t r e s s .
3. Timber s t r e s s e d i n compression behaves . i n a non-

linear d u c t i l e manner. Any shape of s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve
can be used. A limiting compression strain may be
specified.
4. Stress-strain r e l a t i o n s h i p s are independent of r a t e

of l o a d i n g .
5. A x i a l t e n s i o n and compression s t r e n g t h s decrease as

member length i s i n c r e a s e d .
6. In both t e n s i o n and compression, the maximum

a t t a i n a b l e s t r e s s at a c r o s s s e c t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of the
p r o p o r t i o n of the s e c t i o n s u b j e c t e d t o that s t r e s s .
7. I f moment v a r i e s along a member, f a i l u r e occurs at

the c r o s s s e c t i o n subject e d t o maximum moment.
8. Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s constant along the l e n g t h of

each board.
9. No torsional or out-of-plane deformations are

considered. Duration of load e f f e c t s are not c o n s i d e r e d .
Shear failures are not c o n s i d e r e d . Some of these
l i m i t a t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Chapter 9.
6.3 CROSS SECTION BEHAVIOUR
The ultimate interaction diagram and the moment-
c u r v a t u r e - a x i a l load r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r a cross section are
derived using a simple step-by-step procedure to o b t a i n axial
load and moment c a p a c i t i e s f o r a range of n e u t r a l a x i s depths
and curvatures. R e c a l l that the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram
shows l i m i t i n g combinations of a x i a l l o a d and bending moment

128
that a c r o s s s e c t i o n can r e s i s t .
6.3.1 C a l c u l a t i o n Procedure
For a cross s e c t i o n such as that shown i n f i g u r e 33(a), a
typical calculation begins by s e l e c t i n g a n e u t r a l a x i s depth
and a p p l y i n g an i n i t i a l curvature, <p, to the section, to
produce the s t r a i n s shown i n the t y p i c a l case of f i g u r e 33(b).
The following procedure i s used to determine what combination
of a x i a l load and moment would be necessary to produce this
condition.
Figure 33 - Cross s e c t i o n behaviour
The depth of the section i s divided i n t o a number of
segments. For each segment the mid-height strain is
calculated, and used to c a l c u l a t e the corresponding s t r e s s ,
using an input s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p as shown in figure
33(c). The r e s u l t i n g s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s shown i n f i g u r e
33(d). The f o r c e i n each segment i s c a l c u l a t e d , producing the
distribution shown i n f i g u r e 33(e). A l l of the tension and
compression segment forces are combined i n t o a s i n g l e force
for each s t r e s s block as shown i n f i g u r e 3 3 ( f ) , and these are

129
combined to give the net a x i a l f o r c e and bending moment about
the c e n t r o i d a l a x i s , as shown i n f i g u r e 33(g).
At t h i s stage four items of information a r e s t o r e d before
repeating the calculation with increased curvature. The
stored information i s
1. N e u t r a l a x i s depth (input)
2. S e c t i o n curvature (input)
3. Net a x i a l load (output)
4. Bending moment (output)
For the chosen neutral axis location, the c a l c u l a t i o n i s
repeated with i n c r e a s i n g curvature until either a limiting
compression strain i s exceeded, the extreme f i b r e s t r e s s i n
t e n s i o n exceeds a l i m i t i n g value (tension f a i l u r e occurs), or
the moment drops to zero.
The procedure d e s c r i b e d . t o t h i s point i s then repeated
for a number of other neutral axis locations. For each
neutral axis location the limiting" tension stress is
calculated from the input axial tension strength using
equation 3.18 or 3.20 with k 3 as the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n
parameter f o r t e n s i o n .
To include a s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n e f f e c t f o r compression
in the calculation, the compression s t r e n g t h is, modified at
each curvature increment using equation 3.21 or 3.22 with k 3
as the compression s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter.
This procedure i s illustrated s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n the flow
c h a r t of f i g u r e 34. Output from a t y p i c a l run f o r a 38x140mm
member w i l l be used i n the next s e c t i o n s to i l l u s t r a t e several

130
a s p e c t s o f t h e program.
S e l e c t f i r s t n.a. depth
f increment
n.a. depth
modify tensicjn s t r e n g t h
f o r t h i s n a. depth
TfT -
apply i n i t i a l c u r v a t u r e 41
Increment
curvature
YES
YES
modify comp. s t r e n g t h
f o r t h i s n.a. and t h i s
calculate internal tension

and compression f o r c e s
from s t r e s s - s t r a i n relations
c a l c u l a t e net a x i a l
l o a d and moment
YES
F i g u r e 34 - F l o w c h a r t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g m o m e n t - c u r v a t u r e -
a x i a l load relationships f o r a cross section
131
6.3.2 N e u t r a l Axis Contours
Figure 35 i l l u s t r a t e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a x i a l load
and moment f o r f o r t y neutral axis contours. Compression i s
positive. T h i s p a r t i c u l a r f i g u r e has been obtained using a
bilinear stress-strain r e l a t i o n s h i p with a f a l l i n g branch as
shown i n f i g u r e 6.
Each radial line represents a single neutral axis
location. For any one n e u t r a l a x i s l o c a t i o n , each successive
point on the l i n e represents the combination of a x i a l load and
moment r e q u i r e d to produce a p a r t i c u l a r c u r v a t u r e . Curvature
has been increased step-by-step until a tension failure
occurred, or u n t i l the moment dropped to zero (as seen i n the
top left-hand corner). The curves have been c o n s t r u c t e d from
straight segments between p o i n t s of i n c r e a s i n g c u r v a t u r e . The
n e u t r a l a x i s l o c a t i o n s have been s e l e c t e d with five outside
the s e c t i o n on the t e n s i o n s i d e , eighteen o u t s i d e the s e c t i o n
on the compression s i d e , and the remainder w i t h i n the s e c t i o n ,
to p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l e range of c a l c u l a t i o n p o i n t s .
This f i g u r e of n e u t r a l a x i s contours i s used to c o n s t r u c t
an envelope, or u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram, showing p o s s i b l e
combinations of a x i a l load and bending moment f o r t h i s cross
section. The a c t u a l l i n e s shown i n f i g u r e 35 are not used f o r
any other purpose i n t h i s study.

1 32
n 1 1 1 r — r
6.0
o.o 2.0
MOMENT
3.0
(KN.M)
4.0
F i g u r e 35 - N e u t r a l a x i s contours f o r moment and a x i a l
load interaction
6.3.3 Curvature Contours
Figure 36 shows the same p o i n t s as f i g u r e 35, p l o t t e d i n
another way t o show the r e l a t i o n s h i p between axial load and
moment f o r t h i r t y curvature contours. Each l i n e represents a
s i n g l e value of s e c t i o n c u r v a t u r e . D i f f e r e n t p o i n t s on a l i n e
of constant curvature represent the combinations of a x i a l load
and moment r e q u i r e d to produce that curvature f o r various

200.0
134
neutral axis locations.
In both f i g u r e s 35 and 36, the contours are s t r a i g h t i n
the range of l i n e a r e l a s t i c behaviour. The contours become
curved when the wood i s stressed i n compression beyond the
proportional limit. If figures 35 and 36 were to be
superimposed, the intersection points would represent the
number of combinations of neutral axis locations and
curvatures f o r which i n t e r n a l f o r c e s were c a l c u l a t e d .
6.3.4 Ultimate I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram
Figure 37 is the ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r the
cross s e c t i o n , being the envelope of a l l the p o i n t s shown in
f i g u r e s 35 and 36. T h i s curve i s c o n s t r u c t e d from.the neutral
axis contours shown - i n f i g u r e 35, and c o n s i s t s of s t r a i g h t
l i n e segments between a f a i l u r e p o i n t at each neutral axis
location. Any p o i n t i n s i d e the curve represents a combination
of a x i a l load and moment that the c r o s s s e c t i o n can r e s i s t .
6.3.5 Moment-Curvature Curves
Figure 38 shows the moment-curvature r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r
s e v e r a l l e v e l s of a x i a l load, P. Pa i s the a x i a l compression
strength of the m a t e r i a l . A l l curves s t a r t at the o r i g i n , but
each has been s h i f t e d s l i g h t l y for clarity

l
of presentation.
The program computes these curves from the data already
presented. Each l e v e l of a x i a l load can be represented by a
h o r i z o n t a l l i n e such as the line A-B on figure 36. Each
intersection of the h o r i z o n t a l l i n e with a curvature contour
p r o v i d e s a value of moment and c u r v a t u r e which i s plotted on
figure 38. The f i n a l point on each moment curvature curve

135
0.0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
CURVATURE d/m)
F i g u r e 38 - Moment-curvature-axial load r e l a t i o n s h i p s
represents the p o i n t on the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r
the respective a x i a l load. For high a x i a l loads the moment-
curvature curves have a f a l l i n g branch beyond maximum moment,
but that has not been p l o t t e d because the i n f o r m a t i o n i s never
used i n the subsequent c a l c u l a t i o n s .
All the information required f o r c a l c u l a t i o n of long
column stability behaviour i s contained in the moment-
c u r v a t u r e - a x i a l load curves.
6.4 COLUMN BEHAVIOUR
The second s e c t i o n of the computer program i n v e s t i g a t e s
the behaviour of columns of any l e n g t h under the action of
eccentric axial loads with equal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and no
lateral l o a d as shown i n f i g u r e 39.

136
Figure 39 - Column with a x i a l load and equal end
eccentric i t i e s
6.4.1 F a i l u r e Modes
The behaviour -of an eccentrically loaded compression
member w i l l be reviewed i n t h i s s e c t i o n , i n order d e f i n e some
terms used i n the e x p l a n a t i o n of the computer model. Consider
the possible behaviour of a member with equal end
eccentricities as shown i n f i g u r e 39, as the a x i a l load P i s
increased to failure. If the end eccentricity is a
distance e, the moment at the ends of the member w i l l always
be P times e. The moment at mid-span w i l l be P(e+A) where A
i s the mid-span d e f l e c t i o n as shown.
Figure 40(a) i s an i n t e r a c t i o n diagram of a x i a l load v s .
moment. The outer curved line i s the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram r e p r e s e n t i n g material failure (figure 37). As an
example of typical loading, l i n e O-A shows the load path f o r
axial load and end moment as the a x i a l load P is increased.
The corresponding load path f o r mid-span moment i s shown by

137
^ Material failure
O
O
c
5 P
2
_D \
\E
/ /
/ /
// A )B
//
1/
Moment
(a)
Material failure
a
o
a
x
<
End moments at failure
F i g u r e 40 - T y p i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r e c c e n t r i c a l l y
loaded column
the curved l i n e O-B. The h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e between l i n e s O-
A and O-B represents the amount by which the i n i t i a l moment, P
times e, has been magnified to P(e+A). In this case the
member fails at an a x i a l load P, when the mid-span load path
O-B i n t e r s e c t s the m a t e r i a l strength interaction diagram at

138
p o i n t B. T h i s i s d e s c r i b e d as a m a t e r i a l failure.
If the same member i s loaded with a s m a l l e r eccentricity,
the load path f o r end moments c o u l d be shown by l i n e 0-C, and
the l o a d path f o r mid-span moments by l i n e 0-D. In t h i s case
an instability failure occurs when the a x i a l load reaches a
maximum value P . 2 The mid-span moment at f a i l u r e i s shown by
p o i n t D, which i s w e l l i n s i d e the m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h curve. If
the member- were loaded with a system under l o a d c o n t r o l ( f o r
example, gravity loads) to load P , 2 deformations would'
increase rapidly and a material failure would follow
immediately. I f the member were loaded under conditions of
controlled displacement the l o a d path shown by the extension

c
of the l i n e 0-D could be followed to eventual material failure
at p o i n t E.
• I f t h i s process i s repeated many times f o r the same
member using a f u l l range of e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , f i g u r e 40(b) can
be produced. The s o l i d l i n e i s the same u l t i m a t e interaction
diagram. The dotted line Pu-D-B-Mu i s the locus of p o i n t s
such as B and D i n f i g u r e 40(a), r e p r e s e n t i n g combinations of
axial load and mid-span moment (magnified moment) j u s t causing
failure. For low axial loads t h i s l i n e c o - i n c i d e s with the
ultimate interaction diagram, i n d i c a t i n g material failures.
For higher axial loads i n s t a b i l i t y f a i l u r e s occur. The c h a i n -
dotted line Pu-C-A-Mu i s the locus of p o i n t s such as A and C
in f i g u r e 40(a), r e p r e s e n t i n g combinations of a x i a l load and
end moment (unmagnified moment) j u s t causing failure. For any
axial load the horizontal distance between the two dotted

139
lines represents the ' moment magnification due to member
deformations at f a i l u r e .
6.4.2 C a l c u l a t i o n Procedure
A computer program f o r c a l c u l a t i n g p o i n t s on the curves
shown i n f i g u r e 40(b) w i l l be d e s c r i b e d below.
The program can c o n s i d e r a column of any l e n g t h made up
of a number of segments of "equal length. A method described
by Galambos(1968) i s used t o develop column d e f l e c t i o n curves
for a given axial load, to determine the maximum end
e c c e n t r i c i t y , e, at which that load can be applied to the
column.
As the column i s symmetrically loaded, the slope i s
always zero at mid-span. For the axial load under
consideration, the moment at mid-span i s i n i t i a l l y set to the
m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e moment f o r that l o a d (a p o i n t on the u l t i m a t e
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram). The corresponding mid-span deflection,
e+A, (from the line of axial load) i s the f a i l u r e moment
d i v i d e d by the a x i a i l o a d . To f i n d the a c t u a l values of e and
A i t i s necessary to c a l c u l a t e the deflected shape of the
member. A column d e f l e c t i o n curve i s obtained by proceeding
along the column, segment-by-segment from mid-span,
c a l c u l a t i n g the d e f l e c t i o n at each node.
Consider calculations for a typical segment of length Ax,
such as that shown i n f i g u r e 41(a). If the d e f l e c t i o n v 0
and slope v ' 0 are known at the starting node x ,0 then the
moment, M 1r at the mid-point of the segment (point x,) i s
approximately
140
F i g u r e 41 - Column d e f l e c t i o n curves
(6.1 )
The curvature, <£ 1f at point x, can be obtained from the
moment-curva.ture-axial load relationship (figure 38). The
curvature is assumed to be constant along the segment.
D e f l e c t i o n s are assumed to be small such that <£=v".
The displacement, v , and s l o p e , v ' , at the

2 2 next node,
x , are c a l c u l a t e d
2 from
= v • + v * ( A x )
(6.2)
o o v
'
= vt _ + n ( A x ) (6.3)
141
The moment M 2 at node x 2 i s the product of P and v . 2
This calculation i s repeated u n t i l the end of the column
i s reached. The d e f l e c t i o n of the end of the column from the
line of a x i a l load r e p r e s e n t s the e c c e n t r i c i t y , e , at which

0
t h i s a x i a l load would produce t h i s d e f l e c t e d shape.
Once the d e f l e c t e d shape has been obtained i n this way,
the calculation i s repeated with the s t a r t i n g mid-span moment
M 0 reduced by a small amount to M,, to generate a second
column deflection curve, and a corresponding end e c c e n t r i c i t y
e,. I f e, i s l e s s than e , as 0 shown in figure 41(b), the
second calculation is ignored, and the r e s u l t of the f i r s t
calculation represents a m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e for t h i s a x i a l load,
with maximum end e c c e n t r i c i t y e . 0
If e, i s greater than e , as shown i n f i g u r e

0 41(c), then
both of these c a l c u l a t i o n s represent unstable c o n f i g u r a t i o n s .
The maximum end eccentricity is found by continuing to
decrease the s t a r t i n g mid-span moment in small steps and
repeating the c a l c u l a t i o n until the end e c c e n t r i c i t y passes a
maximum and begins to decrease. T h i s maximum end e c c e n t r i c i t y
i s the r e q u i r e d v a l u e . Failure of the member i n t h i s case is
an i n s t a b i l i t y failure.
The c a l c u l a t i o n described i s for a single a x i a l load. I t
can be repeated f o r other a x i a l loads as necessary.

142
6.5 TYPICAL OUTPUT
6.5.1 A x i a l Load-Moment I n t e r a c t i o n Curves
Axial load - moment i n t e r a c t i o n curves can be used to
demonstrate the r e s u l t s of these calculations for several
column lengths. The c a l c u l a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n the p r e v i o u s
s e c t i o n have been c a r r i e d out f o r columns of s e v e r a l lengths,
each at forty different load l e v e l s between zero and maximum
load. F i g u r e 42(a) i s an interaction, diagram showing the
combinations of axial load P and mid-span moment P(e+A) j u s t
producing f a i l u r e for typical 38x140mm columns. The outer
line i s the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram representing material
strength. The inner curves correspond to the curve Pu-D-B-Mu
in f i g u r e 40(b). For low a x i a l load the inner curves c o i n c i d e
with the ultimate interaction diagram indicating that
behaviour under these loads i s governed by m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e s .
For high' a x i a l load the curves move i n s i d e the u l t i m a t e
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram, indicating that behaviour under these
loads i s governed by i n s t a b i l i t y failures.
These curves have been p l o t t e d d i r e c t l y from the computer
output. Some of the curves are not very smooth, because of
r a t h e r l a r g e steps used i n part of the numerical analysis.
The curves can be smoothed by reducing the mid-span moment i n
smaller steps d u r i n g the a n a l y s i s of column behaviour, but
this i n v o l v e s a corresponding i n c r e a s e i n computing c o s t s , and
the curves shown are c o n s i d e r e d to, be s u f f i c i e n t l y a c c u r a t e
for the purposes of t h i s study.
F i g u r e 42(b) i s the corresponding i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r

143
o
o
6.0
END riOnENT (KN.H)
(b) End moments
Figure 42 - I n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m s for slender columns

144
a x i a l load P and end moment, P times e. Again the outer line
is the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram. In t h i s case the inner
curves correspond to the curve Pu-C-A-Mu i n figure 40. For
any level of axial load, the h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e between a
point on any curve of figure 42(b) and" the point on the
corresponding curve of figure 42(a) r e p r e s e n t s the moment
m a g n i f i c a t i o n PA due t o member deformations.
6.5.2 A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves
Another method of p r e s e n t i n g these results i s to plot
axial load at failure against slenderness (or length) f o r
given values of end e c c e n t r i c i t y . A radial line'such as that
shown by l i n e O-R on f i g u r e 42(b) represents behaviour f o r a
c e r t a i n end e c c e n t r i c i t y . The intersection points of the
radial line with the interaction curves f o r each of the
lengths shown can be used to make a p l o t of a x i a l load against
slenderness f o r that end eccentricity. In these plots
slenderness i s d e f i n e d as the non-dimensional r a t i o L/d where
L i s the length of the member and d i s the cross sectional
dimension in the direction under consideration. These
d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l be used throughout t h i s thesis.
A family of such curves i s shown i n f i g u r e 43. The top
curve, f o r zero e c c e n t r i c i t y , r e p r e s e n t s the i n t e r s e c t i o n s of
the i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams with the vertical axis of figure
42(b). The disadvantages of i l l u s t r a t i n g the r e s u l t s in this
way a r e that there i s no i n d i c a t i o n as to whether a material
or instability f a i l u r e occurs, and there i s no way of seeing
how much the moments are magnified before f a i l u r e :

145
i r i r
D.O 8.0 16.0 24.0 32.0
SLENDERNESS (L/d) 40.0 48.0
Figure 43 - A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s diagram for several

eccentricities
6.6 INPUT INFORMATION
The following information i s required as input t o t h i s
computer m o d e l . Each of these items w i l l be discussed more
fully below.
A. Cross section behaviour:
1. Cross section dimensions
2. T e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n strengths
3. Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
4. Shape o f s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship
5. Depth e f f e c t parameters
B. Column behaviour
1. Column l e n g t h
146
2. Segment length f o r column d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s
3. Reduction ratio f o r m i d - s p a n moment
6.6.1 Cross Section Dimensions
The program can accomodate any shape of cross section
with up to twenty corners. However, it has only been
calibrated and verified for rectangular sections, so use with
other s h a p e s would require further study and verification. In
particular, d e p t h e f f e c t s r e q u i r e much more i n v e s t i g a t i o n for
non-rectangular sections.
6.6.2 Tension and Compression Strengths
The axial strength of the material i n both tension and
compression i s e s s e n t i a l input information. Because of the
influence of member size upon s t r e n g t h , the,input strengths
should be for the same size of member as that under
consideration. In this study the input tension and
compression strengths have been o b t a i n e d from in-grade axial
strength testing of material of the same g r a d e , species and
cross s e c t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s as the member under consideration.
To provide accurate results, these strengths from in-
grade test r e s u l t s must be corrected for length before input,
using the simple theory proposed earlier. As an example of
the influence of the length effect, figure 44 shows the
ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n diagram for four different lengths of a
typical column. The differences between the lines are
significant, particularly i n the tension region.
The variability in wood strength properties between
boards is accounted for by inputting strength at specific

147
—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.D 5.0 6.0
nonENT (KN.ru
Figure 44 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m s f o r s t r e n g t h
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of s e v e r a l l e n g t h s
locations within the s t r e n g t h distribution. F o r example, mean
axial strengths a r e used t o p r e d i c t mean s t r e n g t h in bending
and i n combined loading, and 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e a x i a l strengths to
predict 5th percentile strengths in bending, and combined
loading, and so on. A full distribution of input strength
properties is not e s s e n t i a l because t h e model c a n be u s e d t o
predict b e h a v i o u r a t any l e v e l within a distribution, from
axial tension and c o m p r e s s i o n strengths a t t h e same level.

