Flow Dynamics and Bed Resistance of

Wave Propagation over Bed Ripples

Athanassios A. Dimas1 and Gerasimos A. Kolokythas2

Abstract: The viscous, two-dimensional, free-surface flow induced by the propagation of nonlinear water waves over a rigid rippled bed was
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

simulated numerically. The simulations were based on the numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations subject to fully nonlinear free-
surface boundary conditions and appropriate bottom, inflow, and outflow boundary conditions. The equations were properly transformed so
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

that the computational domain became time-independent. A hybrid scheme was used for the spatial discretization with finite differences in the
streamwise direction and a pseudospectral approximation with Chebyshev polynomials in the vertical direction. A fractional time-step
scheme was used for the temporal discretization. Over the rippled bed, the wave boundary layer thickness increased significantly, while
vortex shedding at the ripple crest generated alternating circulation regions over the ripple trough. The velocity of the Eulerian drift profile
was opposite to the direction of wave propagation far above the ripples, whereas close to the bed, its magnitude was influenced by the ripples
up to a height of about six times the ripple height above the ripple crest. The amplitude of the wall shear stress on the ripples increased with
increasing ripple steepness, whereas the amplitude of the corresponding friction drag force on a ripple was insensitive to this increase. The
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

amplitude of the form drag force attributable to the dynamic pressure increased with increasing ripple steepness; therefore, the percentage of
friction in the total drag force decreased with increasing ripple steepness. The period-averaged drag forces on a ripple were very
weak, while the influence of form drag increased with increasing ripple steepness. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)WW.1943-5460.0000065.
© 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Bed ripples; Wave propagation; Coastal processes; Drift; Skin friction; Flow simulation.
Author keywords: Bed ripples; Wave propagation; Coastal processes; Eulerian drift; Skin friction; Friction drag; Form drag; Navier-Stokes
equations; Flow simulation.

Introduction therefore, it is outside the scope of the present study and no further
discussion of it is presented.
Sediment transport in the coastal zone, attributable to the action of The oscillatory external flow is a model for the flow induced
waves, results in the formation of sand ripples on the beach bed. close to the bed by the propagation of water waves. The streamwise
Usually these ripples have a sharp crest and a symmetric shape with velocity, uo , of the oscillatory external flow is
respect to the crest because of the oscillatory nature of flow induced
uo ¼ U o sinðωtÞ ð1Þ
by the propagation of waves. A typical vortex ripple is shown in
Fig. 1, where Lr is its length and hr is its height. The presence of a where U o = maximum velocity; ω ¼ 2π=T = radial frequency; T =
rippled bed modifies the development of the wave boundary layer oscillation period; and t = time, while the other two velocity com-
and the propagation of water waves in comparison to a flat bed, ponents are zero. The characteristic velocity scale is U o and the
because of flow separation and vortex shedding at the ripple crest. characteristic length scale is the amplitude of the orbital motion
In coastal engineering applications, the influence of these flow phe- αo ¼ U o =ω; therefore, the corresponding Reynolds and Strouhal
nomena on parameters associated with sediment transport close to numbers, respectively, are
the bed, i.e., wall stress, bed resistance, and time-averaged velocity,
is of particular interest. U o αo U 2o ωαo
R¼ ¼ S¼ ¼1 ð2Þ
Studies of rippled beds can be divided into three broad catego- ν ων Uo
ries based on the type of the external flow over the bed: (1) wave
propagation, (2) oscillatory flow, and (3) unidirectional flow. In where ν = water kinematic viscosity. For the oscillatory flow,
another characteristic
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi length choice is the Stokes length
terms of coastal hydraulics and sediment transport, unidirectional
δ S ¼ 2ν=ω, which scales with the boundary layer thickness over
flow is associated with the formation of dunes rather than ripples;
flat beds and results in the following Reynolds and Strouhal
1 numbers
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Patras, 26500
Patras, Greece. E-mail: adimas@upatras.gr U o δ S 2αo pffiffiffiffiffiffi ωδ S δ S 2
2
Ph.D. Student, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Patras, 26500 Rδ ¼ ¼ ¼ 2R ; Sδ ¼ ¼ ¼ ð3Þ
Patras, Greece. E-mail: gkolokithas@upatras.gr
ν δS Uo αo Rδ
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 22, 2009; approved on
June 9, 2010; published online on June 12, 2010. Discussion period open respectively.
until August 1, 2011; separate discussions must be submitted for The maximum velocity, U o , and orbital amplitude, αo , of the
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Waterway, Port, external flow can be associated with the corresponding bed velocity
Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 137, No. 2, March 1, 2011. induced by inviscid wave propagation over a flat bed, which for
©ASCE, ISSN 0733-950X/2011/2-64–74/$25.00. first-order Stokes waves gives

64 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011

Fig. 1. Typical ripple of parabolic shape and symmetric with respect to
the crest
H ω H 1
Uo ¼ ; αo ¼ ð4Þ
2 sinhðkdÞ 2 sinhðkdÞ
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.
where H = wave height; k ¼ 2π=λ = wave number; λ = wave-
length; and d = still water depth. For the wave propagation, anpap-
ffiffiffiffiffi
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.
propriate choice for the characteristic velocity and length is gd
and d, respectively, that results in the following Reynolds, Strouhal,
and Froude numbers
pffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffi
d gd d gation over rippled beds for R ¼ 5;855, kd ¼ 0:84, Lr =αo ¼
Rd ¼ ; Sd ¼ ω ; Fd ¼ 1 ð5Þ
ν g
where g = the gravity acceleration.
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.
Ripple dimensions are associated with the parameters of the
oscillatory flow that generated them, and it has been reported that
Lr hr
⪅2:2; ⪅0:2 ð6Þ
αo Lr
according to field and experimental data (Nielsen 1981; Wiberg and
Harris 1994; O’Donoghue et al. 2006). The Nikuradse equivalent
roughness, k S , of a rippled bed is often obtained by the formula of
Swart (1976) k S ¼ 25h2r =Lr .
For oscillatory external flow, Longuet-Higgins (1981) studied
the inviscid dynamics of discrete vortex shedding at the ripples’
crests and its effect on bed resistance, while Blondeaux and Vittori
(1991) studied the viscous dynamics (Rδ ≤ 100) of vortex shedding
and its effect on wall stress. Fredsøe et al. (1999) studied the com-
bined waves-current flow over rippled beds experimentally, and the
corresponding combined oscillatory-unidirectional flow numeri-
cally. The numerical computations were based on the Reynolds-
averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations and the k
ω closure
model. For the waves-alone case where R ≈ 20;000, kd ¼ 0:57,
Lr =αo ¼ 2:42, and hr =Lr ¼ 0:159, Fredsøe et al. (1999) presented
period-averaged, streamwise velocity profiles over the ripples and,
after horizontal averaging over a ripple length, the corresponding
Eulerian drift profile, which exhibits negative velocity, i.e., oppo-
site to the direction of wave propagation, at all levels between wave
trough and ripple crest except at a level about 0:5hr above the crest
where the velocity is positive, i.e., in the direction of wave propa-
gation. This experimental result is in agreement with the prediction
of the analytical model developed in Davies and Villaret (1999) for
the drift profile induced by wave propagation over a rippled bed.
Fredsøe et al. (1999) also demonstrated that the lee-wake vortices,
after they have washed over the ripple crest, are convected opposite
to the wave propagation direction.
Ridler and Sleath (2000) studied experimentally 55 cases of
wave propagation over rippled beds for 1;000 < R < 10;000
and two ripple shapes: hr =Lr ¼ 0:167 (triangular ridge) and
hr =Lr ¼ 0:28 (sinusoidal). They concluded that the sign of the in-
duced drift velocity at the edge of the boundary layer above the
ripple crest, U
∞ , depends strongly on kd and αo =Lr . Specifically,

∞ is negative if values of αo =Lr are
for given kd, the drift velocity U
in a certain finite range, and positive otherwise. Based on their
measurements, the drift velocity U
∞ is negative in the range 0:45 <
JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011 / 65
αo =Lr < 0:75 for 0:62 ≤ kd ≤ 0:76, and in the range 0:22 <
αo =Lr < 0:37 for 1:22 ≤ kd ≤ 1:44. Marin (2004) studied experi-
mentally 14 cases of wave propagation over rippled beds for
430 ≤ R ≤ 8;441, kd ¼ 1:14, 0:43 ≤ Lr =αo ≤ 3:6, and hr =Lr ¼
0:167 and obtained the corresponding drift profiles. For all cases

∞ is positive, a result which is in agree-
but one, the drift velocity U
ment with the analytical prediction in Davies and Villaret (1999)
after adjusting the values of two model parameters. The conclusion
in Marin (2004) that the sign of U
∞ depends on R and αo =k S is
contradicted by data in Ridler and Sleath (2000). For example,
in Fig. 6 of Ridler and Sleath (2000), all cases for Bed 1 with
αo =Lr ≈ 0:6 have either U
∞ < 0 or U
∞ > 0, depending on kd,

∞ < 0,
while, according to Marin (2004), they should all have U
since they correspond to αo =k S ≈ 0:42 and 5;400 < R < 6;700.
On the other hand, the fact that all cases but two in Marin
(2004) have U
∞ > 0 for αo =Lr > 0:47 is in agreement with the
behavior of curve 5 in Fig. 6 of Ridler and Sleath (2000).
Huang and Dong (2002) studied numerically the wave propa-
1:57 and hr =Lr ¼ 0:2, utilizing the finite-analytic (FA) method,
and concluded that for solitary waves the periodically averaged
flow exhibits a current in the direction opposite to wave propaga-
tion. Malarkey and Davies (2004) studied numerically the oscilla-
tory flow over ripples for 0:5 ≤ Lr =αo ≤ 2 and 0:13 ≤ hr =Lr ≤ 0:2,
utilizing a discrete vortex method to explore the behavior of the
eddy viscosity and concluded that the thickness of the resulting
oscillating boundary layer is considerably larger than the one over
a flat bed. Scandura et al. (2000) studied numerically the viscous,
three-dimensional instability and vorticity dynamics of oscillatory
flow over two-dimensional ripples with smooth crests. In particular,
for R ¼ 1;005, Lr =αo ¼ 1:33, and hr =Lr ¼ 0:14, Scandura et al.
(2000) showed that vortex shedding at the ripples’ crests becomes
three-dimensional and forms vorticity streaks that eject vorticity
upward. Barr et al. (2004) studied numerically the turbulent,
three-dimensional oscillatory flow over two-dimensional ripples
with smooth crests and profiles of increasing steepness for
R ¼ 15;600, Lr =αo ¼ 1:28, and hr =Lr ¼ 0:18 and concluded that
the wave boundary layer thickness over rippled bed increases,
while the average wall shear stress decreases with increasing ripple
profile steepness.
Typical sand ripples have a parabolic shape (Fig. 1), while their
dimensions—length Lr and height hr —depend on wave period T,
wave height H, and water depth d, according to laboratory and
field data (Fredsøe and Deigaard 1992). In the present study, the
propagation of waves with wavelength to water depth
ratio λ=d ¼ 6 (kd ¼ 1:05) and wave height to wavelength ratio
H=λ ¼ 0:05 was considered, consistent with Lr =d ¼ 0:25 and
0:08 ≤ hr =Lr ≤ 0:2. A sketch of the flow domain of length L is
shown in Fig. 2. Pure progressive incoming waves were generated
at the inflow plane where water depth was d. A flat bed region of
length LI and constant depth d after the inflow plane was followed
by the rippled region of length LR , and then a flat bed region of
length LE and constant depth d before the outflow plane. An ab-
sorption zone of length LA < LE before the outflow ensured that
waves were exiting and not reflected by the outflow boundary.
The objective was to simulate the spatial development of the cor-
responding free-surface flow, considering a rigid rippled bed, and
study the effect of ripple height on the drift velocity, the shear stress
and pressure distributions along the bed, as well as the correspond-
ing friction and form drag forces. In the following sections, the for-
mulation, the numerical method, and results are presented for the
propagation of the above mentioned wave considering three values
of ripple height, hr =d ¼ 0:02; hr =d ¼ 0:035; and hr =d ¼ 0:05.
 = the components of the unit vectors, normal and tangent to the free
surface, respectively.
In addition, the no-slip and nonpenetration boundary conditions
at the bottom are
∂d 0 ∂d 0
u1
u2 ¼ 0; u2 þ u1 ¼0 ð14Þ
∂x1 ∂x1