148
6 . 6 . 3 Modulus of Elasticity
Timber is assumed to have a linear stress-strain
relationship to failure in tension, and a non-linear
relationship in compression. In the l i n e a r e l a s t i c range the
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s assumed to be the same i n t e n s i o n as
in compression, and hence in bending.
Modulus of elasticity v a r i e s along the length of timber
boards, but because deformations i n a l l segments of the board
influence instability behaviour, i t has been assumed that the
average value of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y w i t h i n a board can be
used for instability calculations. This average value i s
independent of board l e n g t h , so unlike strength properties,
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s not subject to a l e n g t h effect.
Figure 45 shows the e f f e c t of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y on
column behaviour, with no change in tension or compression
strength.
Figure 45(a) is a typical i n t e r a c t i o n diagram of axial
load vs. mid-span moments, and figure 45(b) is the
corresponding diagram for end moments. In both cases the
solid l i n e s have been c o n s t r u c t e d f o r m a t e r i a l with a modulus
of elasticity of 10,000 MPa, and the dotted l i n e s have been
obtained using a modulus of e l a s t i c i t y of 7,500 MPa. It can
be seen that the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y has no e f f e c t on the
ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h (outer
c u r v e ) , and only a very small e f f e c t on squat columns with a
slenderness ratio of L/d=6.5 (which was the s h o r t e s t length
tested). For longer members, however, whose strength is

1 49
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 3.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 E.O
(a) Mid-span moments

niD-SPRN nODENT (KN.M) END HOHENT (KN.n)
(b) End moments
Figure 45 - E f f e c t of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y on column
behaviour
governed by s t a b i l i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , the a x i a l load capacity
tends to be i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n to the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y .
The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y has been measured using several
d i f f e r e n t methods, as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 4. 5th percentile
values of modulus of elasticity have been input with 5th
percentile strength values, and so on. Although the
c o r r e l a t i o n between s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s of timber boards i s
not very good, t h i s procedure has produced good r e s u l t s .
6.6.4 Shape of S t r e s s - S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p in Compression
Uncertainties about the p r e c i s e form of the c u r v i l i n e a r
stress strain r e l a t i o n s h i p r e q u i r e some d i s c u s s i o n . Consider
the four s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s shown i n f i g u r e 46, a l l
of which have been introduced i n Chapter 2. Note that only
the compression region has been shown, as l i n e a r elastic
behaviour i n t e n s i o n i s assumed throughout t h i s t h e s i s .

150
F i g u r e 46 - S t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n compression
The form of curve shown in figure 46(a), proposed by
G l o s ( l 9 7 8 ) on the b a s i s of a l a r g e study on commercial q u a l i t y
timber with defects, appears to be the best available
representation of a c t u a l behaviour. Figure 46(b) shows a
similar r i s i n g branch, followed by a l i n e a r f a l l i n g branch to
approximate behaviour at l a r g e strains. F i g u r e 46(c) shows a
bilinear r e l a t i o n s h i p with a l i n e a r f a l l i n g branch, and f i g u r e
46(d) shows the f a m i l i a r e l a s t o - p l a s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , with an
upper l i m i t on compression s t r a i n .
The sequence described in figures 46(a) to (d)- i s
considered to represent a p r o g r e s s i o n of d e c r e a s i n g accuracy
in representing real timber properties but increasing
simplicity for strength calculations. To compare these
curves, the f a l l i n g - and r i s i n g branches must

1
be investigated
separately. .
151
a. Shape of F a l l i n g Branch
The shape of the f a l l i n g branch i n the compression region of
the stress-strain curve can have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on the
ultimate interaction diagram. For example, f i g u r e 47 shows an
interaction diagram produced by using the bilinear stress-
s t r a i n curve of f i g u r e 46(c). The dotted lines show the
effect of v a r y i n g the slope of the f a l l i n g branch. F i g u r e 48
shows that very s i m i l a r behaviour can be produced by using an
elasto-plastic stress-strain relationship with v a r y i n g values
for the limiting strain.
If the stress-strain relationship of figure 46(a) is
used, varying the asymptotic stress for l a r g e s t r a i n has a
similar effect on the ultimate interaction diagram, which also
develops a kink as shown- in figure 49. This stress-strain
curve has not been used f u r t h e r i n t h i s study because the kink
creates difficulties in calculation of the u l t i m a t e
interaction diagram from the n e u t r a l a x i s contours, and i s not
expected to be seen i n t e s t s results r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a l a r g e
number of boards.
F i g u r e 50 demonstrates that almost identical ultimate
interaction diagrams a r e obtained using the stress-strain
curves of f i g u r e s 46(b) and (c) using the same slope of
falling branch, 0.02 times the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y . Almost
e x a c t l y the same curve has a l s o been obtained by using the
elasto-plastic stress-strain relationship, with an upper limit
on s t r a i n of 0.009mm/mm. For the remainder of t h i s study the
f a l l i n g branch of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship has been

T i 1 1 1 r — i 1 1 1 1 1 1
o i.a 2.a i.a 4.0 v.) o.a
MOMENT (KN.M)
Figure 47 - Ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n F i g u r e 48 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n
diagrams for the b i l i n e a r s t r e s s - diagrams f o r the e l a s t o - p l a s t i c
s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p , with v a r y i n g stress-strain relationship,
slope of f a l l i n g branch with v a r y i n g l i m i t i n g s t r a i n
diagram r e s u l t i n g from s t r e s s - diagrams f o r s e v e r a l s t r e s s -
s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o p o s e d by strain relationships
G1OS(1978)
154
-assumed t o be l i n e a r as shown i n f i g u r e s 46 (b) and (c). The
a c t u a l slope of the f a l l i n g branch i s d i s c u s s e d with r e f e r e n c e
to c a l i b r a t i o n of the s t r e n g t h model i n Chapter 7.
b. Shape of R i s i n g Branch
The shape of the r i s i n g branch of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve in
compression affects only the p r e d i c t e d behaviour of columns
loaded c o n c e n t r i c a l l y or with very small e c c e n t r i c i t i e s . The
curves proposed by Glos (1978), Malhotra and Mazur (1970) and
O'Halloran (1973), all introduced in Chapter 2, are not
significantly different in the r i s i n g branch. O'Halloran's
curve has been chosen f o r the remainder of t h i s study simply
because i t has the s i m p l e s t computational form. One variable
which needs to be q u a n t i f i e d i s the s t r a i n corresponding with
peak stress, indicated by e, i n f i g u r e 51(a). T h i s can be
d e f i n e d as a r a t i o of the corresponding l i n e a r e l a s t i c strain
e .
0 For this study the s t r a i n at peak s t r e s s e, has been
taken as 1.35 times e , 0 t h i s being the average r e s u l t of many
experiments reported by Glos on German spruce timber with
defects. The data r e p o r t e d by 0'Halloran(1973) gives a figure
of 1.25 f o r t e s t s on small c l e a r wood specimens.
To i l l u s t r a t e the e f f e c t of this ratio, figure 51(b)
shows a graph of axial load against slenderness for
c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns, as p r e d i c t e d by the model using
three v a l u e s f o r the r a t i o e , / e . 0 A ratio of 1.0 is the
simple bilinear stress-strain relationship. The differences
are seen to be small but significant in this case of
concentric column loading. Similar curves plotted for

1 55
VI
in
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I !
£LC 8.D WLO 24J) 32.D U1.0 49.3
SLENDERNESS (L/d)
(b)
F i g u r e 51 - S t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h falling
branch
eccentric loading show t h a t the differences disappear, even
for small eccentricities.

156
6.6.5 Stress-distribution Effect
The origin and significance of the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n
effect has been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3. A rough estimate of
the parameter can be obtained by comparing in-grade test
results f o r members with d i f f e r e n t depths b u t a more accurate
estimate will be made i n t h e c a l i b r a t i o n phase.
The importance of the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n effect c a n be
seen in figures 52 and 53. Figure 52 shows the shape of a
typical ultimate interaction diagram for five different values
of k 3 for tension. The solid line, f o r no s i z e effect,
results in a constant f a i l u r e stress in the extreme tension
fibre, regardless of n e u t r a l axis depth. D e c r e a s i n g v a l u e s of
the parameter result in increasing moment c a p a c i t y for a given
axial tension strength.
Figure 53 shows ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n , diagrams f o r the
same m a t e r i a l , this time introducing a stress-distribution
effect i n compression. A comparison with f i g u r e 47 shows that
the stress-distribution effect i n compression has an influence
similar to that of the f a l l i n g branch of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n
curve. These two f a c t o r s may n o t be i n d e p e n d e n t and c a n n o t be
quantified separately. Although a s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n effect
for compression has been included in the model and
demonstrated here, i t has not been used in calibration and
verification calculations, because such a s i m i l a r r e s u l t can
be o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g the slope of the f a l l i n g b r a n c h of the
stress-strain curve.
diagrams with varying diagrams with v a r y i n g
s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter
in t e n s i o n • in compression
158
6.6.6 Column Parameters
The computer program c a l c u l a t e s column d e f l e c t i o n curves
for any length s p e c i f i e d . For the step-by-step construction
of column deflection curves a column segment l e n g t h must be
input. Any length of segment may be used, short segment
lengths providing increased accuracy at greater computing
costs.
A s e n s i t i v i t y study showed that c a l c u l a t e d results were
relatively i n s e n s i t i v e to segment l e n g t h , f o r segment lengths
up to four times the s e c t i o n depth. Chen and Atsuta (1976b)
report a study which found that a segment length of four times
the radius of g y r a t i o n gives s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate results,
t h i s corresponds to 1.16 times the s e c t i o n depth. A segment
l e n g t h of 1.5 times the s e c t i o n depth has been.-used throughout
this study.
A final input parameter for construction of column
d e f l e c t i o n curves i s the r a t e at which mid-span moment is to
be reduced in the step-by-step procedure. A value of 0.04
times the maximum moment has been used.
6.7 NON-DIMENSIONALIZED PLOTS
The a x i a l load - moment interaction diagrams and the
axial l o a d - slenderness diagrams i l l u s t r a t e d in t h i s chapter
have been shown with r e a l u n i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the material
used i n the experimental programme.
Later in t h i s t h e s i s i t w i l l become desireable to non-
dimensionalize these plots for more general discussion
purposes. In both cases the axial load axis can be non-

159
dimensionalized by dividing a l l a x i a l loads by the maximum
axial load f o r the m a t e r i a l . The same can be done f o r moment
v a l u e s on the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s of the i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams.
6.8 SUMMARY
This chapter has d e s c r i b e d a s t r e n g t h model which can be
used to p r e d i c t the load c a p a c i t y of timber members of any
length under eccentric axial loading. Input t o the model i s
a x i a l tension and compression strength, the s t r e s s - s t r a i n
r e l a t i o n s h i p , and c e r t a i n s i z e e f f e c t parameters.
160
VII. CALIBRATION AND VERIFICATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter relates the t e s t data from Chapter 5 with
the s t r e n g t h model f o r e c c e n t r i c a x i a l loading described in
Chapter 6.
Test data are available f o r two sizes: 38x89mm and
38x140mm. The smaller s i z e was s u b j e c t e d to a more extensive
test programme so these r e s u l t s are c o n s i d e r e d first. The
s t r e n g t h model i s f i r s t c a l i b r a t e d using only the average t e s t
results i n t e n s i o n and compression f o r the shortest length,
then i t i s v e r i f i e d using t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the longer lengths
in compression, and 5th and 95th p e r c e n t i l e s .
Test data i s compared with the model i n three different
ways.
1. The first comparison uses an i n t e r a c t i o n diagram of
axial load v s . moment to compare the measured moments at
the ends of the boards (unmagnified moments) with those
p r e d i c t e d by the model.
2. The second comparison i s s i m i l a r except that mid-span
moments (magnified moments) are compared. For the
s h o r t e s t l e n g t h t e s t e d there was very little mid-span
deflection at failure, so end moments and mid-span
moments were similar. A l l failures of the shortest
length boards were m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e s , so f o r t h i s length
comparisons have only been made f o r mid-span moments.

161
3. The t h i r d comparison uses a p l o t of a x i a l load vs.
slenderness to compare the maximum measured load with the
model p r e d i c t i o n f o r s e v e r a l e c c e n t r i c i t i e s .
All comparisons are made at 5th p e r c e n t i l e , mean and 95th
p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n .
7.2 38x89mm BOARDS
7.2.1 Short Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves
F i g u r e 54 shows a comparison of s t r e n g t h p r e d i c t e d by the
model, compared with t e s t results f o r the shortest length
(0.45m) of 38x89mm boards, f o r 5th p e r c e n t i l e , mean and 95th
percentile levels. The l i n e s are the ultimate interaction
diagrams calculated by the model. The p o i n t s f o r combined
l o a d i n g are the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 0.45m long boards, the same
points as shown i n f i g u r e 24(b). The p o i n t s on the v e r t i c a l
a x i s represent the r e s u l t s of a x i a l l o a d i n g tests, corrected
to a 0.45m length using equation 3.11. Only these two p o i n t s
were used as input to the s t r e n g t h model when c a l c u l a t i n g each
curve. The points on the horizontal axis represent the
results of bending tests, also c o r r e c t e d f o r length using
equation 3.11. There are two points each f o r the 5th
percentile, mean, and 95th percentile v a l u e s , because the
bending t e s t s at two lengths gave s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t results.
Once the s t r e n g t h model had been set up as described in
Chapter 6, and input data obtained from a x i a l t e n s i o n and
compression test results, values were required for two

162
Length 0.45m.
—I 1 1 1 1 1 1 r—
5.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
MOMENT (KN.M)
Figure 54 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m c a l i b r a t e d t o
t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e
parameters to calibrate the model. These a r e t h e d e p t h effect
parameter in tension and a compression parameter, both
discussed i n the next s e c t i o n . I t w o u l d h a v e been desireable
to obtain the parameter estimates from independent sources,

163
but t h i s was not p o s s i b l e . The two parameters were v a r i e d on
a trial and e r r o r b a s i s t o give the good v i s u a l fit shown i n
figure 54 f o r the mean test results. Estimation of the
parameters i s d e s c r i b e d i n the next s e c t i o n .
The s t r e n g t h model was c a l i b r a t e d to the test data for
the mean test results only. The same parameters were then
used to compare the model with t e s t r e s u l t s at the tails of
the strength distribution. The r e s u l t i n g f i t at the 5th and
95th p e r c e n t i l e levels is seen to be quite good, which
demonstrates the power of this model, and shows that the
v a r i o u s parameters used i n the model do not vary very much
w i t h i n a very wide d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e n g t h values.
A few data points do not appear to f i t the model
prediction very well. The points representing eccentric
tension tests with the s m a l l e s t e c c e n t r i c i t y have a weaker
s t r e n g t h than p r e d i c t e d , which can be e x p l a i n e d by a problem
encountered with the testing equipment f o r that p a r t i c u l a r
test. A mis-alignment caused these specimens to be stressed
with some bending about the weak a x i s i n a d d i t i o n to the
i n t e n t i o n a l bending about the strong a x i s , which may account
for the observed s t r e n g t h values being lower than the general
trend.
The points representing e c c e n t r i c compression t e s t s with
the smallest eccentricity also have a weaker s t r e n g t h than
p r e d i c t e d by the model. T h i s may be explained by a length
effect, because although these boards had a c l e a r length of
0.45m between the l o a d i n g boots, the t o t a l l e n g t h was 1.05m,

164
and most load was probably introduced by end b e a r i n g , for this
case with very small e c c e n t r i c i t y . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n lengths
c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to the observed results.
7.2.2 Parameter Estimation
The estimation of the two parameters t o c a l i b r a t e the
s t r e n g t h model are d e s c r i b e d below.
Stress-distribution parameter
The stress-distribution parameter k 3 was initially
estimated by comparing mean values of t e n s i o n and bending
strengths as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 3 . Minor adjustments were
then made to provide a b e t t e r f i t to a l l the data. The f i n a l
value of k = 7 . 0 corresponds to a x i a l
3 tension strength being
approximately 0 . 6 7 times bending s t r e n g t h , f o r the same l e n g t h
of t e s t specimen.
A comparison can a l s o be made with the depth effect
parameter k ,
2 which i s expected t o be somewhat s i m i l a r . The
value of k = 7 . 0 used here i s s i m i l a r

3 to values of k 2 observed
in bending tests, but greater than values of k 2 observed i n
a x i a l tension t e s t s . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s probably related to
grading rules.
Compression parameters
There are two c l o s e l y linked parameters which a f f e c t the
shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram i n the compression region.
These a r e the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter i n compression and
the slope of the f a l l i n g branch of the stress-strain curve.
As both have similar effects on p r e d i c t e d behaviour, and
n e i t h e r can be q u a n t i f i e d independently, only one has been

165
used in this calibration. The possibility of a stress-
d i s t r i b u t i o n e f f e c t has been ignored, and the slope of the
falling branch of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve has been s e l e c t e d to
g i v e a good f i t to the d a t a . The value used i s 0.02 times the
rising slope in the e l a s t i c r e g i o n , which r e p r e s e n t s a very
gradual drop i n s t r e s s with increasing strain beyond peak
stress. L i m i t e d t e s t data such as that of G1OS(1978) suggest
a steeper f a l l i n g branch which would not give such a good f i t
to the data i n the compression region. I t i s p o s s i b l e that
the e f f e c t s of a steeper falling branch are being offset
somewhat by a stress-distribution effect i n compression, but
t h i s cannot be q u a n t i f i e d .
7.2.3 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curve f o r End Moments
F i g u r e 55 shows the predicted long column interaction
diagram f o r end moments compared with the t e s t results for
four different lengths, at three levels within the
distribution. The model p r e d i c t i o n curves have been obtained
using the input data d e s c r i b e d in Chapter 6, and the two
parameters obtained by calibration to mean values of the
shortest l e n g t h as d e s c r i b e d above.
Each p o i n t on a curve represents a combination of end
moment and axial l o a d corresponding to the load c a p a c i t y of
the column f o r a given e c c e n t r i c i t y and column length. Each
plotted point represents 5th percentile, mean, or 95th
percentile of maximum recorded axial load and the
corresponding end moment for a sample of columns of given
length. Each p o i n t was obtained from a l a r g e number of test

166
3.2m.
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(NX) fJticn IblXti O'OB COS O'Ot" O'K
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F i g u r e 55 - P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m f o r e n d moments
c o m p a r e d w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e
167
results as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 5.
The f i t of the predicted curves to the data is
reasonable. In g e n e r a l t h e model t e n d s t o underestimate the
failure moment, b u t t h e d i s c r e p a n c y i s not l a r g e . No definite
explanation is available for this underestimate, b u t some
contributing factors will be d i s c u s s e d . One possibility is
that the computer model assumes t h a t strength and s t i f f n e s s
are uniform along e a c h b o a r d , and that failure will always
occur a t mid-span. In p r a c t i c e , the f a i l u r e s were o f t e n a t a
defect away from m i d - s p a n , r e q u i r i n g a l a r g e r l o a d and moment
than would have been necessary had t h e d e f e c t been a t m i d -
span. A related explanation i s that the input values of a x i a l
t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n strength for the model have been
modified to the length of t h e column, assuming that the f u l l
length o f t h e column i s subjected to uniform stress. This is
a conservative assumption for columns which deflect
considerably before failure, and may contribute to the
underestimate of the model.
The accuracy of the f i t is considered to be q u i t e
acceptable, and i f the p r e d i c t e d c u r v e s a r e t o be used as a
design tool they generally represent a slightly conservative
prediction of s t r e n g t h .
168
7.2.4 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Mid-Span Moments
F i g u r e 56 shows a comparison of the model p r e d i c t i o n and
the data, using i n t e r a c t i o n curves of a x i a l l o a d and mid-span
moment. A l l of the curves and data p o i n t s show much larger
moments than in figure 55 because the moments have been
a m p l i f i e d due t o deformations w i t h i n the members.
The f i t of the data to the model i s not as good in this
case, as the model sometimes underestimates the moment at
f a i l u r e by a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount. The factors discussed in
the previous section still apply, but another p o i n t must be
included. Each data p o i n t i s c a l c u l a t e d from the measured
mid-span d e f l e c t i o n at maximum a x i a l load. In most cases the
failure i s an instability failure associated with rapid
i n c r e a s e i n l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n s at very small changes i n l o a d .
The load was not applied very slowly, so the measured
d e f l e c t i o n s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than that which would
j u s t cause f a i l u r e under steady s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s . A similar
problem has been r e p o r t e d i n t e s t s on concrete members (Nathan
1983b).
In view of these problems, more emphasis should be given
to end moments than mid-span moments when checking the
validity of the computer model.

169
F i g u r e 56 - P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m f o r m i d - s p a n
m o m e n t s c o m p a r e d w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e
170
7.2.5 A x i a l Load - Slenderness Curves
Figure 57 shows the a x i a l l o a d v s . slenderness curves
f o r the 38x89mm boards at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e , mean and 95th
percentile levels. The top (dotted) l i n e i s the p r e d i c t e d
curve f o r concentric loading (not t e s t e d ) , and the next five
lines are f o r the t e s t e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , d e f i n e d i n the key to
the data p o i n t s . The data p o i n t s are the same p o i n t s from the
t e s t r e s u l t s presented previously. The f i t of the model to
the data i s very good. In some cases the model underestimates
the a x i a l load recorded i n the t e s t s .
7.3 38x14 0mm BOARDS
7.3.1 Short Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves
Figure 58 shows the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams from
the model, c a l i b r a t e d t o mean values of t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the
s h o r t e s t length (0.914m) of 38x140mm,boards.
All the parameters used f o r t h i s p r e d i c t i o n are as f o r
the 34x89mm material w i t h , one exception. The stress-
distribution parameter i n t e n s i o n , which r e l a t e s the t e n s i o n
s t r e n g t h to the bending s t r e n g t h , i s d i f f e r e n t . The value of
k =7.0 used f o r the s m a l l e r s i z e has been changed to k =9.0 to

3 3
provide a better f i t to the t e s t data°for the l a r g e r c r o s s
section. The model p r e d i c t i o n s f o r the 5th p e r c e n t i l e s , mean,
and 95th p e r c e n t i l e s have been made using the same parameters.
General observations about the goodness of f i t in this
figure are similar to those d e s c r i b e d f o r the smaller size
material. Note that there are only two p o i n t s i n the tension
region, one each at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e and mean l e v e l s . As

(a) 5 t h % i l e (b) Mean (c) 95th % i l e
F i g u r e 57 - P r e d i c t e d a x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s c u r v e s
compared w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm s i z e
172
Length 0.91 A m .
Mean
/
/
/
/
/95th %ile
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T -
8.0
0.0 ID 2.D 3.0 4.0 S.0 6.0 7.0

noriENT cKN.ro
F i g u r e 58 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m c a l i b r a t e d t o
t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e
described i n Chapter 4, t h e t e s t method for deriving these
points was not very satisfactory, so t h e y s h o u l d be viewed
w i t h c a u t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e y do t e n d t o s u p p o r t the p r e d i c t e d
curves.
173
7.3.2 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves
Figure 59 shows the p r e d i c t e d long column interaction
curves for end moments compared with the t e s t r e s u l t s . Figure
60 shows the p r e d i c t e d long column i n t e r a c t i o n curves for mid-
span moments compared with the t e s t results.
In both cases the comparison of the model and test
results is of similar form to that p r e v i o u s l y shown for the
38x89mm s i z e , but the f i t i s not as good and the model i s seen
to be very conservative in many cases. No specific
explanation is available other than the points raised in
d i s c u s s i o n of the 38x89mm r e s u l t s .
7.3.3 A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves
F i g u r e 61 shows the p r e d i c t e d curves of a x i a l load vs.
slenderness compared with the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the 38x140mm
boards. The l i n e s are as d e s c r i b e d f o r the smaller size, and
the same comments apply.
7.4 REPRESENTATIVE STRENGTH PROPERTIES
When investigating possible design methods in the next
chapter i t will be convenient to refer to material with
certain representative strength properties, rather than
s p e c i f i c grades, s p e c i e s , and sizes of timber. The load
c a p a c i t y of timber members i s i n f l u e n c e d by one or more of the
f o l l o w i n g , depending on the nature of the loads.
tension strength
compression- s t r e n g t h
bending strength
modulus of elasticity
Figure 59 - P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r end moments
compared with t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e
175
(NX) ouoi "ibixti (NX) ami itiixti
F i g u r e 60 - P r e d i c t e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r mid-span
moments compared with t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e
cn
(a) 5th % i l e (b) Mean (c) 95th % i l e
F i g u r e 61 - P r e d i c t e d a x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s c u r v e s
compared w i t h t e s t r e s u l t s f o r 38x140mm s i z e
177
The r a t i o between t e n s i o n and compression strengths has a
major influence on the shape of the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h . The r a t i o of tension to
bending strength also affects the shape of the u l t i m a t e
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram because t h i s r a t i o i s an estimator f o r the
s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter. For long columns the modulus
of e l a s t i c i t y has a major i n f l u e n c e on the load c a p a c i t y .
A small survey was carried out on the r e s u l t s of the
t e s t s reported i n Chapter 5 and on the results of several
other in-grade t e s t s c a r r i e d out at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h
Columbia. For the r a t i o of in-grade t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h to i n -
grade compression s t r e n g t h , most r e s u l t s were i n the range of
0.55 t o 0.85. For the r a t i o of t e n s i o n strength to bending
strength, corrected f o r length e f f e c t s , most r e s u l t s were i n
the range of 0.6 to 0.8. The modulus of elasticity was
between 300 and 350 times the a x i a l compression s t r e n g t h i n
most cases. These figures are representative of 5th
percentile results f o r SPF and Hem-fir material in sizes
39x89mm to 38x235mm, grades Number 2 to S e l e c t S t r u c t u r a l , and
moisture content approximately 15%. On the basis of this
small survey, three groups of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s have
been chosen, one average group and two groups r e p r e s e n t i n g the
l i m i t s of observed results, these having properties that
produce the l a r g e s t and the s m a l l e s t "nose" i n the compression
region of the a x i a l load moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagram.
Figure 62 shows ultimate interaction diagrams for
material of these three representative groups, non-

178
AVERAGE
STRONG
WEAK
MOMENT
F i g u r e 62 - Ultimate i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r
representative strength properties
dimensionalized to a compression s t r e n g t h of 1.0. M a t e r i a l
that i s relatively weak i n t e n s i o n and i n bending produces a
large "nose" in the compression region. This is
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of low grade m a t e r i a l , and w i l l be r e f e r r e d to
as weak material in the next chapter. M a t e r i a l that i s
relatively strong i n t e n s i o n and i n bending produces a smaller
"nose" i n the compression r e g i o n . This i s representative of
high grade material, and will be referred to as strong
material. The curves r e p r e s e n t i n g weak and strong material

(
should be considered upper and lower bounds f o r the m a t e r i a l
described. M a t e r i a l represented by the c e n t r a l l i n e on f i g u r e

179
62 w i l l be r e f e r r e d to as average m a t e r i a l . The ratios and
relative strengths are summarized i n Table III. In a l l cases
Weak Average Strong
Ratios Ft/Fc .55 .70 .85

Ft/Fb .80 .70 .60
Relat ive Fc 1.0 1 .0 1 .0

Strengths Ft .55 .70 .85
Fb .69 1 .0 1 .42
Table III - M a t e r i a l property r a t i o s for representative

groups
the r a t i o of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y to compression s t r e n g t h has
been taken as 300.
F i g u r e 63 shows i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams of end moments, for
columns of three slenderness r a t i o s , and m a t e r i a l of the three
representative strength groups. The curves have been non-
dimensionalized so that the shapes of the curves can be
compared.
Figure 64 shows a x i a l load - slenderness curves f o r the
three representative s t r e n g t h groups, f o r columns with several
end eccentricities. Again these plots have been non-
dimensionalized so that r e l a t i v e shapes can be compared.

180
F i g u r e 64 - A x i a l load-slenderness curves f o r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s (non-dimensionalized)
181
7.5 A P P L I C A B I L I T Y OF STRENGTH MODEL
The strength model described in this thesis i s a
deterministic model which does no statistical calculations.
To use the model to calculate strength a t any p e r c e n t i l e i n
the distribution, i t i s necessary t o use input data for that
percentile, and t o c a r r y out a d e t e r m i n i s t i c calculation.
The test results described i n Chapter 5 showed very large
variability in strength. In t h i s chapter the strength model
has been c a l i b r a t e d using mean test results, and has given a
good p r e d i c t i o n of strength throughout the d i s t r i b u t i o n . This
demonstrates the v e r s a t i l i t y of t h e model, a n d shows that the
predicted behaviour of timber members under combined bending
and axial load depends only on t h e ' - v a l u e s of the input data,
and not the l o c a t i o n i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n of strength.
These findings are significant because they indicate that
the strength model can p o t e n t i a l l y be u s e d f o r timber from any
source, a t any l e v e l in a distribution of strength, provided
that input data i s a v a i l a b l e and that suitable calibration is
carried out.
7.6 SUMMARY
This chapter has brought together the test results
described in Chapter 5 and t h e s t r e n g t h model described in
Chapter 6. The model has been c a l i b r a t e d using only mean test
results f o r the shortest boards tested. The strength model
calibrated in this way has been used to provide a reasonably
accurate p r e d i c t i o n o f member strength, for a wide range of

182 V
member lengths, throughout the distribution of strength
values. T h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be q u i t e a s e v e r e t e s t for the
model. Discrepancies between the p r e d i c t e d c u r v e s and t h e
test r e s u l t s are g e n e r a l l y not l a r g e , and where they occur
they tend t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e . On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e results
t h e model w i l l be u s e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r to investigate a
number o f p o s s i b l e d e s i g n methods f o r t i m b e r members s u b j e c t e d
t o c o m b i n e d b e n d i n g and a x i a l loading.
183
VIII. DESIGN METHODS FOR COLUMNS AND BEAM COLUMNS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Structural designers require a simple yet effective
method f o r s i z i n g a member to s a f e l y r e s i s t prescribed axial
loads and bending moments. One of the o b j e c t i v e s of this
study i s to propose design methods which can be used to check
whether a member of s e l e c t e d dimensions has sufficient load
carrying capacity.
T h i s chapter c o n s i s t s of a very brief review of design
philosophy and current code requirements for combined bending
and a x i a l loading i n timber, s t e e l and concrete, followed by
s e v e r a l proposals f o r new design methods for timber members.
8.1.1 Allowable S t r e s s Design
For many years structural design was based on the
behaviour of s t r u c t u r e s under working load conditions and
elastic behaviour. Design codes s p e c i f i e d a l l o w a b l e stresses
that were not to be exceeded when the structure was loaded
with the maximum a n t i c i p a t e d loads, without c o n s i d e r a t i o n of
behaviour at u l t i m a t e loads. The allowable stresses were
derived from strength t e s t s on m a t e r i a l s using large factors
of safety.
8.1.2 R e l i a b i l i t y - B a s e d Design
A s i g n i f i c a n t advance in s t r u c t u r a l design was made when
design codes began to place more emphasis on the behaviour of
structures loaded to conditions near failure. "Ultimate
strength" design of r e i n f o r c e d concrete and "plastic" design
of s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s i n v o l v e d checking that a structure would

184
not actually collapse when loaded with maximum anticipated
loads i n c r e a s e d by a s u b s t a n t i a l "load factor".
"Limit s t a t e s " design codes consider structural failure
as an ultimate limit s t a t e to be i n v e s t i g a t e d along with a
number of s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t states. In recent years there
has been a l o t of a t t e n t i o n given t o q u a n t i f y i n g the amount of
structural s a f e t y provided by various design methods. Design
codes f o r s t e e l and r e i n f o r c e d concrete have been improved in
an attempt to p r o v i d e a c e r t a i n minimal p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e
over the life of a structure. Design codes based on t h i s
approach may be c a l l e d "probability-based" or "reliability-
based" l i m i t s t a t e s design codes.
Accurate calculation of p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e requires
d e t a i l e d knowledge of the distributions of both load and
resistance i n the overlapping region. This information i s not
r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , so approximate methods have beeen developed
to calculate a "reliability index" from j u s t the mean and
standard d e v i a t i o n of load and r e s i s t a n c e . There have been
many developments in this area since early work by
Cornell(1969) and others. Recent developments towards
consistent design codes for different materials i n North
America are summarized by Galambos et a l . ( 1 9 8 2 ) .
D e s p i t e the best attempts to q u a n t i f y structural safety,
observations of structural failures have demonstrated that
even when best a v a i l a b l e estimates of load and resistance
distributions a r e used, some allowance must, be made f o r other
f a c t o r s more d i f f i c u l t to q u a n t i f y such as poor workmanship,

185
design mistakes and unforseen circumstances ( B l o c k l e y 1980).
8.1.3 R e l i a b i l i t y - B a s e d Design of Timber
Reliability-based design methods f o r timber structures
are l e s s advanced than f o r other m a t e r i a l s . The calculation
of loads is essentially the same for structures of any
m a t e r i a l , with a l a r g e amount of u n c e r t a i n t y in most cases.
The c a l c u l a t i o n of r e s i s t a n c e depends on d e t a i l e d knowledge of
the strength properties and behaviour of the structural
material. The strength of timber under various loading
conditions i s not w e l l d e f i n e d and i s much more v a r i a b l e than
for other materials.
Sexsmith and Fox (1978) were among the first to
demonstrate how r e l i a b i l i t y - b a s e d l i m i t s t a t e s design methods
could be applied to glued laminated beams. Foschi(1979)
discussed some potential problems with a p p l i c a t i o n of the
reliability index concept to timber structures. Goodman et
al.(l98l) have compared the l e v e l of s a f e t y implied by code
specifications in several international codes. Another
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of r e l i a b i l i t y - b a s e d design of timber members i s
described by Ellingwood(1981). Goodman et a l . ( l 9 8 3 ) summarize
a large investigation i n t o r e l i a b i l i t y - b a s e d design of wood
transmission line structures. Malhotra(1983) has i n v e s t i g a t e d
the reliability index implied by several alternative design
methods f o r timber compression members.

186
8.1.4 Scope
The r e s u l t s of t h i s study w i l l be used i n t h i s chapter to
propose design methods f o r checking that a s e l e c t e d member has
the c a p a c i t y to r e s i s t s p e c i f i e d loads. In t h i s context i t i s
not important whether the loads are s p e c i f i e d by a design code
in a working s t r e s s format or i n a l i m i t s t a t e s format. The
a c t u a l load and resistance factors in each case must be
determined by o t h e r s .
It is beyond the scope of this study to develop
reliability-based design methods for timber members. A
principal contribution of this study has been to produce
i n f o r m a t i o n on the s t r e n g t h distribution of timber members
under, v a r i o u s combinations of axial and f l e x u r a l loadi-ng,
which w i l l be u s e f u l input to the eventual development of
r e l i a b i l i t y - b a s e d design methods.
8.2 EXISTING DESIGN METHDOS
8.2.1 Canadian Timber Code
The current Canadian Code (CSA 1980) is based on
a l l o w a b l e design s t r e s s e s p r o v i d i n g a c e r t a i n f a c t o r of s a f e t y
against f a i l u r e under s p e c i f i e d working loads (Wilson 1978).
The Timber Design Manual (1980) p r o v i d e s a working guide to
the code with many design aids. The background to these
requirements have been d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r in t h i s thesis.

187
a. C o n c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Columns
For concentrically loaded columns design i s based on three
different slenderness c l a s s e s , as d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 2 and
shown i n f i g u r e 8. Slenderness r a t i o i s d e f i n e d as the ratio
of e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h , L, to the appropriate cross sectional
dimension, d. The allowable stress, f a , i n a column i s given
by
L/d < 10 f
a = f
ca (->
8 1
10 < L/d < K f a = f J l - l/3(^f]c (8.2)
L/d > K f - , 2 3 3 E
(8.3)
3
(L/d) 2
The t r a n s i t i o n between intermediate length and long columns i s
at a slenderness r a t i o K, given by
K = 0.591 |— (8.4)
ca
where E i s the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y and f c a i s the allowable
stress parallel to the grain in a short column. These
formulae include safety factors. The notation has been
changed from that i n the code f o r c o n s i s t e n c y . Although quite
simple in concept, the design formulae are unwieldy and
awkward to use because there i s a d i f f e r e n t formula for each

188
of three ranges of s l e n d e r n e s s . A number of continuous column
formulae which c o u l d be used f o r a l l slenderness r a t i o s will
be d e s c r i b e d l a t e r in this chapter.
The experimental phase of this study d i d not include
concentrically loaded columns, so d i r e c t v e r i f i c a t i o n of the
code column formula i s not p o s s i b l e . However, the strength
model has been calibrated to r e s u l t s of t e s t s f o r a l a r g e
number of e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , and can with slight extrapolation,
be used t o p r e d i c t behaviour at zero eccentricity.
Figure 65 compares the code formulae with behaviour
p r e d i c t e d by the model f o r c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns. The
p l o t has been non-dimensionalized to maximum load using a
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y 300 times the m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h . There
is a moderate discrepancy between the two curves for
intermediate column l e n g t h s , the code formula overestimating
column s t r e n g t h i n t h i s range.
b. Combined A x i a l Load and Bending
For members subjected to combined axial compression and
bending the code specifies a linear i n t e r a c t i o n between the
a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of a c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded column and the
moment c a p a c i t y i n pure bending. The formula i s
UA + *l± < i (8.5)

f
a f
b
where P i s the a x i a l l o a d , A i s the area of c r o s s s e c t i o n , f a
i s the a l l o w a b l e a x i a l s t r e s s under c o n c e n t r i c l o a d i n g f o r the
particular slenderness ratio, M i s the bending moment

189
nODEL PREDICTION
= ~l i i i I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0-D 8.0 16.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0
SLENDERNESS (L/d)
F i g u r e 65 - Code column formula compared with model

p r e d i c t i o n (non-dimensionalized)
including that due to a x i a l l o a d s , S i s the s e c t i o n modulus,
and fb i s the a l l o w a b l e bending stress. The code p r o v i d e s no
guidance f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the bending moment due to a x i a l load
and column d e f l e c t i o n s , but the Timber Design Manual (1980)
suggests equations f o r simple cases and a t r i a l and e r r o r
method f o r o t h e r s .
For short columns equation 8.5 i s consistent with
assumptions of l i n e a r e l a s t i c behaviour, a l i m i t i n g value of
compression s t r e s s , with no c o n s i d e r a t i o n of a f a i l u r e i n the
tension zone. Earlier chapters have shown that these
assumptions are not c o n s i s t e n t with observed behaviour. As an
example of the inadequacies of the code p r o v i s i o n s f o r short

190
columns, refer to figure 23. The form of equation 8.5 i s
represented by the s t r a i g h t d o t t e d l i n e which i s seen to be
very c o n s e r v a t i v e compared with the inner s o l i d line sketched
through the t e s t results. For longer columns refer t o the
four parts of figure 56. The inner d o t t e d curves a r e the
model p r e d i c t i o n s of 5th p e r c e n t i l e strength. Equation 8.5
would be represented by straight l i n e s with the same a x i s
i n t e r c e p t s , which would again be very c o n s e r v a t i v e .
A similar linear interaction formula i s specified for
combined bending and a x i a l t e n s i o n .
c. Summary
To summarize, present Canadian code requirements are
unsatisfactory f o r the f o l l o w i n g reasons:
1. For c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns of intermediate
lengths, the code formula overestimates strength. The
awkward formulae f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e and long columns could
be replaced by a single continuous formula for a l l
slenderness ratios.
2. For combined bending and a x i a l compression the code
interaction equation i s a poor r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a c t u a l
behaviour, grossly underestimating strength in many
cases.
3. Moment magnification due to slenderness e f f e c t s i s
not adequately provided f o r .

191
8.2.2 NFPA Timber Code
A timber design code widely used i n the U n i t e d States is
that produced by the National F o r e s t Products A s s o c i a t i o n
(NFPA 1982). T h i s code i s a l s o based on a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s .
a. C o n c e n t r i c a l l y Loaded Columns
Design of c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns is similar to the
Canadian code requirements of equations 8.1 to 8.4. The
t r a n s i t i o n between short and intermediate columns is at a
slenderness r a t i o of 11 rather than 10, and the s a f e t y factors
are s l i g h t l y different.
b. . Combined A x i a l Load and Bending
For combined a x i a l compression and bending, a general formula
is used which includes both eccentric axial loads and
transverse loads. ' The derivation by Newlin(l940) and
Wood(l950), described b r i e f l y in Chapter 2, used assumptions
more applicable to clear wood than to sawn timber. The
formula i s
P/A M M/S + P/A(6 + 1.5 J ) ( e / d ) { 8 > 6 )
T~ +
f - P/A * 1
W H E R E J = M^S* . 0< J<1 (8-7)
and M/S i s the bending s t r e s s r e s u l t i n g from l a t e r a l loads, fb
i s the a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s i n bending, e i s the eccentricity of
the axial load. All other terms are as d e f i n e d i n the
previous section.
192
The code formula will be compared with behaviour
predicted by the strength model for eccentrically loaded
columns, assuming that the a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s i n the code are
representative of actual behaviour, and ignoring safety
factors. For the case of no transverse loads (M/S=0) the
moment allowed by the code formula can be obtained from
equation 8.6 as
f. - JP/A
where M i s now the end moment P times e. This has been
plotted f o r comparison with the model p r e d i c t i o n i n f i g u r e 66.
For low slenderness ratio (L/d=lO) the code formula i s seen to
be conservative at low a x i a l loads and unsafe at high axial
loads. For columns with L/d=20 the code formula i s again very
conservative f o r low a x i a l loads, mainly because i t predicts
only 80% of a c t u a l bending s t r e n g t h when a x i a l load i s zero
(This can be seen by p u t t t i n g P=0 and J=1 i n equation 8.8).
The small unsafe region near the v e r t i c a l a x i s i s due to the
discrepancy between the code formula and the model prediction
for this slenderness ratio, as shown in f i g u r e 65. For
slender columns (L/d=40) the code i s again conservative for
low axial loads.
The comparison illustrated i n f i g u r e 66 has been made f o r
material with "average" strength properties as d e f i n e d i n
Chapter 7. For "strong", or "weak" material the model
predicts very d i f f e r e n t i n t e r a c t i o n curves as shown i n f i g u r e

193
riODEL PREDICTION
NFPA FORriULA
U N H f l G N I F I E D FlOHENT
Figure 66 - NFPA formula compared with model p r e d i c t i o n
(non-dimensionalized)
63, but equation 8.8 produces almost i d e n t i c a l curves. This
comparison has not been p l o t t e d , but a comparison of f i g u r e s
66 and 63 shows that the NFPA formula will result in large
unsafe areas f o r strong m a t e r i a l and l a r g e c o n s e r v a t i v e areas
for weak m a t e r i a l .
c. Summary 1
Compared with the Canadian code, the NFPA code is an
improvement i n that moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n i s incorporated into
a relatively simple formula that handles both e c c e n t r i c axial
loads and transverse loads. However, by comparing the NFPA

formula with the p r e d i c t i o n of the s t r e n g t h model, i t has been
shown that the formula does not accurately predict the

194
s t r u c t u r a l behaviour of timber compression members at u l t i m a t e
loads.
8.2.3 Code Requirements f o r S t e e l
The c u r r e n t Canadian code f o r s t e e l design (CSA 1978) is
in a l i m i t s t a t e s format. Structural members are designed
such that their load capacity, reduced by a performance
factor, i s not exceeded by specified factored loads. The
Handbook of Steel Construction (1980) p r o v i d e s a commentary
and working guide t o the code with many design aids. The
Canadian steel code i s based on s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e s t o many
other codes f o r s t e e l design.
For c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns, design follows the
same general procedure as f o r timber, with a parabolic
transition from m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e in short columns to Euler
buckling i n long columns.
For combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g the code s p e c i f i e s
that strength and stability be checked separately. When
designing a member to r e s i s t some combination of a x i a l load P
and bending moment M, the s t a b i l i t y requirement is satisfied
in i t s simplest form i f
P , 1 M . ,1
—u T=W7f- M~ < (8.9)
/ n
+
e u
where Pu i s the a x i a l s t r e n g t h of the column under concentric
loading (including possible e f f e c t s of b u c k l i n g ) , Mu i s the
moment c a p a c i t y and Pe i s the Euler buckling load from
equation 2.6. This formulation assumes that the i n t e r a c t i o n

195
diagram f o r a x i a l load and mid-span moment in slender beam
columns i s the s t r a i g h t l i n e Pu-Mu on Figure" 67, which i s an
empirical relationship verified by experimental studies
MOMENT
F i g u r e 67 - A x i a l load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r
s t e e l members
(Galambos 1968). To satisfy this requirement, a design
combination of P and M must l i e to the left of the curved
dotted l i n e Pu-Mu, the h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e between the dotted
l i n e and the solid line representing moment magnification
caused by l a t e r a l d e f l e c t i o n s i n the member.
The moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r i s given by
F = (8.10)
1 - P/P,
which is a close approximation to the exact expression f o r

196
linear elastic behaviour (Timoshenko and Gere 1 9 6 1 ) .
For short columns i n which the axial strength i s not
reduced by stability e f f e c t s the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram becomes
the s t r a i g h t l i n e Pa-Mu on F i g u r e 6 7 , where Pa i s the axial
compression s t r e n g t h of the column m a t e r i a l .
If the beam-column i s loaded with d i f f e r e n t moments at
each end the design equation becomes
r +
I=P7P- M- < 1 { 8
- 1 1 )
u e u
where Cm i s a factor to account f o r the distribution of
moments along the member which can be approximated by
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 M /M 2 1 > 0.4 (8.12)
where M, and M 2 are the larger and s m a l l e r end moments
respectively. Galambos(1968) and Johnston(1976) show that
this i s a reasonable approximation f o r a wide range of l o a d i n g
cases. The product of Cm and M i s an e q u i v a l e n t uniform
moment that should lead to the same long column strength as
the actual moment diagram. For some unsymmetrical loading
c o n d i t i o n s the load c a p a c i t y of a beam-column w i l l be governed
by the moment c a p a c i t y of a p l a s t i c hinge at one end. In t h i s
case the load c a p a c i t y w i l l be governed by strength rather
than by stability considerations, and the design must be
checked a g a i n s t an interaction diagram f o r cross section
strength. The i n t e r a c t i o n formula f o r s t r o n g - a x i s bending i s