respectively, where d 0 = local, dimensionless bottom depth

measured from the still free-surface level.
Given that the free surface is time-dependent, the Cartesian
coordinates are transformed, in order for the computational domain
Fig. 2. Sketch of computational flow domain for wave propagation to become time-independent, according to the expressions
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

over rippled bed

2x2 þ d 0
η
s1 ¼ x 1 ; s2 ¼ ð15Þ
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

d0 þ η
Formulation
where
1 ≤ s2 ≤ 1. In the transformed domain, s2 ¼ 1 corresponds
Incompressible, viscous, two-dimensional free-surface flow is
to the free surface and s2 ¼
1 to the bottom. The velocity com-
governed by the continuity
ponents are also transformed in the following way:
∂ui
¼0 ð7Þ u1 ¼ v1 u2 ¼ v2 þ rv1 ¼ v2 þ vη ð16Þ
∂xi
where
and the Navier-Stokes equations sd
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

1 þ s2 ∂η 1
s2 ∂h
∂ui ∂u ∂p 1 ∂ 2 ui r¼ þ ð17Þ
þ uj i ¼
þ ð8Þ 2 ∂s1 2 ∂s1
∂t ∂xj ∂xi Rd ∂xj ∂xj
and ∂h=∂s1 ¼
∂d 0 =∂s1 is the bottom slope.
where i; j ¼ 1; 2; t = time; x1 = horizontal coordinate (Fig. 2); x2 = Taking into account Eqs. (15) and (16), the transformed continu-
vertical coordinate, positive in the direction opposite to gravity ity equation and the Navier-Stokes equations in rotational form,
(x2 ¼ 0 corresponds to the undisturbed free-surface level); u1 respectively, are
and u2 are corresponding velocity components; and p = dynamic   
pressure. The appropriate Reynolds number is Rd , since lengths are ∂v1 2 ∂v2 v1 ∂η ∂h
þ 0 þ
¼0 ð18Þ
rendered dimensionlesspffiffiffiffiffiwith respect to the inflow depth d, veloc- ∂s1 d þ η ∂s2 2 ∂s1 ∂s1
ities, with respect to gd , and pressure, with respect to ρgd where ρ
is the water density.
For viscous flow, the kinematic and dynamic (normal and tan- ∂v1 ∂η 1 þ s2 ∂v1 2 ∂p ∂Π
gential stress) boundary conditions at the free surface (z ¼ η) are ¼ v2 ζ þ þr 0

∂t ∂t d 0 þ η ∂s2 d þ η ∂s2 ∂s1
  2 2 
dη ∂η ∂η 1 ∂ 2 v1 2 ∂ v1
u2 ¼ ¼ þ u1 ð9Þ þ þ ðr 2 þ 1Þ þ V ð19Þ
dt ∂t ∂x1 Rd ∂s21 d0 þ η ∂s22
1

η 2 ∂v2 ∂η 1 þ s2 ∂ðv2 þ vη Þ
p

ni Sij nj ¼ pair ¼ 0 ¼
v1 ζ þ
aη
F 2d Rd ∂t ∂t d 0 þ η ∂s2

η 2 1 þ ð∂η=∂x1 Þ2 ∂u2 2 ∂Π 1 ∂ 2 ðv2 þ vη Þ
⇒p¼ þ ð10Þ
0 þ
F 2d Rd 1
ð∂η=∂x1 Þ2 ∂x2 d þ η ∂s2 Rd ∂s21
 2 2 
2 ∂ ðv2 þ vη Þ
þ ðr 2 þ 1Þ 0 þ V 2 ð20Þ
2 ∂u ∂u ∂η=∂x1 ∂u1 d þη ∂s22
n S t ¼ τ air ¼ 0 ⇒ 1 þ 2
4 ¼0
Rd i ij j ∂x2 ∂x1 1
ð∂η=∂x1 Þ2 ∂x1 where
ð11Þ      
2 ∂ 2 ui ∂r ∂η ∂h 2 ∂ui
Vi ¼
2r þ
r

respectively, where η = free-surface elevation; pair and τ air = pres- d0 þ η ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s1 d 0 þ η ∂s2
sure and shear stress on the air side, which can be set equal to zero ð21Þ
in the absence of wind
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂vη ∂vη 2 ∂vη
Sij ¼ þ ð12Þ aη ¼ þ v1 þ v2 0 ð22Þ
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂t ∂s1 d þ η ∂s2
is the strain-rate tensor; and
ð
∂η=∂x1 ; 1Þ ð1; ∂η=∂x1 Þ 1
ðn1 ; n2 Þ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi; ðt1 ; t 2 Þ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi Π ¼ p þ ðv21 þ v22 Þ ð23Þ
1 þ ð∂η=∂x1 Þ2 1 þ ð∂η=∂x1 Þ2 2
ð13Þ is the transformed dynamic pressure head and