1 97
M < 1.18 (1 - !-) , M < M (8.13)

u u
which i s shown by the l i n e Pa-B-Mu i n f i g u r e 67. The bilinear
shape appears because the web of an I - s e c t i o n can c a r r y some
axial l o a d without reducing the p l a s t i c moment c a p a c i t y of the
flanges. The shaded l i n e on f i g u r e 67 shows the resulting
design envelope for a p o s s i b l e s i t u a t i o n with unsymmetrical
end moments.
The possible effects of lateral-torsional buckling in
bending can be accommodated by using a bending s t r e n g t h value
Mu that represents the s t r e n g t h at which buckling occurs.
Biaxial behaviour is included by extending the interaction
formula for s t a b i l i t y to
C M Cm M , ' x
L_ + rc* x
+ y _Z_ < i (8.14)
P 1 - P/P M 1-P/P M
u ex ux ey uy
where the s u b s c r i p t s x and y r e f e r to a c t i o n s about the x and
y axes., A s i m i l a r formula is specified for material strength
under biaxial loading. These formulae assume linear
interaction between x-axis and y-axis behaviour. This
assumption is very conservative (Johnston 1976), but an
appendix to the code p r o v i d e s more d e t a i l e d formulae f o r more
accurate design in c e r t a i n cases.
It can be seen that the steel requirements have some
s i m i l a r i t i e s to those f o r timber, but are s i g n i f i c a n t l y better
because
1. Strength and stability effects are considered

separately.
198
2. The s p e c i f i e d i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l load and

moment i s more representative of a c t u a l behaviour at
ultimate loads.
3. Moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n due to second-order effects i s

included.
4. The e f f e c t of unequal end moments i s i n c l u d e d .
5. B i a x i a l e f f e c t s are accounted f o r .
6. The p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of l a t e r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g
can be i n c l u d e d .
8.2.4 Canadian Concrete Code
The current Canadian code (CSA 1977) for reinforced
concrete design i s written in a limit s t a t e s format, o f t e n
r e f e r r e d to as " u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h d e s i g n " . The Canadian code
is similar t o many other r e i n f o r c e d concrete codes. As with
steel, structural members are designed such that their
ultimate load capacity, reduced by a capacity reduction
factor, i s not exceeded by specified factored loads. A
detailed background to the column provisions i s given by
MacGregor et a l . ( l 9 7 0 ) , and i s used as the basic reference f o r
this section.
The design method for reinforced concrete compression
members i s significantly different from the methods d e s c r i b e d
above f o r s t e e l and timber. The code p r o v i s i o n s are much l e s s
extensive than f o r s t e e l , p a r t l y because long slender members
occur much less frequently in concrete than i n s t e e l , and
because members with hinged end c o n d i t i o n s are r a r e .
No s p e c i f i c p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r c o n c e n t r i c a l l y loaded
compression members. A l l members must be designed t o r e s i s t a
minimum nominal bending moment due to an e c c e n t r i c i t y of 10%

199
of the member's dimension about either a x i s . . Although an
accurate second-order structural analysis is recommended,
slenderness e f f e c t s are g e n e r a l l y accounted f o r by magnifying
the bending moment from a l l sources by a m a g n i f i c a t i o n factor,
F, given by
C
F = m
1-P/4>P (8.15)
where P i s the f a c t o r e d a x i a l l o a d , Pe i s the E u l e r buckling
load, 0 is a capacity reduction factor, and Cm i s the
coefficient f o r d i f f e r e n t end moments e x a c t l y as used i n the
s t e e l code.
The member i s then s i z e d and reinforced such that the
factored axial load combined with the magnified factored
bending moment does not cause a m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e at any cross
section. The s t r e n g t h of the c r o s s s e c t i o n i s determined from
first p r i n c i p l e s by standard methods or from p u b l i s h e d design
charts (ACI 1970). The shape of the ultimate interaction
diagram for cross section strength i s very s i m i l a r to that
obtained f o r timber members i n t h i s study.
T h i s method of design assumes that a l l failures are
material failures, not instability failures. The design
method c o n s i d e r s i n s t a b i l i t y only indirectly, i n that equation
8.15 can only be used s e n s i b l y f o r a x i a l loads less than the
Euler buckling load. Equation 8.15 i s an approximation based
on linear elastic theory, but real behaviour of reinforced
concrete i s non-linear. To overcome t h i s problem the code

200
i n c l u d e s an e m p i r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r the stiffness EI which
leads to approximately c o r r e c t r e s u l t s f o r members which have
material failures. These approximations are apparently not
serious deficiencies in the design method because very few
r e i n f o r c e d concrete columns are very slender. For members
failing in an i n s t a b i l i t y mode (slender p r e s t r e s s e d members
for example) the apparent stiffness EI would have to be
further reduced e m p i r i c a l l y , or a more r a t i o n a l method method
used (Nathan 1983a). The e x p r e s s i o n f o r EI also includes a
factor to allow f o r the possibility of creep under long
duration loading. The p o s s i b i l i t y of a s i m i l a r p r o v i s i o n f o r
timber members i s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 9.
The principal advantages of the reinforced concrete
method are that
1. A s i n g l e design procedure can be used, f o r a l l types

of compression members.
2. No c o n c e n t r i c l o a d i n g column formula i s required.
3. The short column interaction curve used f o r a l l

design can be d e r i v e d from f i r s t principles, or simply
obtained from p u b l i s h e d graphs or t a b l e s .
The primary disadvantage i s that the design method f o r
slender columns i s not an accurate representation of real
behaviour. The approximations introduced are s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r
reinforced concrete but may not be f o r more slender columns
made of timber.
(
201
8.2.5 L i m i t States Timber Codes
A proposal for a limit s t a t e s design format for timber
structures was made by SexsmitM1979). Two new codes c o n t a i n
p r o v i s i o n s s i m i l a r to some of those suggested by Sexsmith.
The Canadian code proposal (CSA 1983) i s almost identical
to the e x i s t i n g working s t r e s s code p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , with
new load f a c t o r s and resistance factors which change the
format of the design equations without any significant
conceptual changes.
A second code i n l i m i t s states format is the Ontario
Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC 1982) r e f e r r e d to as OHBDC
in this chapter. The design provisions of OHBDC for
compression members represent a major change from e x i s t i n g
requirements. There are several improvements but the
requirements are still lacking i n some r e s p e c t s . The main
change i s the d e l e t i o n of a design method for concentric
loading, recognizing that i t i s impossible to load a timber
member with zero end eccentricity. For axial loading a
minimum end eccentricity of 0.05 times the c r o s s section
dimension i s s p e c i f i e d , together with an initial bow (or
crook) at mid-length of 1/500 times the e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h . The
design equation i s
a e u
where a l l the terms are the same as d e f i n e d p r e v i o u s l y f o r
s t e e l and c o n c r e t e . T h i s equation assumes that a l l failures

202
are material failures; instability failures are only
considered i n d i r e c t l y i n that the equation can only be used
for a x i a l loads l e s s than the E u l e r b u c k l i n g load.
To i n v e s t i g a t e the p o s s i b l e consequences of t h i s slightly
incorrect approach, a comparison with the more correct
formulation of the s t e e l code w i l l be made. Consider figure
68 which i s an i n t e r a c t i o n diagram of a x i a l l o a d vs. moment.
MOMENT
Figure 68 - A x i a l load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagram from
OHBDC
Pa i s the c o n c e n t r i c a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of a short column, Pu
i s the c o n c e n t r i c a x i a l l o a d c a p a c i t y of the long column under
consideration, and Mu i s the bending c a p a c i t y . Figure 68 has
been c o n s t r u c t e d , to s c a l e , to i l l u s t r a t e the behaviour of a
slender column whose concentric load c a p a c i t y Pu i s h a l f of

203
the short column load c a p a c i t y Pa. The curve Pu-C-Mu has been
obtained from the OHBDC formula (equation 8.16). The curve
Pu-B-Mu has been constructed from the more correct steel
formula (equation 8.11). The s t e e l code suggests that t h i s
member, s u b j e c t e d t o a x i a l load A, can just carry an end
moment represented by point B, which corresponds to a
magnified mid-span moment represented by point D. OHBDC
suggests that this member can carry a l a r g e r end moment
represented by p o i n t C which corresponds to a magnified mid-
span moment causing m a t e r i a l f a i l u r e at p o i n t E. The OHBDC
approach i s seen t o be conceptually incorrect and slightly
unsafe.
The OHBDC formula i s compared with the p r e d i c t i o n of the
s t r e n g t h model i n f i g u r e 69. To make a valid comparison i t
has been necessary to work backwards from the linear
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r magnified moments, to compare the
unmagnified moments that the designer begins with, shown as
dotted l i n e s . The d o t t e d l i n e s a r e a l l curved toward the
origin because the moment value of each p o i n t on the l i n e a r
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram has been reduced by the code m a g n i f i c a t i o n
f a c t o r t o g i v e a design moment. For short columns (L/d=l0)
the OHBDC formula i s seen t o be very c o n s e r v a t i v e , except at
high a x i a l l o a d s , even more so than the NFPA formula. For
longer columns the formula becomes more a c c u r a t e . F i g u r e 69
has been p l o t t e d f o r "average" strength material, but the
OHBDC curves w i l l not change f o r " s t r o n g " or "weak" m a t e r i a l ,
so a comparison with f i g u r e 63 shows that the formula will be

204
DODEL PREDICTION
- OHBDC FORrlllLH
\
\\
\\
CO _
C3
o
cr
o \
CO _ \ \
, \ \ \ .
\AAU10
V \ x
\
_
\ ^ \
^JVd = 20 \ X.
Ol _
\ \
\ \ \
L/d = 40 \
•= =
' * — /
a " - ^ ^ \ /
<=>' I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I.D 1.2
UNHflGNIFIED HOHENT
F i g u r e 69 - OHBDC formula compared with model p r e d i c t i o n
(non-dimensionalized)
very c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r weak m a t e r i a l .
The OHBDC formula does not a c c u r a t e l y represent behaviour
at ultimate loads. The linear interaction diagram is
c o n s e r v a t i v e and the moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r w i l l be shown
to be unconservative, but these two effects cancel out
somewhat t o produce the curves shown i n f i g u r e 69.
For biaxial loading the OHBDC specifies a linear
interaction formula almost i d e n t i c a l to that i n the steel
code. The specification of minimum end e c c e n t r i c i t y and
initial bow suggests that b i a x i a l l o a d i n g should be considered
in every case but the code i s not c l e a r on t h i s matter.
In summary, the OHBDC represents a major development in

205
that it specifies minimum moments and includes a design
equation for amplification of all moments, but some of its
assumptions are not c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the results of this study.
8.3 COLUMN CURVES FOR CONCENTRIC LOADING
Some of the design methods to be p r o p o s e d f o r beam-
columns w i l l require a method f o r calculating the strength of
the column under c o n c e n t r i c loading. A brief introduction in
Chapter 2 d e s c r i b e d some of the difficulties in calculating
the strength of columns of materials with non-linear
properties. Any a c c u r a t e approach r e q u i r e s detailed knowledge
of the stress-strain relationships, and such information is
not a v a i l a b l e for timber members, e s p e c i a l l y when d e a l i n g with
typical properties of p o p u l a t i o n s of members r a t h e r than with
individual specimens.
For slender columns the E u l e r e q u a t i o n c a n be used, but
for shorter lengths some form of empirical f o r m u l a must be
used. There are several empirical formulae a v a i l a b l e that can
be u s e d f o r any slenderness ratio. The b e s t formula is likely
t o be t h e one w i t h t h e simplest computational form p r o d u c i n g a
good f i t to experimental results.
Figure 70 shows a comparison of several curves. The
solid line is t h e column b e h a v i o u r p r e d i c t e d by t h e computer
model. The d o t t e d l i n e s are identified in the key, and will
be d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y here.
The line marked CODE is the c u r r e n t code formula (CSA
1980, NFPA 1982), which has been discussed earlier with
reference to equations 8.1 to 8.3.

206
16.0 24.0 32.0 48.0

SLENDERNESS (L/d)
Figure 70 — Comparison of column curves f o r c o n c e n t r i c

l o a d i n g (non-dimensionalized)
The curve marked MALHOTRA i s almost a p e r f e c t f i t to the
model p r e d i c t i o n . T h i s curve has been proposed by Malhotra
and Mazur (1970) by using tangent modulus theory based on the
stress-strain r e l a t i o n s h i p of equation 2.1. The resulting
column formula i s
TT E +
2
f (L/r)
c
2
[TT E + f ( L / r ) ]
2
c
2 2
- 4TT E f 2
c(L/r) 2
(8.17)
2c(L/r) 2
4c (L/r)
2 4
where fu i s the maximum axial s t r e s s that the column can
support, f c i s the f a i l u r e , s t r e s s f o r a short column of the
same material, and r i s the radius of g y r a t i o n . The term c,
defining the shape of the stress-strain relationship in

207
equation 2.1, i s taken as 0.90 both here and by M a l h o t r a . The
formula has a sound t h e o r e t i c a l background but i s cumbersome
to use.
The l i n e marked CUBIC RANKINE i s a c u b i c m o d i f i c a t i o n to
the t r a d i t i o n a l Rankine formula, proposed by Neubauer(1973).
The formula i s
f
f = £
U
i + f c
(Wd) 3
(8.18)
E 40
where d i s the c r o s s s e c t i o n a l dimension i n the d i r e c t i o n that
g i v e s the l a r g e s t s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o L/d, and a l l other terms
are as used above. The number 40 has been chosen to provide
the best f i t to the model p r e d i c t i o n , compared with a value of
50 used by Neubauer to give a good f i t to t e s t s on small c l e a r
Douglas-fir columns. Neubauer describes the theoretical
development and the subsequent s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , f o r use with
timber, but the formula must be c o n s i d e r e d empirical because
one parameter has been obtained from a c u r v e - f i t t i n g exercise.
The line marked PERRY-ROBERTSON i s the curve obtained
from the Perry-Robertson formula which i s the b a s i s of British
and European codes. The formula i s
_ f e + (^i),. _ r* e + cn+i). • ( 8 . 1 9 )
u 2 / v
2 ' c e
, ca
where n = —
Terms not p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d are f e , the s t r e s s i n the column

208
due to a p p l i c a t i o n of the E u l e r b u c k l i n g l o a d ; c, the assumed
i n i t i a l d e v i a t i o n from s t r a i g h t n e s s and a, the distance" of the
extreme f i b r e on the concave side from the neutral axis.
Robertson(1925) and Sunley(l955) r e p o r t that p r a c t i c a l l y a l l
experimental values l i e between the two curves obtained by
taking n=0.00l L/r and n=0.003 L / r . The f i g u r e of 0.001 has
been used to give the best f i t i n t h i s case. A l l e n and Bulson
(1980) describe how the Perry-Robertson formula must be
regarded as an e m p i r i c a l formula d e s p i t e the l o g i c by which i t
was d e r i v e d , because of the inadequacy of s e v e r a l assumptions.
If one of these curves is to be s e l e c t e d f o r design
purposes, there i s l i t t l e between them as they a l l give a very
good f i t to the s t r e n g t h p r e d i c t e d by the computer model, and
several have previously been verified experimentally for
timber columns. The one with the simplest computational form
therefore becomes favoured, and this i s the c u b i c Rankine
formula. Figure 71 shows the curve resulting from the
proposed formula, compared with the model p r e d i c t i o n . The
curve i s not an exact f i t , but compared with ' the present
formula i t i s no l e s s a c c u r a t e , and i s a l o t simpler to use.
8.4 PROPOSED DESIGN METHODS FOR ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS
This section will describe s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e design
methods f o r e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded timber columns, based on the
experimental and a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s of e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s .
209
MODEL P R E D I C T I O N
PROPOSED FORriULR
ex
o
_J
_J o'
cr
i—i
x
cr
i i r i i i i i
O.D B.O 16.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0
SLENDERNESS (L/d)
Figure 71 - Design proposal f o r c o n c e n t r i c l o a d i n g

compared w i t h model p r e d i c t i o n
8.4.1 Type of L o a d i n g and Analysis
This chapter is concerned with columns subjected to
eccentric axial loads, with no transverse loads a p p l i e d to the
member. Transverse loads w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 9.
At this stage, assume t h a t t h e applied axial load has
equal eccentricities at each end. The case of u n e q u a l end
eccentricities will be introduced at'a later stage in this
chapter.
The design methods presented in this chapter are for
single members, f o r which the a x i a l l o a d s and end moments are
known. T h e s e methods a r e intended for design without the use
of a second order structural analysis. Chapter 9 will discuss

210
how the r e s u l t s of t h i s t h e s i s can be used when a second order
analysis i s available.
8.4.2 Input Strength Properties
T h i s s e c t i o n assumes that c e r t a i n input information is
available f o r the t r i a l member which i s to be designed. The
information i s
1. The a x i a l t e n s i o n c a p a c i t y Tu, of the member, which
i s the product of the c r o s s s e c t i o n area A, and the a x i a l
tension failure stress f t .
2. The axial compression c a p a c i t y Pa, of the member,
which i s the product of the c r o s s s e c t i o n area A, and the
a x i a l compression f a i l u r e s t r e s s f c , f o r a short column.
3. The bending moment c a p a c i t y Mu, of the member, which
is the product of the s e c t i o n modulus S, and the modulus
of rupture f r .
4. The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , E.
The t e n s i o n , compression and bending s t r e n g t h values referred
to above are a l l assumed to depend on the length and depth of
the member, as described in Chapter 3 and summarized in
Chapter 9. Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y i s assumed to be independent
of member size.
8.4.3 Design Approaches
This section b r i e f l y c a t e g o r i z e s the s i x design methods
that w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n the remainder of t h i s chapter.
Suppose that a column i s to be designed to r e s i s t a given
axial load P with equal end eccentricities e. If a trial
member i s selected, a design method i s r e q u i r e d to check

211
whether t h e member has sufficient strength to resist the
applied load.
The deflected shape of a typical member i s shown i n
figure 39. The a x i a l load throughout t h e member i s ' P. The
bending moment M at the ends of the member (and t h e
"unmagnified" moment at mid-span) is P times e. The
"magnified" moment at midspan is FM=P(e+A), where F i s a
magnification factor due t o t h e member d e f l e c t i o n A.
With r e f e r e n c e to f i g u r e 72, p r o p o s e d d e s i g n methods 1, 2
and 3 will p r o v i d e an a p p r o x i m a t e method of calculating the
magnification factor F, hence t h e m a g n i f i e d moment FM a t m i d -
span, and will compare that magnified moment with an
interaction diagram ( o r f a i l u r e envelope).. In both methods 1
and 2, c o m p a r i s o n s w i l l be made w i t h the correct interaction
diagram shown by the solid line.- The d i f f e r e n c e between
Methods 1 and 2 w i l l be d i f f e r e n t approximations to the same
interaction diagram. Conceptually this is-the same a p p r o a c h
as used i n the s t e e l code.
In method 3 the magnified moment w i l l be compared with
the ultimate interaction diagram representing material
failure, shown by t h e d o t t e d c u r v e in figure 72. Conceptually
this isa less accurate approach, which is is used for
reinforced concrete design, and is similar to t h e OHBDC
proposal f o r timber members.
Methods 4 and 5 w i l l compare end moments, o r unmagnified
moments, with the corresponding interaction diagram (or
failure envelope) f o r end moments. These two methods do not

212
o Material failure
o
Za up Mid - span moments at failure v.
I p
M F M M u
Moment
F i g u r e 72 - T y p i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r a x i a l load
and magnified moment
involve calculation of a m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r , because the
effects of moment magnification have been considered in
construction of the interaction diagram. Method 4 will
propose o b t a i n i n g the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram from the strength
model using p u b l i s h e d graphs, while method 5 w i l l propose an
approximate formula.
Method 6 w i l l take a d i f f e r e n t approach by proposing the
use of a x i a l load v s . slenderness formulae f o r e c c e n t r i c a l l y
loaded columns.
8.4.4 Moment M a g n i f i c a t i o n Factor
Methods 1, 2 and 3 w i l l r e q u i r e a method f o r calculating
a moment magnification factor. Most design codes use the
e l a s t i c moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r given by equation 8.10.
For the timber columns i n v e s t i g a t e d in- t h i s study, the a c t u a l
a m p l i f i c a t i o n of mid-span moment at failure is considerably

213
more than predicted by t h i s equation, because of n o n - l i n e a r
m a t e r i a l behaviour in compression. For example, consider
figures 73(a) (b) and (c), which are typical non-
dimensionalized i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams of a x i a l load vs. moment
for members with slenderness ratios of 10, 20 and 40,
respectively. In each case the outer s o l i d curve i s the
u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r a c r o s s section. The next
curve (chain dotted) represents combinations of a x i a l load and
mid-span moment causing failure f o r that p a r t i c u l a r length.
The inner curve ( s o l i d l i n e ) i s the combinations of a x i a l load
and end moment causing failure. The horizontal distance
between these two curves represents the m a g n i f i c a t i o n of
moment due to deformations i n the member. The intermediate
curve (small dots) has been obtained from the curve of end
moments by a m p l i f y i n g the moments using equation 8.10. It i s
apparent that the actual amplification at failure is
c o n s i d e r a b l y more than p r e d i c t e d by t h i s equation, so that if
the other parameters in t h i s method c o u l d be q u a n t i f i e d i t
would be unsafe to use equation 8.10 for calculating the
moment magnifier, and a more accurate expression would be
necessary.
Suppose that the m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r i s t o be increased
by an e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r A at maximum load, with no increase at
zero a x i a l l o a d , and l i n e a r interpolation between these two
extremes. The equation becomes
1 [l + (A-l) |-]
F
1-P/P (8.20)
e e
214
F i g u r e 73 - I n t e r a c t i o n diagram showing traditional

moment m a g n i f i e r
215
T r i a l c a l c u l a t i o n s show that a s u i t a b l e value for A i s 2.0,
producing "a m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r of
1 + P/P
e
(8.21)
1 - P/P
e
The previous interaction diagrams replotted using this
equation are shown i n f i g u r e 74. Although rather conservative
for slender columns, t h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d to be a reasonable
empirical approach f o r design purposes which w i l l be used f o r
the r e s t of t h i s study.
8.4.5 METHOD 1: B i l i n e a r I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram
F i g u r e 75(a) shows a typical interaction diagram f o r
axial load v s . magnified moments, superimposed with straight
l i n e s passing from c o n c e n t r i c a x i a l column s t r e n g t h to a p o i n t
on the h o r i z o n t a l a x i s at a ratio of B times the moment
capacity. These l i n e s can be used as a design approximation
for the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram, t e r m i n a t i n g at the v e r t i c a l line
through the moment c a p a c i t y , which cuts o f f the "nose". This
approximation i s c o n s e r v a t i v e as shown by the shading, but i s
quite simple.
The resulting design equation, providing a stability
check f o r any l e n g t h of column, i s
C FM
— < B ( l - !-) , C FM <M (8.22)
M
v
P ' m u
u u
where F i s the m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r from equation 8.21, Cm is
the factor f o r unequal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s from equation 8.12