66 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011
 ∂v2 2 ∂v1 by means of central finite differences, while along s2 by a Cheby-
ζ¼
ð24Þ
∂s1 d 0 þ η ∂s2 shev spectral approximation method.
The fractional time-step scheme is facilitated by casting
is the transformed vorticity. Eqs. (19) and (20) in the form
Finally, the free-surface boundary conditions, obtained by the   2 2 
transformation of Eqs. (9)–(11), are ∂v1 ∂Π 1 ∂ 2 v1 2 ∂ v1
¼ A1
þ þ ðr 2
þ 1Þ ;
∂t ∂s1 Rd ∂s21 d0 þ η ∂s22
∂η   2 2 
v2 ¼ ð25Þ ∂v2 2 ∂Π 1 ∂ 2 v2 ∂ v2
∂t ¼ A2
0 þ þ ðr 2
þ 1Þ
2
∂t d þ η ∂s2 Rd ∂s21 d0 þ η ∂s22
ð31Þ
η 2 1 þ ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 2 ∂ðv2 þ vη Þ
p¼ þ ð26Þ
F 2d Rd 1
ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 d 0 þ η ∂s2 At the first stage of each new time-step n þ 1, the Ai terms of
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

Eq. (31) are treated explicitly by an Adams–Bashforth scheme

  2 2   2   n  n
1
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

2 ∂η ∂v1 ∂η ∂v2 ^vi
vni 3 1

1 þ þ 1
¼ Ai
Ai ð32Þ
d0 þ η ∂s1 ∂s2 ∂s1 ∂s1 Δt 2 2
  2    2 
∂η ∂η ∂v1 ∂ η2
∂η

2 × 1þ þ 1
v1 ¼ 0 to obtain the first intermediate velocity components ^vi . No boun-
∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s21 ∂s1 dary conditions are applied at the first stage.
ð27Þ At the second stage of the time-step, the transformed pressure
head terms of Eq. (31) are treated implicitly
respectively, while the no-slip and nonpenetration bottom boundary
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

conditions, obtained by the transformation of Eq. (14), are ^^v1
^v1 ∂Π ^^v2
^v2 2 ∂Π
¼
; ¼
0 ð33Þ
Δt ∂s1 Δt d þ η ∂s2
v1 ¼ 0; v2 ¼ 0 ð28Þ
Adding the s1 derivative of the first Eq. (33) to the s2 derivative of
respectively.
the second Eq. (33) and satisfying the continuity Eq. (18) for the
At the inflow plane s1 ¼ 0, the boundary condition is the known
second intermediate velocity field gives
time evolution of dynamic pressure, velocity components and free-
surface elevation, which correspond to the incoming wave accord-    2 2
∂2Π 1 ∂η ∂h ∂Π 2 ∂ Π
ing to second-order Stokes wave theory. Furthermore, a uniform þ
þ
correction is computed, based on the continuously updated, ∂s21 d 0 þ η ∂s1 ∂s1 ∂s1 d0 þ η ∂s22
   
period-averaged flux, and added to the streamwise velocity at every 1 ∂^v1 2 ∂^v2 ^v1 ∂η ∂h
¼ þ þ
ð34Þ
time-step to enforce zero depth-averaged flux and pure progressive Δt ∂s1 d 0 þ η ∂s2 2 ∂s1 ∂s1
incoming waves. In the absorption zone before the outflow plane
s1 ¼ L, outgoing waves are damped, according to Grilli and which is a generalized Poisson equation for the transformed pres-
Horrillo (1997) and Dimas and Dimakopoulos (2009), by adding sure head. The dynamic free-surface condition, Eq. (26), in terms of
a damping term to the dynamic free-surface condition (26), which the transformed pressure head, takes the form
becomes
η 1 2 1 þ ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 2 ∂ðv2 þ vη Þ
η 2 1 þ ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 2 ∂ðv2 þ vη Þ Π¼ þ ðv21 þ v22 Þ þ
p¼ 2þ þ γv2 ð29Þ
2
Fd 2 Rd 1
ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 d 0 þ η ∂s2
F d Rd 1
ð∂η=∂s1 Þ2 d 0 þ η ∂s2
ð35Þ
where γ = damping parameter evaluated by the expression
at s2 ¼ 1. The nonpenetration bottom condition, Eq. (28), for the

½1
ðL
s1 Þ=LA 2 if s1 > L
LA second intermediate velocity field is satisfied by utilizing the
γ¼ ð30Þ
0 if s1 ≤ L
LA second Eq. (33) to derive the following equivalent pressure head
condition:
Hence, it acquires nonzero values only in the absorption zone. At
the outflow plane s2 ¼ 0, the dynamic pressure and velocity com- ∂Π ^v2 d 0 þ η
¼ ð36Þ
ponents are expressed in terms of the resulting free-surface eleva- ∂s2 Δt 2
tion according to linear theory because of the significant reduction
of the wave height in the absorption zone. The computation starts at s2 ¼
1. Therefore, solution of Eq. (34) and substitution in
with the free surface at rest and runs for several wave periods until a Eq. (33) results in the second intermediate velocity components ^^vi .
fully developed wave field is established in the flow domain. In the At the third stage of the time-step, the transformed viscous terms
present study, results are presented considering that t ¼ 0 corre- of Eq. (31) are treated implicitly
sponds to the establishment of the fully developed wave field,   2 2 nþ1
and typical simulations were performed up to t ¼ 15T. vnþ1
^^vi 1 ∂ 2 vi 2 ∂ vi
i
¼ þ ðr þ 1Þ 0
2 ð37Þ
Δt Rd ∂s21 d þ η ∂s22

Numerical Method to obtain the velocity components at time-step n þ 1. The corre-

sponding boundary conditions are the dynamic free-surface condi-
For the numerical solution of Eqs. (18)–(20), a fractional time-step tion, Eq. (27), and the bottom conditions, Eq. (28).
scheme is used for the temporal discretization and a hybrid scheme Finally, the free-surface elevation is computed implicitly by the
for the spatial discretization. The discretization along s1 is achieved kinematic free-surface condition, Eq. (25),

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011 / 67
 0.03
3T/4 5T/8 T/2 3T/8 T/4
corresponding discretized boundary conditions into a linear
system, which is solved by an iterative procedure based on
0.025
LU-decomposition once at simulation start and back substitutions
at every time-step.
0.02

0.015 Results
y/d

0.01
The code, including the inviscid solver for the first two stages of the
time-step and the functionality of the absorption zone, was vali-
dated by simulating the propagation of second-order Stokes waves
0.005
over a constant-slope bed; these validation results are presented in
Dimas and Dimakopoulos (2009) and not repeated here. The accu-
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

numerical
0 analytical racy of the viscous solver, including the third stage of the time-step,
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 was validated by simulation of viscous oscillatory flows over flat
u1 and rippled beds.
For the flat bed, the case of R ¼ 3;258 was considered, which
Fig. 3. Streamwise velocity profiles during a period, T, of oscillatory
corresponds to Rδ ¼ 81 and δ S =αo ¼ 0:0248. The computational
flow over flat bed for R ¼ 3;258; lines correspond to the analytical
domain length along x2 is set equal to d ¼ δ S =0:003 above the flat
solution and symbols to the present numerical simulation at the
bed, while its length along x1 is set equal to 4d. In this case, all flow
Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto collocation points
variables are rendered dimensionless by U o and d, and the boun-
dary conditions are no-slip condition at the bed (x2 ¼
1); pre-
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

scribed far-field oscillatory velocity as in Eq. (1) at the rigid lid,

ηnþ1
ηn x2 ¼ 0; and periodicity in the streamwise direction. The numerical
¼ ½v2 nþ1 ð38Þ parameters are Δs1 ¼ 0:0125, N z ¼ 128 and Δt ¼ 0:002 (in time
Δt
units of d=U o ). Profiles of the streamwise velocity during a period
at s2 ¼ 1. of oscillation are shown in Fig. 3 and are in excellent agreement to
For the spatial discretization along s2 , all flow variables (veloc- the well-known analytical solution
ity, pressure, vorticity, etc.) are represented in the form

X
Nz
f ðs1 ; s2 ; tÞ ¼ f n ðs1 ; tÞT n ðs2 Þ ð39Þ 0.2
n¼0
0
where f = flow variable in the physical domain; f n = corresponding -0.2
variable in the spectral domain; N z = number of Chebyshev modes;
x2

and T n ðs2 Þ = Chebyshev polynomial of order n, defined in the -0.4

interval ½
1; þ1. Along s1 , central finite differences are used -0.6
on a uniform grid with size Δs1 , while along s2 , the solution is
obtained on the Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto collocation nodes, -0.8
s2n ¼ cos½πð1
n=N z Þ, to facilitate the use of Fast-Fourier-Trans- -1
form algorithms for the transformation of flow variables between 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
physical and spectral domains (Gotlieb and Orszag 1977). The use x1
of the Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto points offers the additional
Fig. 5. Snapshot of dynamic pressure contours of wave propagation
advantage of producing a grid appropriate for coastal flows by clus-
over ripples located in the interval 6 ≤ x1 ≤ 9; solid contours corre-
tering nodes close to the free surface and the bed.
spond to positive values and dashed contours to negative values at equal
Using the tau method (Gotlieb and Orszag 1977), each of
intervals of 0.04 in the range
0:12 ≤ p ≤ 0:2
the discretized equations (34) and (37) is combined with its

-6 -6

-10 -10

-14
x2

x2

-14

-18 -18

(a) (b)
-22 -22
85 90 95 100 105 110 115 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
x1 x1

Fig. 4. Vorticity contours of oscillatory flow over rippled bed (hr =Lr ¼ 0:15) for R ¼ 1;250 at: (a) t=T ¼ 0:5; and (b) t=T ¼ 1; solid contours
correspond to positive (counterclockwise) vorticity and dashed contours to negative (clockwise) vorticity at equal intervals of 0.15

68 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011
 0.2
0.1

x2
0
-0.1

-0.88
-0.9
-0.92

x2
-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(a)
-1 0.1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

x1
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

0.2
0.1
x2

0
-0.1

-0.88
-0.9
-0.92
x2
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(b)
-1 0.1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

0.2
0.1
x2

0
-0.1

-0.88
-0.9
-0.92
x2

-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(c)
-1 0.1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

0.2
0.1
x2

0
-0.1

-0.88
-0.9
-0.92
x2

-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(d)
-1 0.1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

Fig. 6. Typical snapshots of free-surface elevation above and velocity vectors in the vicinity of two ripples (hr =Lr ¼ 0:2) during a period of wave
propagation when above the ripple trough is the wave: (a) crest; (b) back face; (c) trough; and (d) front face