216
Figure 74 I n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m showing proposed

moment m a g n i f i e r
217
O
HRGNIFIED HOHENT
(b) W e a k
25 ^
30 *"*" 1
______
40 *~ " - — — i
*~ • .
50 — 1
y ~~ ———_~— —
-11 1
1 1
1 1
r t 1 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i iI r—
o.o ' 0.2 o.c 0.1)HOH1

a." HRGNIFIED .0T
EN
(c) S t r o n g
HRGNIFIED HOHENT
F i g u r e 75 - B i l i n e a r approximation to i n t e r a c t i o n diagram
f o r magnified moments (non-dimensionalized)
218
and B i s the horizontal axis i n t e r c e p t , which depends on the
shape of the ultimate interaction diagram. I t can be shown
that a suitable semi-empirical value f o r B can be given by
1.35
= F7f~ (8.23)
t C
where f t / f c i s the ratio of axial tension strength to axial
compression strength f o r the material. The d e r i v a t i o n of this
expression i s given in appendix B. Figures 75(b) and (c) show
this approximation for weak and s t r o n g m a t e r i a l , and i t is
seen t o be reasonable i n most cases.
For s i t u a t i o n s where the two end moments are different
and the load capacity i s governed by the strength of the cross
section at one end of the member, a s t r e n g t h c h e c k must be
made, as specified i n the steel code, u s i n g the approximation
for the outer curve in figure 75
TT < <
x
~h > M
i < M
u ( 8
' 2 4 )
u a
where M, i s the maximum end moment.
8.4.6 METHOD 2: Parabolic I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram
Another e m p i r i c a l method of a p p r o x i m a t i n g the interaction
curves is to assume a family of parabolae as shown i n
figure 76. This type of expression was suggested by
Newlin(1940) . The curves are less conservative than the
straight line code formula, but more c o n s e r v a t i v e than Method
1, particularly as they show d e c r e a s i n g moment c a p a c i t y even

219
i 1 r
0.4 0.6 0.B J .0
MAGNIFIED MOMENT
F i g u r e 76 - P a r a b o l i c approximation to i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram f o r magnified moments (non-dimensionalized)
for small a x i a l loads. A design equation for stability based
on t h i s approach would be
C F M
m
< 1 (8.25)
M
u
and the s t r e n g t h check would become
f!_12 + < i 1
(8.26)
*-P ' M
a u
where the terms are a l l as used i n Method 1. A refinement to
make these curves a little l e s s c o n s e r v a t i v e would be to use a
v a r i a b l e exponent rather than the f i g u r e of 2 in equations
8.25 and 8 . 2 6 . For example, the exponent c o u l d be increased
to 4 or more f o r slender columns, but t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y has not

220
)
been c o n s i d e r e d worth p u r s u i n g .
T h i s design method will produce identical curves f o r
strong or weak material. A comparison with f i g u r e 63 shows
that t h i s method w i l l be even more conservative f o r weak
m a t e r i a l , but may become unsafe f o r strong m a t e r i a l .
8.4.7 METHOD 3; U l t i m a t e I n t e r a c t i o n Diagram
The r e i n f o r c e d concrete design method can be m o d i f i e d t o
produce a method of s i m i l a r form t o Method 1, the significant
difference being that the member i s checked f o r m a t e r i a l
f a i l u r e only, r e g a r d l e s s of slenderness r a t i o . The bilinear
approximation t o the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram shown by the
outer straight lines in figure 75 will be used i n t h i s
section. The r e s u l t i n g design equation i s
C F M p
_E < f !_£_),
B C FM < M (8.27)
M 1
P ' m u
u a
which i s the same as equation 8.22 with Pu r e p l a c e d by Pa. A
strength check identical to equation 8.24 would a l s o be
necessary f o r unequal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s .
Method 3 is similar to the OHBDC code which
conservatively assumes a straight line interaction diagram
between points Pa and Mu, and uses the unconservative
expression of equation 8.3 as the m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r .

221
8.4.8 Comparison of Methods 1 to 3
Figures 77(a), (b) and (c) show a comparison of the
proposed design methods 1 to 3, f o r the three, representative
groups of material properties. These comparisons have been
made by working backwards from the interaction diagram for
magnified moments, as described i n d i s c u s s i o n of the OHBDC
code, to compare unmagnified moments (design moments) f o r each
method with those predicted by the strength model. Each
figure makes the comparison f o r three slenderness r a t i o s , as
marked. In each case the s o l i d l i n e i s behaviour p r e d i c t e d by
the s t r e n g t h model, and a d i f f e r e n t dotted l i n e is used for
each proposed method.
Consider the upper group-of curves i n f i g u r e 77(a), f o r a
slenderness r a t i o of L/d=10 and average m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s .
Method 1 i s seen to be the best f i t to the model, the only
significant discrepancy being at low a x i a l loads where the
"nose" was cut o f f the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram i n f i g u r e 75.
The p a r a b o l i c approximation of Method 2 i s considerably
more conservative, although i t does c o - i n c i d e with the model
p r e d i c t i o n and the Method 1 curve on the vertical axis.
Method 3 produces the same r e s u l t s as Method 1 f o r low a x i a l
loads, but f o r high a x i a l loads i t moves into the unsafe
region and meets the v e r t i c a l a x i s at a l o a d corresponding
with a x i a l c r u s h i n g f a i l u r e of the m a t e r i a l .
For more slender column behaviour, consider the central
group of curves i n f i g u r e 77(a) f o r L/d=20. The curves f o r
Methods 1 and 2 have moved a l i t t l e c l o s e r together, and both

222
UNnflGNIFIED nOHENT
UNnflGNIFIED HOHENT
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 ' 0.8 1.0 1.2
UNnflGNIFIED HOriENT
Figure 77 - Comparison of methods 1 t o 3 w i t h model

prediction (non-dimensionalized)
223
are c o n s e r v a t i v e throughout, Method 2 being somewhat more so.
Method 3 is again the same as method 1 f o r low a x i a l loads,
moving i n t o the unsafe region for high axial loads. The
method 3 curve meets the vertical axis at an a x i a l load
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the Euler buckling load Pe, whereas the
curves f o r Methods 1 and 2 meet the v e r t i c a l a x i s at an a x i a l
load corresponding to the more accurate concentric column
c a p a c i t y Pu, f o r columns of t h i s intermediate length.
For much more slender columns with a slenderness r a t i o of
L/d=40, the bottom group of curves on f i g u r e 77(a) shows that
there i s not much d i f f e r e n c e between the three methods, a l l
being slightly conservative. For t h i s slenderness r a t i o the
concentric column c a p a c i t y Pu i s almost e x a c t l y the E u l e r load
Pe, so a l l the curves meet at t h i s point on the v e r t i c a l axis.
For materials with different relative strength
properties, f i g u r e s 77(b) and (c) show s i m i l a r p l o t s to those
described f o r f i g u r e 77(a). Method 1 i s again the best f i t ,
although i t becomes s l i g h t l y unsafe f o r strong m a t e r i a l at low
slenderness ratio. The formula f o r Method 2 does not i n c l u d e
the r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s , so t h i s curve is identical
on figures 77(a), (b) and ( c ) , and i t becomes unsafe f o r
strong m a t e r i a l . Method 3 remains unsafe i n s e v e r a l areas.
The proposal producing the most consistent results is
that of Method 1, which i s the p r e f e r r e d method from t h i s
group. The conservatism i n this method, where i t exists,
results from the poor approximation of the interaction
diagrams f o r magnified moments shown i n figure 75, and the

224
conservative nature of the proposed moment magnification
f a c t o r f o r low a x i a l loads, as shown i n f i g u r e 74.
A general observation i s that there i s very little
difference between the a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r slenderness r a t i o s of
L/d2:20. Method 1 becomes much b e t t e r than the other methods
for slenderness r a t i o s of L/d<20, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r weak or low
grade m a t e r i a l .
B e t t e r accuracy would r e s u l t from a more p r e c i s e but much
more complicated formula f o r the shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram, or from p u b l i s h e d i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams f o r a range of
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and slenderness r a t i o s . If the p u b l i s h i n g
of f a m i l i e s of curves i s to be s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d i t would
be b e t t e r to_ p u b l i s h diagrams f o r unmagnified moments, as w i l l
be suggested next.
8.4.9 METHOD 4; P u b l i s h e d Design Curves
Figure 42(b) showed a family of non-dimensionalized
i n t e r a c t i o n curves of a x i a l load vs. unmagnified moment, at
failure f o r a range of slenderness r a t i o s . I f curves of t h i s
nature were made a v a i l a b l e i n p u b l i s h e d form, a designer c o u l d
simply check that a given combination of axial load P and
moment M f a l l s i n s i d e the curve f o r the p a r t i c u l a r slenderness
ratio. Published design curves are used extensively for
r e i n f o r c e d concrete design (ACI 1970). The designer should be
aware of the d e r i v a t i o n of these c u r v e s . A p o i n t on any curve
r e p r e s e n t s a combination of a x i a l l o a d and end moment that
would just cause a member to f a i l . The mid-span moment at
f a i l u r e would be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more than this end moment.

225
Both material failures and instability failures have been
considered i n producing the curves.
The shape o f t h e s e c u r v e s depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , the
most important being the ratio of tension to compression
strength, and the modulus of elasticity. A number of
different families of c u r v e s would be necessary to cover a
suitable range of practical values. They would be non-
dimensionalized so t h a t one g r a p h c o u l d be u s e d for any size
of cross section. Unequal end eccentricities could be
included by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e d e s i g n moment M by t h e factor Cm
from equation 8.12 b e f o r e c o m p a r i n g with the p u b l i s h e d c u r v e s .
In t h i s case i t would a l s o be n e c e s s a r y t o check c r o s s section
strength, comparing P and M w i t h the corresponding curve (the
outer curve on f i g u r e 42(b), f o r L/d=0)
8.4.10 METHOD 5: S t r a i g h t Line Approximation
Some o f t h e c u r v e s in figure 42(b) a r e almost straight,
and the possibility of a straight line interaction is
suggested. Because the c u r v e s tend t o t u r n upwards near the
vertical axis, a straight line between Mu on t h e h o r i z o n t a l
axis and, s a y , 0.9 Pu on t h e v e r t i c a l axis will be c o n s i d e r e d .
The resulting lines a r e shown on figure 78. They are very
conservative for short columns, and o n l y have a few s m a l l
unsafe areas f o r longer columns. These l i n e s produce a very
simple design equation
C M
P m
+ < 1 (8.28)
0.9 P M
u u
226
F i g u r e 78 - S t r a i g h t l i n e approximations to i n t e r a c t i o n
diagrams for unmagnified moment (non-dimensionalized)
227
The terms are all as defined previously. Once again a
s t r e n g t h check i s necessary f o r unsymmetrical l o a d i n g , and the
b i l i n e a r approximation of equation 8.24 c o u l d be used f o r that
purpose.
Method 5 can be compared with Method 1 by superimposing
the straight lines of figure 78 on figure 77, Such a
comparison i s shown i n figure 79(a), for average strength
material. The solid lines are the model p r e d i c t i o n values
which represent Method 4 i f produced as published curves.
Method 5 i s very c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r short columns ( f o r example,
the o u t s i d e curves where L/d=lO), but not much different for
longer columns. The corresponding comparisons f o r strong and
weak m a t e r i a l are shown in f i g u r e s 79(b) and ( c ) .
T h i s approach i s p u r e l y e m p i r i c a l , and just happens to
work in some cases because the shape of the mid-span moment
interaction .diagram, reduced by the moment magnification
factor, produces an interaction diagram for end moments
c o n s i s t i n g of n e a r l y s t r a i g h t l i n e s . A disadvantage of this
method i s that d e s i g n e r s are not a l e r t e d to the r e a l behaviour
of slender compression members with moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n .
Consequently t h i s method does not provide much guidance for
handling unusual design situations.
8.4.11 METHOD 6; A x i a l Load-Slenderness Curves
Another quite different approach to the design of
e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded columns can be made by using a x i a l load-
slenderness curves for various e c c e n t r i c i t i e s . With reference
to the three-dimensional sketch shown in figure 11, the

228
nODEL PREDICTION
HETHOD 1
HETHOD 5
Average
UNnflGNIFIED HOHENT
nODEL PREDICTION
HETHOD 1
HETHOD 5
Weak
t.2
UNHHGNIFIED HOHENT
nODEL PREDICTION
HETHOD 1
HETHOD 5
1.2
UNHRGNIFIED HOHENT
Figure 79 - Comparison of methods 1 and 5 w i t h model

prediction (non-dimensionalized)
229
interaction diagrams discussed in the previous sections
represented cuts through the surface p a r a l l e l t o the load
moment plane. T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s behaviour represented by
radial cuts perpendicular to the load-moment plane, a l l
passing through the slenderness a x i s . The d e r i v a t i o n of a x i a l
load-slenderness relationships from the s t r e n g t h model has
been d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 6 and a t y p i c a l p l o t was shown in
f i g u r e 43.
There have been many p r o p o s a l s f o r formulae to construct
axial load-slenderness curves for eccentricially loaded
columns. Several were i n t r o d u c e d i n Chapter 2, where t h e i r
assumptions and l i m i t a t i o n s were d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y . The most
common approach has been to use as assumed d e f l e c t e d shape and
a simple failure criterion based on a l i m i t i n g compression
stress. The secant formula and the Perry-Robertson formula
are both i n t h i s category. Both can be m o d i f i e d to allow f o r
different f a i l u r e s t r e s s e s i n bending and i n compression, and
approach also used i n the d e r i v a t i o n of the NFPA formula, so
these three formulae are all based on very similar
assumptions. A different approach was taken by Jezek who
c o n s i d e r e d s t a b i l i t y behaviour of an e l a s t o - p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l .
It i s not a p p r o p r i a t e to compare a l l these formulae here,
however an example will be used to compare axial load-
slenderness curves from one formula with r e s u l t s p r e d i c t e d by
the s t r e n g t h model. Consider the modified secant formula,
given by Malhotra(1980) as
230
+ f - / [f ( i + + f ]2 - 4f f ( l - 1.04e )
f = e c (8.29)
u
2(1 -
in which e i s the e c c e n t r i c i t y of l o a d , and d i s the member
t h i c k n e s s i n the d i r e c t i o n of berfding. Malhotra found that
the m o d i f i e d secant formula gave a reasonably good p r e d i c t i o n
of test results f o r timber columns loaded with small
eccentricities. Figure 80 compares the modified secant
formula with r e s u l t s p r e d i c t e d by the strength model for a
range of eccentricities. The model p r e d i c t i o n in this case
MODEL PREDICTION
MODIFIED SECANT
—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—
O ao 16.0 24.0 32.0 40.0 48.0
SLENDERNESS (L/dJ
F i g u r e 80 - M o d i f i e d secant formula compared with

model p r e d i c t i o n
has been made using the average representative strength ratios

231
p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d and the f i t i s reasonably good. This may
not be the same i n other cases, however. Model predictions
for d i f f e r e n t s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s were shown i n f i g u r e 64.
The other formulae have not been p l o t t e d here, but i t can
be shown that the Jezek formula and the NFPA formula give
quite similar fits, and the Perry-Robertson formula tends to
underestimate column s t r e n g t h .
This method has s e v e r a l disadvantages compared with the
a x i a l load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams discussed e a r l i e r . In
most cases the formulae have been based on simplistic
assumptions for clear wood, which may not be valid for
commercial q u a l i t y timber. The formulae cannot be e a s i l y used
for cases of unequal end eccentricities, and they do not
provide the designer with as much insight into member
behaviour as methods based on moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n . Design
methods based on a x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curves have not been
pursued further in t h i s thesis.
8.5 COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION
Existing code requirements for combined bending and
t e n s i o n are a l l based on a l i m i t i n g stress failure criterion
which produces a linear i n t e r a c t i o n between bending capacity
and a x i a l t e n s i o n c a p a c i t y
f- +
W * 1
(8.30)
u u
where T i s the design t e n s i o n f o r c e , Tu i s the axial tension
strength, M is the design moment and Mu is the moment

232
capacity. I t can be seen from a t y p i c a l case such as figure
54 that the s t r a i g h t line i n t e r a c t i o n w i l l be a c o n s e r v a t i v e
approach in a l l cases. I t w i l l be most accurate for material
with a low ratio of t e n s i o n to compression s t r e n g t h and a
relatively insignificant stress-distribution effect. This
linear i n t e r a c t i o n formula becomes very c o n s e r v a t i v e for high
grade or c l e a r m a t e r i a l where the tension strength is high
compared with the compression s t r e n g t h . Some machine s t r e s s
graded m a t e r i a l may a l s o come i n t o t h i s category.
A u s e f u l approximation for a l l cases is to assume that
the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h can be
approximated by a parabola as shown in figure 81. (As an
a s i d e , t h i s parabola was considered f o r d e s c r i b i n g compression
too,, but was found to be much l e s s accurate than the methods
described.
The solid l i n e s i n f i g u r e 81 are the same as the l i n e s in
figure 54, being the model prediction for the ultimate
interaction diagram for the 38x89 mm material tested. Each
dotted line is a parabola which has been forced to pass
through the axial tension and compression strengths on the
v e r t i c a l a x i s , and the bending strength on the horizontal
axis. Each parabola is seen to be a reasonable f i t to the
model p r e d i c t i o n , particularly in the tension region. A
design combination of a x i a l t e n s i o n T and bending moment M i s
i n s i d e such a parabola i f
2r 1-r 12 M
[- 1+r 1+r J
+
M [1 " ( < 1
(8.31 )
L T
u u
233
MOriENT (KN.ri)
F i g u r e 81 - P a r a b o l i c approximation to interaction
diagram
where r i s the ratio of axial tension strength to axial
compression strength, ft/fc. In the symmetrical case when
r=1.0, equation 8.31 s i m p l i f i e s to
L
T ' M
u u
which i s c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r r g r e a t e r than 1.0.
A c o n s e r v a t i v e design method is to use equation 8.30
where t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h i s l e s s than compression s t r e n g t h , and

234
equation 8.32 in other cases. The more accurate, but
unwieldy, equation 8.31 might be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a computer-
based design procedure.
8.6 SUMMARY
This chapter has reviewed e x i s t i n g design methods f o r
members with combined bending and a x i a l loading, for steel,
concrete and timber.
Several possible new design methods f o r timber members
have been investigated. Of the six alternative methods
d e s c r i b e d , only Methods 1 and 4 w i l l be recommended f o r design
purposes. Method 1 provides approximate formulae f o r hand
c a l c u l a t i o n , suitable for inclusion in a design code. This
method provides a reasonable prediction of the actual
behaviour of an e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded column. Method 4 is a
more a c c u r a t e method i n which p u b l i s h e d design curves would be
used by the designer to check whether a design combination of
a x i a l l o a d and unmagnified moment i s s a f e .
A p p l i c a t i o n s of both these methods w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in a
broader context in the next chapter, together with several
related topics.
235
IX. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter recommends design methods f o r timber members
subjected to combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g , on the basis
of proposals described in Chapter 8. This chapter also
i n c l u d e s d i s c u s s i o n of s e v e r a l r e l a t e d t o p i c s .
9 . 1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
9.1.1 Strength Model
T h i s study has demonstrated that the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h of
a s i n g l e timber member subjec t e d to e c c e n t r i c a x i a l load with
equal end eccentricities can be modelled by a rational
a n a l y s i s , using a computer-based numerical procedure. This
rational analysis, c a l l e d the " s t r e n g t h model", i n c l u d e s the
e f f e c t s of both geometric and m a t e r i a l n o n - l i n e a r i t . i e s .
The most accurate available method of analysing and
designing such a member would be to use the s t r e n g t h model.
Such a procedure i s not realistic f o r most d e s i g n e r s , but may
be considered by designers of large volume structural
components such as mass-produced roof t r u s s e s . This approach
would be more attractive if the model were able to handle
unequal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and transverse loads.
A l e s s c o s t l y and more widely applicable approach would
be to produce a s e r i e s of design c h a r t s based on the rational
a n a l y s i s , as suggested i n Method 4 of the previous chapter.
These design charts could be produced for any desired
combinations of s t r e n g t h v a l u e s , for d i f f e r e n t sizes, grades,

236
moisture contents and so on.
9.1.2 Second Order Structural Analysis
Many structural designers now have access to computer
programs f o r second order s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s , which formulate
e q u i l i b r i u m on the deformed shape of the s t r u c t u r e . T h i s type
of a n a l y s i s calculates "magnified" moments throughout the
structure.
Most programs of t h i s type are based on l i n e a r elastic
m a t e r i a l behaviour, so c a l c u l a t e d member d e f l e c t i o n s w i l l not
be as a c c u r a t e as those c a l c u l a t e d using the s t r e n g t h model.
T h i s should be taken i n t o account by designers using second
order analysis programs f o r timber structures. Programs are
a v a i l a b l e which i n c l u d e the effects of non-linear material
properties, but none are s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p l i c c a b l e t o timber,
which e x h i b i t s much l e s s d u c t i l i t y than s t e e l , f o r example.
The major advantages of second order programs over the
strength model are that they can handle rigid frames of many
members, as w e l l as arches and any other s t r u c t u r a l form, with
any p a t t e r n of l o a d s .
The use of a second order program can be combined with
the r e s u l t s of t h i s study to produce a design method which i s
a major improvement over c u r r e n t methods. The second order
a n a l y s i s w i l l provide i n f o r m a t i o n on i n s t a b i l i t y f a i l u r e s , but
design criteria for material failures can come from this
thesis. The designer requires the ultimate interaction
diagram f o r the member under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and t h i s can be
p r o v i d e d i n the form of a computer output curve, or as a

237
simple approximation using equations 8.23 and 8.24. Appendix
A i n c l u d e s a method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the ultimate interaction
diagram which is more direct than the s t r e n g t h model, more
a c c u r a t e than the approximate equations, but r a t h e r t e d i o u s .
9.1.3 Simple Analysis
Structural designers often w'ish to carry out an
approximate design of a s t r u c t u r a l member without the use of
s o p h i s t i c a t e d computer programs as d e s c r i b e d above.
If a x i a l loads and end moments i n a member are determined
by hand a n a l y s i s , or using a f i r s t order structural analysis
computer program, the methods described in the previous
chapter are s u i t a b l e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g whether a chosen s i z e has
sufficient s t r e n g t h . .The most accurate of these is to use
published design c h a r t s from the s t r e n g t h model, as proposed
in Method 4. A less accurate method, more suitable for
specifying as code formulae, i s to use the approach d e s c r i b e d
as Method 1. T h i s approach i s summarized i n the next s e c t i o n .
9.1.4 Code Format
If a timber design code i s to have the flexibility to
allow these approaches, i t should be a t w o - l e v e l code which
recommends r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , but a l s o p r o v i d e s the formulae
for an optional approximate method. Many codes f o r other
m a t e r i a l s are based on t h i s philosophy.

238
9.2 APPROXIMATE DESIGN FORMULAE
9.2.1 Recommended Formulae
If a designer i s not i n a p o s i t i o n to use the r e s u l t s of
a r a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s , the f o l l o w i n g approximate procedure from
Chapter 8 i s recommended f o r checking that a selected
compression member can resist a design a x i a l load P and a
bending moment M about one p r i n c i p a l a x i s .
1. Obtain the a x i a l compression capacity for a short
column Pa, the axial t e n s i o n c a p a c i t y Tu, the bending
moment c a p a c i t y Mu, and the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y E, f o r
the member. Derivation of t h i s input data i s d e s c r i b e d
in the next s e c t i o n . A l l of these values, except E,
depend on the s i z e of the member, a l s o as d e s c r i b e d i n
the next s e c t i o n .
2. C a l c u l a t e the load c a p a c i t y Pu, of the member under
concentric a x i a l compression loading.
P
a
Pu * „ (9.1)
i+ _c (L/d) ;
E 40
where f c / E i s the r a t i o of the f a i l u r e s t r e s s of a short
column t o modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , and L/d i s the largest
slenderness r a t i o about e i t h e r p r i n c i p a l a x i s .
3. Check that the design combination of a x i a l load P and
mid-span moment M s a t i s f y the s t a b i l i t y formula

239
_E < B n - £_} C FM < M (9.2)

u u
where F i s a moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r given by
1 + P/P
F = ± (9.3)
1 - P/P
e
where Pe i s the E u l e r b u c k l i n g load.
Cm i s a f a c t o r to allow f o r unequal end moments
C
ffl = 0.6 + 0.4 M /M 2 1 > 0.4 (9.4)
where M, and M 2 a r e the l a r g e r and smaller end moments,
respectively. B isa factor used to approximate the
shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram, given by
B = (9.5)
t c
where ft/fc i s the ratio of axial t e n s i o n to a x i a l
compression strengths defined i n step 1.
4. I f end moments are not equal, check that the maximum
end moment M, s a t i s f i e s the s t r e n g t h formula
^ < B(l - £ - ) , M X < M u (9.6)

u a
240
9.2.2 Example
The formulae described above will be s i m p l i f i e d when
m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s are i n c l u d e d f o r a p a r t i c u l a r species and
grade of timber. Consider the SPF timber of No. 2 and B e t t e r
grade tested i n t h i s study. The r a t i o of f c / E i s 1/300, and
the r a t i o of f t / f c i s 0.7. Using these figures, the formula
for c o n c e n t r i c l o a d i n g becomes
P
p = 2
. , (L/d) 3
(9.7)
12000
and the s t a b i l i t y check f o r combined bending and compression
becomes
C FM
m
M
< 1.71 (1
h
u
C
m
F M < M
u
(9.8)
and the s t r e n g t h check, f o r the end of a member becomes
(9.9)
£ « 1-71 ( i - f ) . M, < M
1 u
u a
9.2.3 Load F a c t o r s and Resistance Factors
The design formulae presented here do not i n c l u d e load or
resistance factors. These can be added t o the formulae using
established methods once the overall design philosophy i s
formulated. Some codes use l a r g e r s a f e t y f a c t o r s f o r slender
columns than f o r squat columns because of the greater danger
o f a c c i d e n t a l e c c e n t r i c i t y or o v e r l o a d causing failure, and
the g r e a t e r consequences of such f a i l u r e . T h i s can be e a s i l y

241
incorporated.
9.2.4 Mimimum Moments
The proposal of 0HBDC(1983) for minimum end eccentricity
and initial l a c k - o f - s t r a i g h t n e s s appears t o be a s e n s i b l e one
that should be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o code requirements. To avoid
the need to design every member f o r b i a x i a l bending i t i s
suggested that these e f f e c t s be considered i n only the most
slender d i r e c t i o n when no other s i g n i f i c a n t moment e x i s t s , and
in both d i r e c t i o n s i f s i g n i f i c a n t a p p l i e d moment e x i s t s . The
a c t u a l values suggested by OHBDC appear reasonable, but have
not been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s study.
9.3 DATA REQUIRED
9.3.1 In-grade Test Results
To use the design methods proposed i n t h i s t h e s i s f o r any
timber members of given size, s p e c i e s , grade and moisture
content, the f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d f o r the member
under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
1. The a x i a l t e n s i o n c a p a c i t y Tu, of the member, which
i s the product of the c r o s s s e c t i o n area A, and the a x i a l
tension f a i l u r e stress f t .
2. The a x i a l compression c a p a c i t y Pa, of the member,
which i s the product of the c r o s s s e c t i o n area A, and the
a x i a l compression f a i l u r e s t r e s s f c , f o r a short column.
3. The bending moment c a p a c i t y Mu, of the member, which
i s the product of the s e c t i o n modulus S, and the modulus
of rupture f r .
242
4. The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y , E.
Each of these properties should be d e r i v e d from in-grade
t e s t i n g on the a c t u a l m a t e r i a l i n q u e s t i o n . As long as codes
are based on lower 5th p e r c e n t i l e v a l u e s , the values are a l l
r e q u i r e d at that q u a n t i l e . Values obtained d i r e c t l y from t e s t
r e s u l t s must be m o d i f i e d with s a f e t y factors, load duration
f a c t o r s and so on.
The strength model can be used to d e r i v e Mu from Tu and
Pa, p r o v i d e d that c e r t a i n c a l i b r a t i o n f a c t o r s are available.
However the bending strength Mu i s the most o f t e n measured
s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t y , so design values can be obtained directly
from t e s t results. The first three items above are s u b j e c t to
s i z e e f f e c t s as d e s c r i b e d i n the next s e c t i o n .
In Canada the c u r r e n t design code (CSA 1980) specifies
a l l o w a b l e s t r e s s e s i n a x i a l t e n s i o n based on the results of
in-grade testing, so code f i g u r e s are a r e l i a b l e estimate of
strength. A l a r g e amount of in-grade t e s t i n g has been c a r r i e d
out on bending members, and steps are being taken to change
the code bending s t r e s s e s to r e f l e c t in-grade t e s t results.
In-grade t e s t i n g of bending members has provided information
on modulus of elasticity, so data i s a v a i l a b l e to s p e c i f y
modulus of e l a s t i c i t y at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e l e v e l . The latest
d r a f t code (CSA 1983) includes a proposal to use a 5th
percentile modulus of elasticity for column design simply
c a l c u l a t e d as 0.74 times the average value ( f o r sawn t i m b e r ) .

243
In-grade Compression Strength
The i n f o r m a t i o n not yet a v a i l a b l e is axial compression
strength. A few small s t u d i e s of in-grade a x i a l compression
s t r e n g t h have been r e f e r r e d to i n t h i s t h e s i s , but there are
many grades, species and s i z e s which have not been t e s t e d .
Some r e s u l t s in this area are expected to be available
shortly. The allowable stresses i n the code are very much
different from v a l u e s suggested by in-grade t e s t results for
some s p e c i e s .
It has been shown how the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r timber
members i s s e n s i t i v e to the r a t i o of t e n s i o n and compression
strengths. If this ratio is calculated from allowable
s t r e s s e s i n the c u r r e n t code there will be some extremely
misleading r e s u l t s . • '
No s i g n i f i c a n t improvements can be made to design methods
until comprehensive in-grade a x i a l compression t e s t results
are available.
9.3.2 Size Effects
A x i a l tension and compression strengths, and bending
strength, are affected by member s i z e . If s t r e n g t h values
based on in-grade t e s t i n g are not a v a i l a b l e f o r any s i z e , they
can be estimated u s i n g the following size effect formulae
which were d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 3.

244
a. Length E f f e c t s
The b a s i c formula f o r l e n g t h e f f e c t s i s equation 3.11.
x, L 1/k,
. _J. = (-1)
0
1
(9.10)
*2 lL
where x, and x 2 are strengths of lengths L, and L 2
r e s p e c t i v e l y , and k, i s the l e n g t h e f f e c t parameter.
The t e n t a t i v e v a l u e s of k, found i n t h i s study are given
in Table IV, with d i f f e r e n t values f o r two grades. The figure
in brackets i s the corresponding strength reduction factor for
d o u b l i n g t h e . l e n g t h of a member.
Number 2 Select Structural
A x i a l Compression 13 (.95) 13 (.95)

A x i a l Tension 4 (.84) 6 (.89)
Bending 4 (.84) 6 (.89)
Table IV - Length e f f e c t parameter k.
Most in-grade testing i s c a r r i e d out at standard lengths of
3.0m f o r a x i a l t e s t s and 17 times the depth f o r bending tests.
For l e n g t h s s h o r t e r than these t e s t lengths i t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e
to assume no l e n g t h e f f e c t , or to use a l a r g e number for the
length effect factor. For longer lengths i t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e
to use a low number f o r the l e n g t h e f f e c t factor.
The length e f f e c t f a c t o r s d e s c r i b e d here have been based
on experimental data from only two lengths i n most cases, and
e x t r a p o l a t i o n beyond t h i s range may produce d i f f e r e n t results.
These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s should be investigated further before

245
i n c o r p o r a t i n g l e n g t h e f f e c t p r o v i s i o n s i n t o design codes.
b. Depth E f f e c t s
If test r e s u l t s are a v a i l a b l e f o r one depth of c r o s s section,
the s t r e n g t h s of other depths can be p r e d i c t e d from
x , d~ l / k 9
JL - 2
(9.11)
*2 1
where x, and x 2 are s t r e n g t h s of members of depths d, and d 2
r e s p e c t i v e l y , and k 2 i s the depth e f f e c t parameter.
T h i s formula is likely to be used less often than
equation 9 . 1 0 because there are only a few standard depths of
c r o s s s e c t i o n and most have been t e s t e d .
Values of k 2 can be d i f f i c u l t to obtain because i t is
difficult to separate depth e f f e c t s from grading e f f e c t s , and
for most bending t e s t s l e n g t h and depth have both been changed
in a constant ratio. Limited test data on SPF material
suggests a value of k = 4 i n t e n s i o n , and k

2 2 i n the range 8 to
15 f o r bending. The bending value i s very sensitive to the
length effect factor k, used to c o r r e c t in-grade bending test
results for length. A l a r g e r value of k 2 f o r t e n s i o n than f o r
bending has a l s o been observed i n c l e a r wood (Buchanan 1983).
9.4 OTHER LOADING CASES
Almost all of the experimental and analytical
investigations d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s t h e s i s have been f o r a x i a l l y
loaded members with equal e c c e n t r i c i t i e s at each end.
S t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n e r s are o f t e n c o n f r o n t e d with, s i t u a t i o n s
where end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s are unequal or where a combination of

246
axial loa.ds and transverse loads occur. Examples are wind
loads on r o o f - s u p p o r t i n g columns, p u r l i n loads on top chords
of t r u s s e s , and many o t h e r s .
9.4.1 Unequal End E c c e n t r i c i t i e s
For a l l of the design method proposals i n c o r p o r a t i n g
axial load-moment i n t e r a c t i o n diagrams, a simple method of
including unequal end e c c e n t r i c i t i e s has been introduced with
the Cm f a c t o r . The accuracy of t h i s f a c t o r f o r timber members
has not been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s study, but i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of
i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y to steel (Johnston 1976) suggest that this
is a s u i t a b l y c o n s e r v a t i v e method f o r c o n s i d e r i n g unequal end
eccentr ic i t i e s .
9.4.2 Transverse Loads
In real design situations an infinite number of
combinations of t r a n s v e r s e loads and e c c e n t r i c a x i a l loads are
possible. No simple code formula can provide an accurate
design method f o r a l l cases. A second order structural
analysis can c a l c u l a t e d e f l e c t i o n s throughout a structure for
any loading. I f such an analysis i s not carried out an
approximate method of handling transverse loads becomes
necessary.
T h i s d i s c u s s i o n assumes that the structure is braced
against sidesway. Special consideration i s necessary f o r
columns of unbraced s t r u c t u r e s . I f t r a n s v e r s e loads tend to
increase the mid-span moment due to a x i a l loads as shown i n
f i g u r e 82(a), the combined t o t a l mid-span moment should be
used directly in the stability design formula. I f the

247
t r a n s v e r s e loads tend t o eliminate the mid-span moment as
shown i n f i g u r e 82(b), load c a p a c i t y i s l i k e l y t o be based on
c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h at the ends, so the strength design
formula can be used. Many other combinations are p o s s i b l e ,
and i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s a number of load combinations must be
considered and a l a r g e measure of e n g i n e e r i n g judgement may be
necessary, aided by an understanding of the p o t e n t i a l modes of
failure. In a l l cases the design method recommended f o r a
s i n g l e member i s u s e f u l because i t provides the designer with
an indication of the load capacity of the m a t e r i a l , an
i n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r slender columns, and the amount of
moment magnification to be expected as a r e s u l t of second
order d e f l e c t i o n s .
t t
Load Moment Load Moment
(a) (b)
F i g u r e 82 - Bending moment diagrams f o r combined axial

and t r a n s v e r s e l o a d i n g
248
A recent extension to one of the source programs used in
t h i s study can c a l c u l a t e behaviour of beam columns under any
combination of axial loads, transverse loads, or a p p l i e d
moments (Nathan 1983b), and c o u l d be used as the basis of a
more d e t a i l e d study i n t h i s area i n the f u t u r e .
9.4.3 Slenderness Ratio
For any of these design methods not u t i l i z i n g a second
order a n a l y s i s , i t i s necessary to determine the "slenderness
ratio" of the member. Throughout this thesis the term
slenderness r a t i o has been used as L/d where L i s the length
of the member and d i s the c r o s s s e c t i o n a l dimension in the
direction under consideration, for a rectangular cross
section. For a non-rectangular s e c t i o n d must be r e p l a c e d by
r\/12 where r i s the r a d i u s of g y r a t i o n , but i t should be noted
that t h i s study has not considered non-rectangular sections
because within-member s i z e e f f e c t s have not been i n v e s t i g a t e d
for such cases. The length L should be the "effective
length", which is the a c t u a l l e n g t h for a column pinned at
both ends. For a member in a s t r u c t u r e , i t s e f f e c t i v e length
is the l e n g t h of a pinned-pinned column which would buckle at
a load equal to the load in the member when the structure
buckles. Standard methods are a v a i l a b l e f o r e s t i m a t i n g the
e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h f o r a v a r i e t y of end c o n d i t i o n s , but for some
s t r u c t u r e s such as arches and frames, estimation is very
difficult without a second order a n a l y s i s .

249
9.4.4 Biaxial Behaviour
T h i s t h e s i s has investigated the in-plane behavior of
timber members s u b j e c t e d to bending about one of the principal
axes of the c r o s s s e c t i o n .
There are many design s i t u a t i o n s where b i a x i a l behaviour
must be c o n s i d e r e d , and f o r lack of any b e t t e r information the
methods of the s t e e l cbde are suggested. The steel code
formula for stability under biaxial loading is shown as
equation 8.14. The same formula is specified i n the OHBDC for
timber design. In equation 8.14 the term Pu is the lowest
axial load c a p a c i t y of the column c o n s i d e r i n g the worst case
for b u c k l i n g about e i t h e r p r i n c i p a l a x i s . Moments about the x
and y axes are considered separately and are magnified
separately using the corresponding E u l e r load as Pe i n each
case. T h i s equation assumes a l i n e a r interaction between x-
axis and y-axis effects, which is a very conservative
assumption f o r s t e e l members and probably also for timber
members. More accurate e m p i r i c a l expressions are a v a i l a b l e
for s t e e l members (Johnston 1976) but not f o r timber members.
The s t e e l code formulae modified f o r timber members using
design proposal Method 1 become
C F M C F M„
mx x x my y y ,
P
RCI - — )
M M P
ux uy u
(9.12)
C F M C F M
mx x x + my y y < 1
M M
ux uy
for stability, where Fx and Fy are calculated from equation

250
9.3 using the corresponding Euler l o a d i n each case. The
formula f o r s t r e n g t h becomes
M M T, M M
_JL_ + < ( l - — ) J, - 2 - + -X_ < i 9.13
P '
B
M M ' M M
ux uy a ux uy
Some suggestions f o r f u r t h e r research in this area a r e made
below.
a. Strength Under B i a x i a l Loading
The strength model developed i n t h i s . t h e s i s c o u l d be used to
investigate cross section strength under biaxial bending,
because the general form of the computer program allows
members of any c r o s s s e c t i o n to be input. In theory i t would
be possible to change the angle of the n e u t r a l a x i s as shown
in f i g u r e . 83 " f o r
-
many different angles, but a serious
difficulty would be encountered with depth e f f e c t s . For
Figure 83 - Bending about i n c l i n e d n e u t r a l axis
rectangular s e c t i o n s subjected to bending about one p r i n c i p a l
axis i t has been easy to i n c l u d e a depth e f f e c t and no width
e f f e c t on the b a s i s of experimental r e s u l t s . For the section
of figure 83 i t i s not easy t o separate depth e f f e c t s and

251
width e f f e c t s . If both depth and width e f f e c t s were assumed
to be the same (as in a p e r f e c t l y b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l ) then
s t r e s s e s c o u l d be n u m e r i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d over the section at
each s t e p . S t r e s s e s at f a i l u r e may w e l l be higher for b i a x i a l
behaviour than for in-plane behaviour because i n general there
will be smaller volumes of h i g h l y s t r e s s e d m a t e r i a l f u r t h e r
from the n e u t r a l a x i s . One interesting study on the possible
effect of knots on biaxial s t r e n g t h has been d e s c r i b e d by
R i b e r h o l t and N i e l s e n (1976).
b. S t a b i l i t y Under B i a x i a l Loading
The stability behavior of timber members under b i a x i a l loading
has r e c e i v e d very l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n . The most u s e f u l study is
by Larsen and Thielgaard (1979), who have developed some
theory and design equations based on l i n e a r elastic behavior
and a simple f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n of l i m i t i n g compression s t r e s s .
They verified their theory with a series of t e s t s using
combined a x i a l loads and strong-axis bending.
The methods developed in t h i s t h e s i s c o u l d in theory be
extended to biaxial behaviour, but that would be a major
undertaking. Cross s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h can be investigated quite
simply as shown in the previous section, but for longer
columns the computer program would have to be expanded to keep
track of d e f l e c t i o n s about both p r i n c i p a l axes. An accurate
a n a l y s i s should a l s o i n c l u d e the p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of lateral
torsional buckling. The complexities are such that any
analytical study into biaxial behaviour would, require an
extensive experimental study, to provide calibration and

252
verification. Work in this area on other materials is ,
d e s c r i b e d by Chen and Atsuta (1976b).
9.5 LONG DURATION LOADING
The behaviour of timber members under long d u r a t i o n
loading i s of i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t and concern. As existing
conservative design methods are improved, l e a d i n g t o more
efficient and economical designs, the p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of long
d u r a t i o n l o a d i n g must be c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d . Long duration
loads affect the load c a p a c i t y of timber members from both
s t r e n g t h and s t a b i l i t y considerations.
9.5.1 Strength Under Long Duration Loading
•It i s now w e l l recognized that the strength of timber
members decreases under the e f f e c t s of long d u r a t i o n loads.
Recent t h e o r e t i c a l developments i n t h i s area i n c l u d e those by
Barrett and Foschi (1978) who proposed a damage accumulation
model which has subsequently been incorporated into
reliability s t u d i e s (Foschi 1982), and Johns and Madsen (1982)
who investigated .crack growth p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the g r a i n i n
bending members. These and other theories show quite good
agreement with experimental studies on bending members.
S e v e r a l experimental d u r a t i o n of load s t u d i e s on a x i a l tension
members are known to be in progress, but apparently axial
compression s t r e n g t h under long d u r a t i o n loads has r e c e i v e d no
attention.
There is no conceptual problem in i n c o r p o r a t i n g the
e f f e c t of d u r a t i o n of load on s t r e n g t h i n t o the s t r e n g t h model

253
or proposed design methods. Duration of load factors simply
have to be applied to the axial t e n s i o n and compression
strengths, appropriate to the l o a d i n g under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
9.5.2 S t a b i l i t y Under Long Duration Loading
The load capacity of slender compression members is
governed by s t a b i l i t y rather than s t r e n g t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and
this is a f u n c t i o n of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y and creep rather
than m a t e r i a l strength.
U n t i l t h i s p o i n t , one of the assumptions of this thesis
has been that s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s are independent of
time. For many m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d i n g wood this assumption is
not valid, and specimens loaded with constant stress exhibit
increasing strain with time. This phenomenon, known as
"creep", creates problems with increasing deflections in
bending members and t e n s i o n members, but is potentially far
more serious i n compression members where s t a b i l i t y failures
can occur.
The term "creep b u c k l i n g " r e f e r s to a stability failure
of a compression member under constant l o a d s , as lateral
deflections slowly increase over time until the member
buckles. A significant i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h i s problem has been
made by Kallsner and Noren (1978) who used both a numerical
approach d i v i d i n g the column i n t o a number of laminae, and an
approximate method based on a f i c t i t i o u s modulus of elasticity
assuming linear elastic behaviour, to produce a number of
s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n curves f o r long term l o a d i n g .
Creep b u c k l i n g has not been i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h i s t h e s i s .