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011 / 69
  
y
u1 ¼ sinðωtÞ
e
ðy=δS Þ sin ωt
ð40Þ
δS
where y=d ¼ x2 þ 1. The particular grid selection (N z ¼ 128)
achieves an accurate resolution of the boundary layer flow because
the first Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto collocation point off the wall is
at y ¼ 0:05δ S , there are four points in the interval 0 < y < δ S , and
ten points in the boundary layer thickness 0 < y < 5δ S (Fig. 3).
For the rippled bed, a case of R ¼ 1;250 was considered, which
is identical to one in Blondeaux and Vittori (1991) where ripples of
smooth crest were studied, and corresponds to Rδ ¼ 50, δ S =αo ¼
0:04, Lr =αo ¼ 1:333, and hr =Lr ¼ 0:15. The computational
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.
domain length along x1 is set equal to 6Lr , while its length along
x2 is set equal to ð2=3ÞLr . The bed is flat for 0 ≤ x1 =Lr ≤ 1 and
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.
5 ≤ x1 =Lr ≤ 6, while four ripples are in 1 ≤ x1 =Lr ≤ 5 with crests
at x1 =Lr ¼ 1:5, 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5. In this case, all flow variables are
rendered dimensionless by U o and δ S , and the boundary conditions
are no-slip condition at the bed; prescribed far-field oscillatory
velocity as in Eq. (1) at the rigid lid, x2 ¼ 0; and periodicity
in the streamwise direction. The numerical parameters are
Δs1 ¼ 0:833, N z ¼ 32 and Δt ¼ 0:05 (in time units of δ S =U o ).
The particular grid resolution in x2 is equivalent to the flat bed case
since the first Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto collocation point off the
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.
wall is at y ¼ 0:0535δ S . The flow starts from rest, and the instanta-
neous vorticity field in the region between the second and third
ripple crest is presented in Fig. 4 at t ¼ 0:5T and t ¼ T. These
results are in excellent agreement with the data shown in Figs. 6d
and 6h in Blondeaux and Vittori (1991) where the computational
domain was equal to one ripple length and 128 grid nodes were
used in each direction.
Next, the propagation of waves over a rippled bed was simulated
where all variables are rendered dimensionless by g and d, as in
Eqs. (7) and (8). The cases of waves with dimensionless wave-
length λ ¼ 6, wave period T ¼ 6:95, and wave height H ¼ 0:3,
which correspond to αo ¼ 0:12 and U o ¼ 0:109 for the equivalent
oscillatory flow, over ripples with dimensionless length Lr ¼ 0:25,
and heights hr ¼ 0:02, 0.035, and 0.05 were simulated. The
preceding values correspond to kd ¼ 1:05, wave steepness
H=λ ¼ 0:05, ripple steepness hr =Lr ¼ 0:08, 0.14, and 0.2, and
Lr =αo ¼ 2:083 for the equivalent oscillatory flow. The case of
Rd ¼ 250;000 was considered, which corresponds to R ¼ 3;258,
Rδ ¼ 81, and δ S =d ¼ 0:003 for the equivalent oscillatory flow.
The numerical parameters are LI ¼ 6; LR ¼ 3; LE ¼ 30;
LA ¼ 24; Δs1 ¼ 0:0125; N z ¼ 128; and Δt ¼ 0:002. Note that
the equivalent oscillatory flow of this wave propagation case, as
well as the quality of the grid resolution, is identical to the oscil-
latory flow over a flat bed simulated for validation. It was estab-
lished by trial and error that setting the absorption zone length
equal to four wavelengths is effective in minimizing wave reflec-
tion by the outflow boundary. Typical simulations were performed
up to t ¼ 15T, while the computational time per wave period of
simulation, for about 400,000 collocation points, was about 12
CPU hr on a Xeon 64-bit processor (Linux). A snapshot of instan-
taneous dynamic pressure contours is shown in Fig. 5, where the
effectiveness of the absorption zone is also demonstrated.
In the flow region between three successive ripple crests, four
snapshots of the instantaneous velocity field during a wave period
are presented in Fig. 6 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:2. The flow separates along
the wave propagation direction at the ripple crest and forms a re-
circulation region on the downslope side of the ripple when a wave
crest propagates above the ripple crest, while it separates opposite
to the wave propagation direction and forms a recirculation region
on the upslope side of the ripple when a wave trough propagates
above the ripple crest. These snapshots compare well to corre-
70 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011
5
4 * x +
3
* +
x
y/hr
2 * x +
x
* +
* x +
1
* x
+
ωt=180 ***
o
ωt=80
o
x
x
x
ωt=270
o +
+
+
ωt=0
o
0 *
* x
x +
+
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
u1/Uo
Fig. 7. Streamwise velocity profiles at a ripple crest section during a
period of wave propagation; lines correspond to the present numerical
simulation (hr =Lr ¼ 0:14), symbols correspond to the experimental
measurements of Fig. 16(a) (hr =Lr ¼ 0:159) in Fredsøe et al.
(1999); and y ¼ 0 is at the ripple crest
sponding results shown in Fig. 8 in Huang and Dong (2002), where
wave (Lr =αo ¼ 1:57) and ripple (hr =Lr ¼ 0:2) conditions are
similar to the present ones, but a coarser grid resolution was used.
Profiles of the normalized streamwise velocity component at a rip-
ple crest section during a wave period are presented in Fig. 7 for
hr =Lr ¼ 0:14 and compared with the corresponding experimental
measurements of Fig. 16(a) in Fredsøe et al. (1999) for similar
wave (Lr =αo ¼ 2:42) and ripple (hr =Lr ¼ 0:159) conditions to
ours. Note that U o was computed according to (4) in our case, while
it was obtained experimentally in Fredsøe et al. (1999). The results
deviate substantially only very close to the ripple crest because
our R is about one order of magnitude smaller than in Fredsøe
et al. (1999).
In the same flow region between three successive ripple crests,
four snapshots of the instantaneous vorticity field during a wave
period are presented in Fig. 8 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:2. During the forward
separation [Fig. 8(a)] and the formation of a recirculation region
with strong negative vorticity on the downslope side of the ripple,
the remnant of the recirculation region with positive vorticity on the
upslope side of the ripple formed by the previous opposite separa-
tion is uplifted above the ripple crest and diffused. Similarly, during
the opposite separation [Fig. 8(c)] and the formation of the recir-
culation region with strong positive vorticity on the upslope side of
the ripple, the remnant of the recirculation region with negative vor-
ticity on the downslope side of the ripple from the previous forward
separation is uplifted above the ripple crest and diffused. In general,
the vorticity behavior is similar to that of oscillatory flow over a
rippled bed (Fig. 4). Small vorticity scales are not resolved accu-
rately very close to the ripple crests because the discontinuity of the
bed gradient at the sharp ripple crests is not fully resolved by a grid
of finite size.
The velocity field is period-averaged during the last three wave
periods of each simulation, and the corresponding streamwise
velocity (um ) profiles along a ripple (the seventh out of twelve)
are presented in Fig. 9 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:08 and 0.2. During averaging
above the wave trough, velocity is considered to be zero when no
water is present. The positive discharge between wave crest and
wave trough is balanced by flux in the opposite direction at depths
below the wave trough. Below the wave trough but far above the
ripples, the Eulerian drift velocity is negative as a result of the in-
fluence of both the return current, which is induced by the pure
 -0.88
-0.9
B
-0.92

x2
-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(a)
-1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

-0.88
-0.9
B
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

-0.92
x2

-0.94
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

A
-0.96
-0.98
(b)
-1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

-0.88
A
-0.9
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

-0.92
x2

-0.94
-0.96
-0.98
(c)
-1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

-0.88
A
-0.9
-0.92
x2

-0.94
-0.96 B
-0.98
(d)
-1
6.75 6.8 6.85 6.9 6.95 7 7.05 7.1 7.15 7.2 7.25
x1

Fig. 8. Typical snapshots (same as in Fig. 6) of vorticity contours in the vicinity of two ripples during a period of wave propagation when the wave is
above the ripple trough: (a) crest; (b) back face; (c) trough; and (d) front face; solid contours correspond to positive (counterclockwise) vorticity and
dashed contours to negative (clockwise) vorticity at equal intervals of 1; vortex A is generated by forward separation at the ripple crest and vortex B by
backward separation

wave propagation to maintain zero depth-averaged flux in the flow
domain, and the wave boundary layer drift owing to the rippled
bed. This behavior is also verified by the experiments in Fredsøe
et al. (1999). Close to but above the ripple crest, which is at x2 ¼

0:98 and
0:95 in these cases, respectively, the Eulerian drift
velocity weakens substantially since it is negated by the positive
jet effect induced by the above mentioned vortex shedding, pre-
dicted theoretically by Davies and Villaret (1999) and measured
experimentally by Fredsøe et al. (1999). The effect of the less steep
(hr =Lr ¼ 0:08) ripples on the Eulerian drift profile reaches up to
about x2 ¼
0:85, while the corresponding effect of the steeper
(hr =Lr ¼ 0:2) ones reach up to about x2 ¼
0:65. Therefore,
the effect of bed ripples on the Eulerian drift profile reaches up
to a height of about six times the ripple height above the ripple
crest. Below the ripple crest, the period-averaged streamwise veloc-
ity is dominated by the effect of the flow separation events and the
formation of the corresponding recirculation regions, and higher
velocities are associated with the steeper ripples.
Next, the period-averaged velocity field is averaged horizontally
from trough to trough along each ripple, and the corresponding
streamwise velocity (U) profiles over several ripples are presented
in Fig. 10 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:08 and 0.2. The horizontal averaging is
accurately facilitated owing to the use of the spectral approximation
along x2 . The Eulerian drift profiles are not fully developed far
above the ripples because of the finite length of the rippled bed,
while closer to the bed, the effect of ripples on the velocity profile
is fully developed and reaches up to a height of about 6hr above the
ripple crest as in the period-averaged profiles. Close to the ripple
crest level, the velocity profile exhibits a local maximum at about
0:5hr above the ripple crest, a behavior which is, again, in agree-
ment with the jet effect of the analytical model in Davies and
Villaret (1999) and the experimental measurements in Fredsøe
et al. (1999). The Eulerian drift velocity at the edge of the boundary
layer above the ripples is negative, U
∞ < 0, and in agreement with
the results shown in Fig. 6 in Ridler and Sleath (2000), since kd ¼
1:05 and αo =Lr ¼ 0:48 for all of our cases. On the other hand, since

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011 / 71
 -0.2
0.2
(a) ripple 6
ripple 7
-0.3 ripple 8
0 ripple 9
-0.4
-0.2
-0.5
x2

-0.4

x2
-0.6

-0.6 -0.7
hr/Lr=0.2
crest -0.8
-0.8 Lr/4
trough
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

3Lr/4 -0.9 hr/Lr=0.08

-1
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

-1
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
um/Uo U/Uo

0.2
(b)
Fig. 10. Mean streamwise velocity profiles, period-averaged and hor-
izontally averaged along one ripple, over several ripples of steepness
0 hr =Lr ¼ 0:08 and 0.2