254
The most d i r e c t way of studying creep buckling would be to
carry out a time-step a n a l y s i s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g the e f f e c t s of
long d u r a t i o n l o a d i n g on the s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship. Such
an a n a l y s i s would not be easy with the s t r e n g t h model, because
of the s t r u c t u r e of the program. However,.some i n d i c a t i o n of
long term behaviour c o u l d be obtained by c a r r y i n g out a number
of computer runs with the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p modified
to simulate e f f e c t s of creep. I t would be necessary to know
the e f f e c t s of long d u r a t i o n l o a d i n g on compression behaviour
(and, perhaps, t e n s i o n behaviour), and t h i s information could
be obtained from d u r a t i o n of load t e s t s on a x i a l compression
members. Creep data for bending members could be u s e f u l for a
preliminary investigation. In the meantime designers can only
be made aware of the p o s s i b l e consequences of creep buckling,
with some extra- conservatism in the design equation for
members which might fail in an instability mode. The
possibility of creep buckling being influenced by cyclic
changes in moisture content has been i n v e s t i g a t e d by Humphries
and Schniewind (1982).
9.6 MOISTURE CONTENT
9.6.1 E f f e c t of Moisture on Compression Strength
The a x i a l compression s t r e n g t h of wood is sensitive to
moisture content, whereas the axial tension strength is
r e l a t i v e l y u n a f f e c t e d by changes in moisture content. The
only significant study of the e f f e c t s of moisture content on
axial tension and compression strengths is reported by

255
Madsen(1982).
9.6.2 E f f e c t of Moisture on Strength Under Combined Loading
The strength model d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s t h e s i s can be used
to p r e d i c t the e f f e c t of moisture content f o r any combination
of a x i a l and bending l o a d s . The data of Madsen(1982) has been
used to produce figure 84 which shows u l t i m a t e interaction
diagrams f o r two d i f f e r e n t moisture c o n t e n t s . The m a t e r i a l i n
t h i s case i s No. 2 and B e t t e r SPF, 38x140 mm size. Results
have only been shown f o r 11% and 25% moisture content, but
intermediate values f o l l o w a uniform trend between these two
levels.
Axial tension s t r e n g t h has been taken to be independent
of moisture content as shown by the v e r t i c a l axis intercepts
in the tension region. Axial compression s t r e n g t h on the
other hand i s very s e n s i t i v e to moisture c o n t e n t . Figure 84
shows predictions for a l l combinations of a x i a l load and
bending. One prediction of considerable interest is the
bending strength on the horizontal axis. It is clearly
demonstrated how bending s t r e n g t h at the 5th p e r c e n t i l e level
is independent of moisture content whereas at the 95th
percentile level ( r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of strong m a t e r i a l , such as
small clear test specimens) moisture content has a major
i n f l u e n c e on bending s t r e n g t h . This graphical representation
strongly supports the explanation of Madsen(l982) f o r the
e f f e c t of moisture content on bending strength, which was
p r e v i o u s l y not well understood.
Future studies into the e f f e c t of moisture content on

256
DRY(11%m.c.)
WET(25°/om.c.)
95th %ile
CO
CM .
I i i 1 1 1 r~
O.D 2.0 4.0 B.O 8.0
nOPIENT (KN.fl)
F i g u r e 84 - E f f e c t of moisture content on s t r e n g t h of
timber i n combined bending and a x i a l l o a d i n g
bending s t r e n g t h should concentrate on behaviour in axial
t e n s i o n and compression.
9.7 SUMMARY
In t h i s chapter, the s t r e n g t h model has been recommended
as the b a s i s of an u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h design method f o r timber
members. One of the a l t e r n a t i v e design methods i n v e s t i g a t e d
i n Chapter 8 has been recommended as an improved approximate
method for designing timber members subjected to combined

257
bending and a x i a l l o a d s . Many f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g the behaviour
of structural timber members have been introduced and
discussed briefly, and recommendations have been made f o r
future research.
258
X. SUMMARY
The major achievements of t h i s study are summarized below.
1. T h i s study has demonstrated that the behaviour of timber
members i n bending, and i n combined bending and a x i a l loading,
can be p r e d i c t e d from observed behaviour i n a x i a l t e n s i o n and
compression tests.
2. The i n t e r a c t i o n between a x i a l and flexural strength of
eccentrically loaded timber members has been i n v e s t i g a t e d
experimentally f o r a wide range of e c c e n t r i c i t i e s and l e n g t h s .
3. The effect of member length on strength has been
investigated experimentally for axial tension, axial
compression and bending.
4. A computer-based s t r e n g t h model has been developed to
p r e d i c t the c r o s s s e c t i o n s t r e n g t h of timber members under any
combination of a x i a l and f l e x u r a l loads.
5. T h i s study has demonstrated how the s t r e n g t h model can be
used t o p r e d i c t the l o a d c a p a c i t y of timber members of any
length subjected to e c c e n t r i c a x i a l loading, considering both
i n s t a b i l i t y and m a t e r i a l s t r e n g t h failures.
6. The s t r e n g t h model improves the t h e o r e t i c a l basis of the
in-grade testing concept by relating in-grade bending test

259
r e s u l t s to those in. a x i a l tension and compression, and by
q u a n t i f y i n g length effects.
7. The s t r e n g t h model can be used as the b a s i s of a r a t i o n a l
design method f o r timber members subjected to eccentric axial
load.
8. New approximate formulae have been proposed f o r d e s i g n i n g
timber members subjected to combined bending and axial
loading.
The main f e a t u r e s of the recommended approximate design
method i n c l u d e :
a. A new formula f o r the moment-axial load interaction
at a timber c r o s s s e c t i o n subjected to combined loading
0 fr - - U - f - J (10.1)
u a
where M i s t h e ^ a p p l i e d moment, Mu i s the moment capacity
of the s e c t i o n , P i s the a p p l i e d load, Pa is the axial
compression strength of the s e c t i o n , and B i s a f a c t o r
which r e l a t e s the shape of the i n t e r a c t i o n diagram t o the
r a t i o of the a x i a l tension strength ft to the axial
compression s t r e n g t h f c of the m a t e r i a l , given by
1.35
B
" 7
T r (10.2)
t c
260
The axial strengths f t and f c should be obtained from i n -
grade t e s t r e s u l t s .
b. A new formula f o r the moment-axial l o a d i n t e r a c t i o n
of e c c e n t r i c a l l y loaded timber compression members of any
length
F_M
- B(l-i-)
M
u ' P
'
u (10.3)
where Pu i s the load 1

capacity of the member under
concentric axial loading, including any effects of
slenderness, and F i s a moment m a g n i f i c a t i o n factor given
by
1 + P/P
F = 1
1 - P/P
6
(10.4)
The term Pe i s the E u l e r b u c k l i n g load f o r the column.
T h i s t h e s i s has i d e n t i f i e d many areas i n which accurate and
efficient design of timber members has not been p o s s i b l e
because of lack of information on material properties and
behaviour. The results of the t h e s i s have provided a large
amount of new information which can be used to improve design
methods, but much remains to be done. Areas r e l a t e d to t h i s
t h e s i s t o p i c which s t i l l r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n include
s i z e e f f e c t s , creep b u c k l i n g , b i a x i a l behaviour and other load
configurations. T h i s t h e s i s has concentrated solely on sawn
timber, but the concepts could also be a p p l i e d to glued
laminated timber members.

261
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A p p l i e d to Wood Members i n Bending/Tension. USDA

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272
APPENDIX A - CALCULATIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES
Chapter 6 d e s c r i b e d a g e n e r a l computer model which can p r e d i c t

the load capacity of members of any l e n g t h under many
combinations of a x i a l and f l e x u r a l l o a d s .
In t h i s appendix the same assumptions ( l i s t e d i n s e c t i o n

6.2) a r e used to o b t a i n a closed form solution, both f o r
strength i n pure bending and f o r the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n
diagram of short columns.
A.1 ULTIMATE BENDING STRENGTH
A.1.1 Background
The bending s t r e n g t h of timber beams has been a subject

of interest s i n c e the time of G a l i l e o . Bending i s a l o a d i n g
condition encountered f a r more f r e q u e n t l y than combined
bending and a x i a l loading. The l i t e r a t u r e survey d e s c r i b e s
many u n s u c c e s s f u l attempts to p r e d i c t the bending s t r e n g t h of
both c l e a r wood beams and timber beams from the r e s u l t s of
a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression t e s t s .
A major new c o n t r i b u t i o n of the present study is a

relatively simple model to p r e d i c t the bending s t r e n g t h of
timber members from the a x i a l t e n s i o n and a x i a l compression
strengths. Recall that throughout t h i s study timber member
s t r e n g t h g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s to s t r e n g t h s of d e f i n e d p o p u l a t i o n s
of timber, at c e r t a i n l e v e l s i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n .
F i g u r e 27 compares d i s t r i b u t i o n s of bending, t e n s i o n , and

compression s t r e n g t h s obtained from in-grade t e s t i n g of the
timber s t u d i e d i n t h i s t h e s i s . The s t r e n g t h model can be used
to c a l c u l a t e the bending s t r e n g t h from the a x i a l t e n s i o n and
compression s t r e n g t h s , at any l e v e l i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n , or
for any member whose t e n s i o n and compression s t r e n g t h s are
known. To c a l c u l a t e bending strength from the r e s u l t s of
a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression t e s t s , a s t r e n g t h model has to
i n c o r p o r a t e s i z e e f f e c t s with length and depth, and n o n - l i n e a r
stress-strain behaviour i n compression. These f a c t o r s have
been d e s c r i b e d f o r the general case i n Chapter 6 and w i l l be
described here f o r the s p e c i a l case of bending with no a x i a l
load. For m a t e r i a l that i s weaker in tension than i n
compression, f a i l u r e i s governed by t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h alone, so
n o n - l i n e a r compression behaviour need not be c o n s i d e r e d .
Calculations f o r bending s t r e n g t h are developed f o r two

separate c a s e s . The f i r s t assumes a b i l i n e a r stress-strain
relationship with a f a l l i n g branch. The second assumes an
e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p with an upper limit
273
on compression strain.
A.1.2 Bilinear Stress-Strain R e l a t i o n s h i p with F a l l i n g Branch
a. Assumptions
The theory i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s an e x t e n s i o n of theory d e s c r i b e d
by Bazan(l980), which attempts to p r e d i c t the bending strength
of large clear wood beams from the a x i a l tension and
compression s t r e n g t h s of small clear specimens. The major
differences i n the present study are that in-grade a x i a l
t e n s i o n and compression t e s t r e s u l t s are used as input, and
s i z e e f f e c t s are i n c l u d e d more e x p l i c i t l y .
This study uses Bazan's assumptions of l i n e a r e l a s t i c

behaviour to f a i l u r e i n t e n s i o n and a b i l i n e a r stress-strain
relationship i n compression with a f a l l i n g branch after
maximum s t r e s s , as shown i n f i g u r e 85.
stress
brittle .
fracture
F i g u r e 85 - B i l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n relationship with
f a l l i n g branch
The slope of the falling branch i s assumed to be a

constant r a t i o , m, of the modulus of e l a s t i c i t y as shown.
The g e n e r a l computer program f o r combined a x i a l and bending

loads can use any shape of s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve i n compression.
However, comparative computer runs have shown that for
calculating the s t r e n g t h at a c r o s s s e c t i o n , the b i l i n e a r
274
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a f a l l i n g b r a n c h c a n be used t o g i v e almost
e x a c t l y t h e same r e s u l t s as more a c c u r a t e c u r v e s .
b. Calculations
Figure 86 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a
r e c t a n g u l a r beam i n t h e i n e l a s t i c r a n g e . The depth of the
section i s d, and a,b and c r e p r e s e n t r a t i o s o f d a s shown i n
the f i g u r e .
v x
X v \
\ x
. w .
section strain
(a) (b)
Figure 86 - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a
rectangular beam a s s u m i n g b i l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
The extreme f i b r e s t r e s s i n t e n s i o n f x , i s t a k e n t o be a
f a c t o r n times the y i e l d s t r e s s of the m a t e r i a l i n compression
fc. The falling branch of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
r e s u l t s i n t h e extreme c o m p r e s s i o n f i b r e h a v i n g a s t r e s s w h i c h
i s a f a c t o r r of the y i e l d s t r e s s i n c o m p r e s s i o n .
Using the n o t a t i o n shown on the f i g u r e , the internal

t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e s , T and C, a r e
T = ^ nf wed (A.1)
2 c
C = i f wd[b + a(l+r)]
2 c ^ a 1 T i ; j
(A.2)
Internal axial force equilibrium, T=C, yields
b + a(l+r) = nc (A.3)
275
From t h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e s t r e s s diagram
a = 1 - b - c ( .4)
A
and
b = c / n
(A.5)
From e q u a t i o n s A.3 t o A.5
n(l+r) r\
c _
(n+r)(n+l) ( A
« 6 )
from which
a = C"- ) 1
(A.7)
and
, _ 1+r
b
" (n+r)(n+l)
Cn+rUn+l-* (A.8)
The b e n d i n g moment c a n be c a l c u l a t e d by t a k i n g moments o f t h e

i n t e r n a l f o r c e s about t h e n e u t r a l a x i s t o g i v e
M - f ^ g - [2nc 2
+ .2b 2
+ (l+2r)a 2
+ 3(l+r)ab] (A. 9)
Substituting f o r a, b a n d c gives
M = £ e ^ i [ n + (2n-l)r } ( ^ ] Q )
The d e v e l o p m e n t to t h i s point i s identical to that described

by B a z a n .
If t h e s l o p e of t h e f a l l i n g b r a n c h o f t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
relationship is a given ratio, m, of the modulus of
elasticity, a s shown i n f i g u r e 85, t h e n f r o m t h e s t r e s s and
s t r a i n d i a g r a m s o f f i g u r e 86, t h e r e d u c t i o n i n s t r e s s a t the
e x t r e m e c o m p r e s s i o n f i b r e c a n be w r i t t e n a s
(l-r) f = mE(e - e ) (A.11)

v
c 1
cv
y
276
From the s t r a i n diagram
a+b „
ec
T~ y e
(A.12)
and the s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p gives
e y - f /E
c (A. 13)
Substituting and r e a r r a n g i n g equations A.11 to A.13 gives an

e x p r e s s i o n f o r r i n terms of m, a and b
= 1 - ma/b (A. 14)
S u b s t i t u t i n g the values of a and b from equations A.7 and A.8

give an expression f o r r i n terms of m and n
= /l-m(n -l) 2
(A.15)
Equations A.10 and A.15 can be combined to give a new

expression f o r the bending moment, M.
wd< n + (2n-l) A - m(n -l)2
M = (A.16)
n + / l - m(n -l) 2
The only unknown i n t h i s equation i s n, the r a t i o of the

extreme fibre tension s t r e s s at u l t i m a t e moment, to the
maximum compression s t r e s s .
The extreme f i b r e t e n s i o n s t r e s s fx cannot exceed the

failure s t r e s s i n t e n s i o n fm, which i s r e l a t e d to the a x i a l
t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h f t by
-k +l ] *, (A.17)
C 3
m 3
where k i s the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n
3 parameter described i n
Chapter 3, and c i s the n e u t r a l a x i s depth r a t i o as shown i n
f i g u r e 86.
To c a l c u l a t e the value of n, and hence the moment

capacity, four p o s s i b l e r a t i o s of tension to compression
s t r e n g t h must be c o n s i d e r e d . Each of the four cases produce a
different internal stress distribution at failure.-
277
C a s e 1 i s f o r t i m b e r weak i n t e n s i o n , where t h e f a i l u r e s t r e s s
i n b e n d i n g fm i s l e s s than the compression strength f c .
Failure i n t h i s case i s a s s o c i a t e d with a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e and
no c o m p r e s s i o n y i e l d i n g . S i m p l e e l a s t i c t h e o r y c a n be u s e d t o
c a l c u l a t e t h e moment c a p a c i t y , t h e modulus o f r u p t u r e b e i n g fm
from e q u a t i o n A.17 u s i n g c=0.5 f o r n e u t r a l a x i s a t m i d - d e p t h .
C a s e 2. i s f o r t i m b e r w i t h an i n t e r m e d i a t e r a t i o of t e n s i o n
to compression strength such that maximum moment i s s t i l l
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e , b u t a f t e r some compression
y i e l d i n g has o c c u r r e d . In t h i s case t h e extreme f i b r e t e n s i o n
stress fx, at failure, will a g a i n be e q u a l t o fm g i v e n by
e q u a t i o n A.17.
The e x t r e m e f i b r e s t r e s s f x h a s been d e f i n e d a s n times

fc, s o e q u a t i o n A.17 becomes
1/k,
(A.18)
In this case t h e n e u t r a l a x i s i s no l o n g e r a t m i d - d e p t h .
E q u a t i o n s A.6 and A.15 c a n be c o m b i n e d t o g i v e an expression
for c, which substituted into equation A.18 g i v e s an
e x p r e s s i o n r e l a t i n g n t o t h e known a x i a l s t r e n g t h s f c and f t .
1/k,
n(l + A - m(n -l) ) 2
(A.19)
- (n + A - m(n -l) ) (n+l)(k+l)
2
This e q u a t i o n c a n be s o l v e d i t e r a t i v e l y f o r n, which can be

used i n e q u a t i o n A.16 t o c a l c u l a t e t h e maximum moment.
Case 3 i s f o r timber with a higher ratio of t e n s i o n t o

compression s t r e n g t h , such t h a t a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e o c c u r s a f t e r
the moment has passed a maximum value, accompanied by
considerable compression yielding. In t h i s c a s e t h e maximum
moment i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h , and i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o f i n d t h e v a l u e o f n t h a t m a x i m i z e s t h e moment i n equation
A.16. D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o n and e q u a t i n g t o z e r o
produces
1 + m - mn + ( l - m ( n - l ) )
3 2 3/2
= 0 (A.20)
w h i c h c a n be s o l v e d i t e r a t i v e l y f o r n, g i v e n a v a l u e of the
material p r o p e r t y m. T h i s v a l u e o f n c a n be u s e d i n e q u a t i o n
A.16 t o c a l c u l a t e maximum moment.
In p r a c t i c e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r
both C a s e s 2 and 3 a n d u s e t h e lower o f t h e two v a l u e s o f n i n
278
equation A.16.
Case 4 i s the extreme case f o r timber which i s much stronger

in tension than i n compression, where maximum moment i s
a s s o c i a t e d with d u c t i l e compression y i e l d i n g and no t e n s i o n
failure occurs. T h i s type of f a i l u r e w i l l be f a m i l i a r to the
reader who has t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u l l y to snap a green branch on
a living tree, finding that a p l a s t i c hinge forms, but the
branch does not break. Equation A.20 must be used again i n
t h i s case t o f i n d n, and the moment from equation A.16.
c. Length E f f e c t s
This d e r i v a t i o n has not i n c l u d e d length e f f e c t s . They can be
i n c l u d e d using equation 5.3 which g i v e s an e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s e d
l e n g t h L f o r a beam of span L, loaded
2 with two symmetrical
loads a d i s t a n c e aL, a p a r t .
1 + ak /L1 1
(A.21)
k +l
x
and equation 3.11 which r e l a t e s the s t r e n g t h of two s i m i l a r

members of d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s .
X
(A.22)
*2
The procedure f o r modifying in-grade tension and compression

test results f o r length, as input f o r c a l c u l a t i n g bending
s t r e n g t h , i s as f o l l o w s :
1. C a l c u l a t e the e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s e d l e n g t h of the beam,

L , from equation A.21 using the t e n s i o n
2 length effect
parameter a s k , .
2. Adjust the in-grade t e n s i o n s t r e n g t h r e s u l t obtained

from t e s t i n g of a length L , , t o a value compatible with
the equivalent stressed l e n g t h of the beam, L , using 2
equation A.22 and the t e n s i o n length e f f e c t parameter as

ki. The r e s u l t i s f t .
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using in-grade compression t e s t

r e s u l t s and the compression l e n g t h e f f e c t parameter as k 1
to c a l c u l a t e the compression s t r e n g t h f c .
279
Modify a x i a l tension and compression

strength to values consistent with
stressed length of beam
^ ;
modify tension strength for depth
assuming neutral axis mid depth
modified YES
^tension strength less thanj
compression
^strength?^
calculate max moment c a l c u l a t e moment

assuming no tension failure at t e n s i o n f a i l u r e
calculate failure
^_
take lowest one moment from e l a s t i c
theory
V V
ULTIMATE ULTIMATE
MOMENT MOMENT
F i g u r e 87 - Flow c h a r t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g u l t i m a t e bending
moment f o r b i l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
d. Summary
A summary of the procedure f o r c a l c u l a t i n g ultimate bending
moment i s shown i n the flow chart of f i g u r e 87, and d e s c r i b e d
b r i e f l y as f o l l o w s .
The l e n g t h e f f e c t c a l c u l a t i o n s have j u s t been d e s c r i b e d .

The depth e f f e c t calculation can i n i t i a l l y be made using
equation A.18 with c=0.5. The moment a s s o c i a t e d with a
t e n s i o n f a i l u r e i s found by c a l c u l a t i n g a value of n to
satisfy equation A . 1 9 and by using that value i n equation
A.16. Maximum moment assuming no t e n s i o n f a i l u r e i s found by
substituting a value of n from equation A.20 i n t o equation
A.16. I t i s not d i f f i c u l t t o w r i t e a computer program t o
c a r r y out these c a l c u l a t i o n s .
280
e. Depth E f f e c t i n Compression
The d e r i v a t i o n t o t h i s p o i n t h a s been b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n
that the compression s t r e n g t h a t a c e r t a i n c r o s s s e c t i o n i s a
material constant independent of the s t r e s s e d depth. As i n
t h e more g e n e r a l c a s e a compression depth effect c a n be
introduced- using equation 3.18 w h i c h relates t h e maximum
compression s t r e s s t o the s i z e of the compression stress
b l o c k , g i v i n g a m o d i f i e d c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e n g t h fern
. -l/k_
f = [ + j-lU
a
3
f (A.23)
cm L
k +l 3
J
c
This value o f fem c a n be u s e d i n p l a c e o f t h e t e r m f c i n

e q u a t i o n A.18 t o g i v e a more g e n e r a l form o f e q u a t i o n A.19,
i n c o r p o r a t i n g a compression depth e f f e c t .
n [ a + r ^ ] 3 C 3 t
- /
k
3c 1
3t 1 r
c
where the s t r e s s - d i s t r i b u t i o n parameter k has s u b s c r i p t s t 3
and c f o r t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y . This equation

c a n be s o l v e d by i t e r a t i o n f o r n, a s b e f o r e , u s i n g equations
A.6 t o A.8 and A . 1 5 - f o r a, b, a n d c . An a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e o f
n c a n be f o u n d from equation A.20, a s b e f o r e . Once t h e
c o r r e c t v a l u e o f n i s f o u n d i t c a n be u s e d i n e q u a t i o n A.16 t o
give t h e u l t i m a t e b e n d i n g moment, a g a i n u s i n g fem i n p l a c e o f
fc.
A.1.3 Elasto-Plastic Stress-Strain Relationship
a. Assumpt i o n s
I t was shown i n C h a p t e r 6 t h a t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f
a c r o s s s e c t i o n , a model b a s e d on an e l a s t o - p l a s t i c stress-
strain relationship c a n p r o d u c e v e r y s i m i l a r r e s u l t s t o one
b a s e d on a more a c c u r a t e c u r v e , p r o v i d e d t h a t an upper limit
on compression strain i s specified. Such a model i s a l e s s
a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a c t u a l b e h a v i o u r , but i t produces a
s i m i l a r s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n within the cross s e c t i o n .
This section uses an elasto-plastic stress-strain
relationship with limiting strain t o produce e q u a t i o n s f o r
u l t i m a t e b e n d i n g s t r e n g t h w h i c h a r e s l i g h t l y more s i m p l e than
those derived i n the previous s e c t i o n . F i g u r e 88 shows t h e
stress-strain relationship.
Once a g a i n t h e s t r e n g t h i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e r e s u l t s o f
in-grade t e s t s i n a x i a l tension and c o m p r e s s i o n . A l l the
o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n s made p r e v i o u s l y a r e u s e d a g a i n h e r e .
281
F i g u r e 88 - E l a s t o - p l a s t i c stresss-strain relationship
b. C a l c u l a t ions
Figure 89 shows the d i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a
r e c t a n g u l a r beam i n the i n e l a s t i c range.
section strain
(a) (b)
F i g u r e 89 - D i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n a
r e c t a n g u l a r beam assuming e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n
relat ionship
From t h i s f i g u r e the i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n force is the same

as equation A.1.
T = i nf wed (A.25)
2 c
and the i n t e r n a l compression f o r c e becomes
C = J f wd(2a + b) (A.26)
/ c
282
The same procedure as before produces the l o c a t i o n of the

n e u t r a l a x i s and the s i z e of the p l a s t i c zone
a = Z£ (A.27)
n+1
b = (A.28)
(n+1) 2
2n
c =
(n+1) 2
< '
A 2 9 )
and an e x p r e s s i o n f o r the bending moment
Assume now that the l i m i t i n g s t r a i n has j u s t been reached and

that no t e n s i o n f a i l u r e has o c c u r r e d . From the geometry of
the s t r a i n diagram
e
u a + b „ ,
— = — b — (A.31)
y
S u b s t i t u t i n g equations A.26 t o A.29 into equation A.31, a

value f o r n can be obtained
e
n = 2— - 1 (A.32)
e
y
This value of n s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o equation A.30 g i v e s the
bending moment when the l i m i t i n g compression strain is
reached, and the extreme fibre t e n s i o n s t r e s s i s obtained
d i r e c t l y from
(A.33)
T h i s extreme f i b r e t e n s i o n s t r e s s must be compared with the

tension strength for this n e u t r a l a x i s depth, which i s
c a l c u l a t e d from equations A.17 and A.29. I f a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e
has not o c c u r r e d , the p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d moment i s the
desired value. I f a t e n s i o n f a i l u r e has o c c u r r e d i t becomes
283
necessary to c a l c u l a t e a lower moment a s s o c i a t e d with that

event, using equation A.19 with the slope m of the f a l l i n g
branch being zero, g i v i n g
n [ 2 n
j" 1 7
" 3
= f t ( .34)
A
(n+l) (k +l)
2
3
f
c
T h i s equation must be s o l v e d i t e r a t i v e l y f o r n as before, and

the subsequent value used i n equation A.30 t o c a l c u l a t e the
u l t i m a t e moment.
A flow c h a r t f o r t h i s procedure i s shown i n figure 90.
The elasto-plastic model c o n t a i n s j u s t as many steps as

the b i l i n e a r model, but the equations are somewhat simpler.
The bilinear model w i l l a l s o be used i n the next s e c t i o n f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g the shape of the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n diagram.
A.2 ULTIMATE INTERACTION DIAGRAM
A.2.1 Background
Chapter 6 d e s c r i b e d a computer program for producing

ultimate interaction diagrams .for a wide range of input
parameters.
T h i s s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s a s i m p l i f i e d c a l c u l a t i o n procedure
based on an e l a s t o - p l a s t i c stress-strain relationship in
compression as shown i n f i g u r e 88. The c a l c u l a t i o n s i n t h i s
s e c t i o n are only f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n behaviour. Interaction
diagrams f o r long columns cannot be produced by such simple
procedures, and a numerical computer program i s necessary to
produce accurate r e s u l t s f o r cases where i n s t a b i l i t y f a i l u r e s
occur.
This section f i r s t d e s c r i b e s a number of d i f f e r e n t

regions i n which the c a l c u l a t i o n s must be performed, then
p r o v i d e s a summary of the equations d e r i v e d f o r each region.
The a c t u a l d e r i v a t i o n s , which proceed easily from first
p r i n c i p l e s , have not been i n c l u d e d .
A.2.2 Calculations
F i g u r e 91 shows nine d i f f e r e n t cases to be c o n s i d e r e d to

produce a complete i n t e r a c t i o n diagram. Each case represents
a combination of a x i a l l o a d and bending moment just causing
failure.
284
Modify axial tension and compression

strength to values consistent with
stressed length of beam
: y.
modify tension strength for depth

assuming neutral axis mid depth
modified YES
^tension strength less than
compression
jtrengthj^
NO
calculate moment and extreme fibre tension

stress when limiting compression strain reached
NO YES
\/
calculate moment use moment calculate failure

at tension for limiting moment from
failure compression strain elastic theory
\/
ULTIMATE ULTIMATE ULTIMATE

MOMENT MOMENT MOMENT
F i g u r e 90 - Flow chart f o r c a l c u l a t i n g u l t i m a t e bending

moment f o r e l a s t o - p l a s t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p
Case 1 i s pure a x i a l t e n s i o n behaviour. The f a i l u r e s t r e s s f t

is the t e n s i o n strength obtained from an in-grade a x i a l
tension t e s t .
Case 2 r e p r e s e n t s combined bending and t e n s i o n with the whole

of the s e c t i o n subjected t o t e n s i o n s t r e s s e s . F a i l u r e occurs
when the extreme f i b r e t e n s i o n s t r e s s reaches a f a i l u r e s t r e s s
fm given by equation 3.17.
Case 3 i s the p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n where the whole s e c t i o n i s

in t e n s i o n , but with zero s t r e s s a t the t o p edge.
Case 4 i s s i m i l a r to the previous two cases, but now there are

compression stresses near the t o p edge, and i n case 5 the
285
compression s t r a i n s exceed the y i e l d s t r a i n .

I n c a s e s 3 t o 5 f a i l u r e o c c u r s when t h e e x t r e m e f i b r e tension
s t r e s s r e a c h e s a f a i l u r e s t r e s s g i v e n by e q u a t i o n A.17.
Case 6 looks v e r y s i m i l a r t o c a s e 5, b u t now the compression

s t r a i n at the top f i b r e reaches i t s l i m i t i n g value before a
tension failure occurs.
Case 7 i s a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n where t h e bottom f i b r e stress

i s z e r o , with the r e s t of the s e c t i o n i n c o m p r e s s i o n .
In case 8 the whole of the section i s in compression with

yielding occurring over most of the depth.
The final diagram shows case 9 which is pure axial

c o m p r e s s i o n . . The maximum c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s i n c a s e s 5 to 9
i s a s s u m e d t o be t h e f a i l u r e s t r e s s from an in-grade axial
compression test.
In a l l of the cases 1 to 9 the net a x i a l l o a d c a n be

calculated by summing a l l of the internal tension and
compression s t r e s s e s i n t h e s t r e s s b l o c k s shown. The bending
moment a t t h e s e c t i o n c a n be c a l c u l a t e d by t a k i n g moments of
the i n t e r n a l f o r c e s about the c e n t r o i d a l a x i s of the section.
The a c t u a l c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e V
which shows the sequence of c a l c u l a t i o n s a f t e r s e l e c t i n g a
neutral axis depth. The numbers i n t h e l e f t - h a n d column are
the case numbers referred to above. F i g u r e 92 shows t h e
r e s u l t s of t h e s e hand c a l c u l a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d a t e i g h t neutral
axis depths, which are sufficient to produce a close
approximation to the curve produced by the more general
c o m p u t e r m o d e l , p r e v i o u s l y v e r i f i e d by t e s t r e s u l t s .
Tension
# Select Calculate Check Top Calculate Calc Calculate Axial Load Calculate Moment
Failure
n.a. Depth Stress Strains Strain b = a =
1 c =oo
f
t f wd 0
wd 2
1
2 c > 1 f wd (— - 1) f
2c m
6 2c
3 c = 1 wd 2
1
f wd/2 f
m
f
m
6 2
m
A e > e
_c_ l/k y c wd 2
1
( r f wd ( — - 1) f
f 2c m
6 2c
m
e = —
t E e
5 0 < c < 1 e < e < e y
c
y c u 6
t
1-c b c 2
p — pi f wd (a + - - — ) * w c i
1'wi-at + v » r — - + ^—(— - c V I
c c t c
2 2b
c
6 2 b 2
6 e > e i (1-c) 1-b-c
c u
u
e
7 c •= 0 _y f wd (a + -) f — [3a(l-a) + b ( - - 3a-b)j
e c
2 c
6 2
u
8 _ wd 2
i a N . b c ,b f 1,
1-b f wd (a + b
+ b C
j f [- (1-a) + [a + J
e 6 2 b-c 2 2
c
2 2(b-c) c
c < 0 (l-c)+c
e
u
+Ib U ) la + ^ + i j ]
2 b-c 3 2
9 c = - oo f wd 0
c ,
287
Figure 92 - U l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m p r o d u c e d by hand-
calculations, compared with computer
c a l c u l a t e d curve
288
APPENDIX B - CALCULATION OF INTERCEPT DEFINING INTERACTION

DIAGRAM
This appendix develops' a s e m i - e m p i r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r the

horizontal axis intercept that defines the shape of the
b i l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n to the u l t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n d i a g r a m .
Figure 93 shows a t y p i c a l ultimate interaction diagram.
M c 1.0 B
Moment
Figure 93 - T y p i c a l ultimate interaction diagram
Point B is t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s i n t e r c e p t of a p r o j e c t i o n of
t h e upper s t r a i g h t l i n e p o r t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m . I f a p o i n t on
t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e p o r t i o n of t h e d i a g r a m can be located, as
shown by p o i n t C i n f i g u r e 9 3 , t h e v a l u e of B c a n be o b t a i n e d
from t h e geometry of t h e d i a g r a m . The c o - o r d i n a t e s of p o i n t C
can be o b t a i n e d from t h e a p p r o x i m a t e hand calculation method
d e s c r i b e d in Appendix A.
Typical values of E/fc=300 and a maximum s t r a i n of 0.01

c a n be u s e d w i t h a n e u t r a l a x i s d e p t h of c=0.3 to make the
c a l c u l a t i o n s shown on l i n e 6 of T a b l e V . The c o o r d i n a t e s of. C
a r e f o u n d t o be
p = 0.592 f A (B.1)
c c
wd^ (B.2)
M = 0.844 f
289
The moment value Mc must be r e l a t e d to the bending s t r e n g t h Mu

(which becomes 1.0 when non-dimensionalized). I f the n e u t r a l
a x i s i s assumed to be at mid-depth, the moment c a p a c i t y i s
M = f (B.3)
u mo
where fm i s the f a i l u r e s t r e s s i n bending, which i s r e l a t e d to

the a x i a l t e n s i o n s t r e s s by equation 3.16.
-l/k_
f
^= k&F>
m
]
^ (B
* 4)
where k is the within-member depth effect parameter.

S u b s t i t u t i o n of equations B.3 and B.4 i n t o equation B.2 gives
A reasonably c o n s e r v a t i v e value of k=6.0 (corresponding to

f a i l u r e s t r e s s i n t e n s i o n being 65% of that i n bending), and
the non-dimensionalized value of Mu=1.0 give
f
M = 0.544 ^ (B.6)
c
t
From the geometry of f i g u r e 93
B = M (B.7)
1-P
c
Substituting from equations B.1 and B.6 (with the term fcA
non-dimensionalized as 1.0) equation B.7 becomes
B = YHT- ( B
- 8 )
t c
T h i s e x p r e s s i o n has been incorporated into the recommended

design formulae.
290
APPENDIX C - TEST RESULTS
£•/ eccentricity
O 5th percentile
y a Mean
• . . A A . 95th percentile
•
m ft
• • -, •
0.0 0.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
H-ID-SPRN MOMENT (KN.M)
F i g u r e 94 - E c c e n t r i c compression r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, 1.3m long
— m . . • Ji • *
202_rni!L
. .. .0'—
— I — ^ i i i r 1 1 r "i r r 1 r
o.o 0.5 3.0 3 . 5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
4.5
n i D - S P R N MOMENT (KN.M)
F i g u r e 95 - E c c e n t r i c compression r e s u l t s ,
291
o
o
o_ o 5th percentile
• Mean
w
'o _ A 9 5 t h percentile .AO^
[RL LORE
60.0
X
cr
o
9-
o
-----
R-
o €) ••" *
o i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
0 .0 0.5 3.0 3.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5
MID-SPRN noriENT (KN.ru
Figure 96 - E c c e n t r i c c o m p r e s s i o n r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards.* 2.3m l o n g
o
O -
o _
cnoo
CL
CD -
n i D - S P R N MOMENT (KN.M)
38x89mm b o a r d s , 3.2m l o n g
292
eccentricity
/7
O 5th percentile
8-
• Mean
A 95th percentile
Q
A-
CCD
QfN.
CLCD
• •
o
.. a -
9'
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 €.0 7.0 £.0

n i D - s P R N n o n E N T (KN.n)
38x140mm b o a r d s , 1.82m l o n g
Q
a
a
a
^10 .
Ctoo
9-
• • -fi \
mm
1——[ 1 1—"I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 fi.O
n i D - s P f l N n o n E N T (KN.n)
38x140mm b o a r d s , 2.44m l o n g
293
a
o
o 5th percentile
8-
• Mean
A 95th percentile
CTo
0 r\i.
CCco
'V . . ..... 4
9"
—I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1
D.C J.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 fl.fl
MID-SPAN n o n E N T (KN.n)
Figure 100 - E c c e n t r i c compression r e s u l t s ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Figure 101 - E c c e nntirDi- cs P Rcompression
N nonENT (KN.n)
results,
294
F i g u r e 102 - A x i a l t e n s i o n r e s u l t s ,
AXIAL TENSION STRENGTH

SHORT BOARDS
INTERVAL CHI-SQUARE FIT: 13.72

3-PAR WEIBULL (DASHED)=
SHAPE = 2.6974
SCALE = 33.093
LOCA. = 4.311
1 "I —1
60.D 60.0 90.0 100.0
o.o
10 0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 70.0
TENSION STRESS (MPA)
F i g u r e 103 - A x i a l t e n s i o n r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, .914m long
295
COMPRESSION STRENGTH
WERKEST P O I N T IN BOARD
DATA (SOLID LINE): N=88

DRTR ST.DV. WEIBULL ST.DV.
57ILE: 23.07 3.96 23.19 1 .40
507ILE-. 31 . 5 9 0.63 32.30 0.63
MERN: 31 . 8 9 4.88 31 . 6 4 4.80
95*1LE: 39.54 0.72 38.91 0.76
C OF D I S P : 0.153 0.150
10 INTERVAL CHI-SQUARE FIT: 15.86

3-PAR WEIBULL (DASHED):
SHAPE = 7.8559
SCALE = 33.845
LOCA. = 0.000
1
o.o 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
COMPRESSION
l
50. D 60.0
S T R E N G T H (MPA)
70.0 80.0
I 100.0
90.0
Figure 104 - A x i a l compression r e s u l t s ,

EDGEWISE BENDING
LONG SPAN
DRTR (SOLID L I N E ) : N=88

DRTR ST.DV. WEJBULL ST.DV.
5/ILE 22.70 3.55 25.86 . 3.28
• 50/ILE 53.47 2.39 51 . 7 3 2.11
MERN 51 . 4 4 15.79 51 . 5 1 15.29
95/JLE 76.60 3.29 76.39 3.15
C OF D I S P 0.307 0.297

SHAPE = 3.7557
SCALE = 57.038
LOCA. = 0.000
— i —
o.o 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140. 160.0 1B0.0 200.0
BENDING STRENGTH. (MPAJ
F i g u r e 105 - Bending t e s t r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm boards, 1.5m span
296
EDGEWISE BENDING
SHORT SPAN
DATA ST.DV. WEIBULL ST.DV.
57ILE: 36.70 1 .63 36.14 3.46
ODi£> 50JILE: 60.72 5.77 61 .02 1 .88
go" MEAN: 60.33 13.82 60.29 13.88
O
95;iLE: 82.26 6.59 81 .91 2.55
OF DISP: 0.229 0.230
0_
UJ
INTERVAL CHI-SQUARE FIT: 12.00

SHAPE = 4.9718
SCALE = 65.690
LOCA. = 0.000
—r —r—. 1 1 1 1 i
o.o 40.0 60.0 60.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 200.0
20.0 BENDING STRENGTH (MPfl) 180.0
F i g u r e 106 - B e n d i n g t e s t r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm b o a r d s , .84m span ( e d g e w i s e )
FLATWISE BENDING
SHORT SPAN
DATA ST.DV. WEIBULL ST.DV
5JILE 33.31 5.49 34.96 3.00
cr 50JILE 57.92 2.07 58.62 1 .95
o MEAN 58.44 14.19 58.45 14.03
95/ILE 80.13 3.56
CE
ti- 81 .32 2.92
C OF DISP: 0.242 0.240
er
_J
ZD
3-PAR WEIBULL (DASHED)

SHAPE = 3.7061
SCALE = 51.751
LOCA. = 11 .742
1 1 I
20.0 140.0 —\ 1B0.O 200.0
80.0 100.0 120.0
BENDING STRENGTH (MPA) 160.0
F i g u r e 107 - B e n d i n g t e s t r e s u l t s ,
38x89mm b o a r d s , .84m span ( f l a t w i s e )
297
TENSION TEST
38 X 140 S-P-F
DRTR (SOLID LINE): N=102

DRTR ST.DV. WEIBULL ST.DV
5/ILE: 13.23 1 .79 12.61 1.07
50/ILE: 26.64 4.15 26.20 1 .37
MERN: 27.60 10.82 27.59 10.74
95/ILE: 46.20 4.56 47.37 2.99
OF DISP: 0.392 0.389

SHAPE = 1.8971
SCALE = 22.083
LOCA. = 7.996
i —
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 90.0 100.0
80.0
TENSION STRESS (MPA)
Figure 108 - A x i a l t e n s i o n r e s u l t s
COMPRESSION TEST
38 X 140 S-P-F

DATA ST.DV. WEIBULL ST.DV
5*1LE: 18.89 1 .95 20.00 1 .07
50/1LE: 27.27 0.44 27.21 0.47
MEAN: 26.83 3.87 26.83 3.78
95/ILE: 32.78 0.82 32.36 0.56
C OF DISP: 0. 144 0 . 140
12 INTERVAL CHI-SQURRE FIT: 7.53

SHAPE = 8.4536
SCALE = 28.423
LOCA. - 0.000
-I -
o.o 20.0 30.0 40.o

50.0 60.0 70.0
80. 90.0 100.0
COMPRESSION STRESS (MPA)
Figure 109 - A x i a l compression r e s u l t s ,

298
F i g u r e 110 - B e n d i n g t e s t results,
38x140mm b o a r d s , 3.0m long

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STRENGTH MODEL AND DESIGN METHODS FOR

BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD INTERACTION IN TIMBER MEMBERS

ANDREW HAMILTON BUCHANAN

B.E.(Hons), U n i v e r s i t y of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1970

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

© Andrew Hamilton Buchanan, 1984

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the U n i v e r s i t y

o f B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make

f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d by the head o f my

Department Of Civil Engineering

T h i s t h e s i s d e s c r i b e s a model f o r p r e d i c t i n g the strength

of timber members i n bending, and in combined bending and

axial loading, on the b a s i s of a x i a l t e n s i o n and compression

behaviour of s i m i l a r members. Both i n s t a b i l i t y and material

The model i s based on a s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p which

incorporates d u c t i l e non-linear behaviour i n compression, and

linear elastic behaviour a s s o c i a t e d with b r i t t l e fracture in

The model i n c l u d e s the e f f e c t s of v a r i a b i l i t y in timber

strength, both within a member and between members. Size

e f f e c t s which predict decreasing strength with increasing

member size are quantified using separate parameters f o r

member l e n g t h and member depth.

An extensive experimental program on a large number of

timber members i n s t r u c t u r a l s i z e s has been used to c a l i b r a t e

and verify the model. Test procedures and r e s u l t s are

described f o r members of d i f f e r e n t lengths t e s t e d to f a i l u r e

in bending and i n a x i a l loading. The a x i a l testing included

both tension and compression loading using several end

S e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e design methods based on the strength

model are investigated and compared with e x i s t i n g methods.

Recommendations are made f o r design methods f o r timber members

subjected to combined bending and a x i a l loading.

5.1.3 I n t e r a c t i o n Curves f o r Long Members 107

. 7.2.4 Long Column I n t e r a c t i o n Curves for Mid-Span

9.2 APPROXIMATE DESIGN FORMULAE 238

LITERATURE CITED 261

APPENDIX A - CALCULATIONS FOR SPECIAL CASES 272

APPENDIX B - CALCULATION OF -INTERCEPT DEFINING

INTERACTION DIAGRAM 288

APPENDIX C - TEST RESULTS 290

APPENDIX D - NOTATION 299

I. Summary of experimental stages 77

II. Summary of l e n g t h s and s i z e s tested

III. M a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y r a t i o s f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e groups 179

IV. Length e f f e c t parameter k, 244

1. A c t u a l and assumed s t r e s s e s i n a c l e a r wood beam at

3. S t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n assumed by B e c h t e l and N o r r i s ....12

11. Three-dimensional sketch of load v s . slenderness v s .

12. Typical log-log p l o t of f a i l u r e s t r e s s v s . volume ....56

16. Quarter-sawn board 73

17. P.d.f. of q u a n t i l e estimators 86

18. Loading arrangement f o r bending t e s t 88

19. Loading arrangement f o r a x i a l tests

20. Eccentric axial loading

21. Combined bending and t e n s i o n t e s t

22. Test r e s u l t s f o r s h o r t e s t length i n e c c e n t r i c

24. Test r e s u l t s f o r 38x89mm boards i n e c c e n t r i c

25. I n t e r a c t i o n diagram f o r mean t e s t r e s u l t s of a l l

26. A x i a l l o a d - s l e n d e r n e s s curves. Mean t e s t r e s u l t s f o r

27. Comparison of t e n s i o n , compression and bending test