-0.2
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

0.15 T/2
(a) T
0.1
x2

-0.4

0.05
-0.6 fw
0
crest
-0.8 Lr/4
trough -0.05
3Lr/4

-1 -0.1

-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.15
um/Uo 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
x1
Fig. 9. Period-averaged, streamwise velocity profiles at typical 0.15 T/2
sections along a ripple of steepness: (a) hr =Lr ¼ 0:08; (b) hr =Lr ¼ 0:2 (b) T
0.1

0.05
our cases of hr =Lr ¼ 0:08 and 0.2 correspond to αo =k S ¼ 3 and
0.48, respectively, the result of U
∞ < 0, in the former case, is
fw

0
in contradiction to the conclusion in Marin (2004). According to
-0.05
the analytical model of Davies and Villaret (1999), the normalized
Eulerian drift velocity at the edge of the boundary layer above the -0.1
ripples is given by the formula
-0.15
    4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

∞ 3 Uo
U 1 1 1 x1
¼ 1þ 1
ϵ 2 cosðϕ 2 Þ
ϵ1 cosðϕ1 Þ
Uo 4 C 2 sinh2 ðkdÞ 2
Fig. 11. Wall friction coefficient distribution at two time instances
ð41Þ during a period of wave propagation over ripples of steepness:
(a) hr =Lr ¼ 0:08; (b) hr =Lr ¼ 0:2
where C = wave speed and ϵ1 , ϵ2 , ϕ1 , ϕ2 = model parameters. The
ϕi parameters depend on the wave conditions and are ϕ1 ¼
80°
and ϕ2 ¼ 200° in our case, according to Eq. (54) in Davies and stress increases substantially in the rippled region, especially close
Villaret (1999). The ϵi parameters depend on the bed roughness; to the ripple crests, according to the increase of the ripple steepness.
hence the ripple height, and the suggested values are ϵ1 ¼ Therefore, under certain conditions, it is possible for the wall stress
1:3  0:2 and ϵ2 ¼ 1:3. The model gives U
∞ =U o ¼
0:1 for to exceed the critical magnitude of incipient sediment motion in the
ϵ1 ¼ 1:9, which is closer to our case for hr =Lr ¼ 0:08, and rippled region but not in the flat bed region. Typical time evolution,
U
∞ =U o ¼
0:12 for ϵ1 ¼ 2:1, which is closer to our case for during three wave periods, of the wall friction coefficient, f w , at the
hr =Lr ¼ 0:2 (Fig. 10). downslope side of the crest, the trough and the upslope side of the
The wall friction coefficient is defined as f w ¼ 2τ w =ρU 2o , where crest of a ripple (the seventh out of twelve), is presented in Fig. 12
τ w = the wall shear stress, and typical instantaneous distributions of for hr =Lr ¼ 0:08 and 0.2. The magnitude of the friction coefficient
f w during a wave period are presented in Fig. 11 for both hr =Lr ¼ is higher at the crest, and especially its upslope side, while it is
0:08 and 0.2. The spatial variation of the wall stress is modulated by higher for the higher steepness value. The local maximum of
the wavelength in the flat bed region but dominated by the ripple the friction coefficient at the upslope side of the crest is in phase
length in the rippled region (6 ≤ x1 ≤ 9). The magnitude of the wall with the free-surface maximum, while the corresponding minima

72 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011
 0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
η

η
0 0
-0.1 -0.1

0.15 0.6
(a) (a)
0.1 0.4

0.05 0.2
fw

0 0

-0.05 -0.2
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.

-0.1 crest (downslope side) -0.4

trough CF (hr/Lr=0.08)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.

-0.15 crest (upslope side) CP (hr/Lr=0.08)

-0.6
12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
t/T t/T

0.15 0.6
(b) (b)
0.1 0.4

0.05 0.2
fw

0
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.

-0.05 -0.2
-0.1 crest (downslope side) -0.4 CF (hr/Lr=0.14)
trough
-0.15 crest (upslope side) CP (hr/Lr=0.14)
-0.6
12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
t/T t/T

Fig. 12. Time evolution of free-surface elevation above and wall 0.6
(c)
friction coefficient at the trough and the upslope and downslope crest 0.4
side of a ripple of steepness: (a) hr =Lr ¼ 0:08; (b) hr =Lr ¼ 0:2
0.2

have a phase difference of about 45°. On the other hand, the local 0
minimum of the friction coefficient at the downslope side of
-0.2
the crest is in phase with the free-surface minimum, while the
corresponding maxima have a phase difference of about 45°. -0.4 CF (hr/Lr=0.2)
The friction coefficient at the trough is always lagging the free- CP (hr/Lr=0.2)
-0.6
surface elevation by about 45°, while its magnitude is independent 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
of the ripple steepness and about equal to the friction coefficient in t/T
the flat bed regions. Considering that, in the present simulations,
the wall friction coefficient is jf w j < 0:125, the wall coordinate Fig. 13. Time evolution of free-surface elevation above the crest of
of the first Chebyshev-Gauss-Lobatto collocation point offpthe wall and drag coefficients (friction, CF , and form, C P , drag) on a ripple of
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi steepness: (a) hr =Lr ¼ 0:08; (b) hr =Lr ¼ 0:14; (c) hr =Lr ¼ 0:2
is yþ ¼ yu =ν < 2:1, where y ¼ 0:1δS and u ¼ U o jf w j=2;
therefore, the flow close to the wall is well resolved. Furthermore,
our results, which were obtained assuming a smooth ripple surface,

F ) and Form (C
Table 1. Period-Averaged Friction (C
P ) Drag Coefficients
are also valid for a rough ripple surface if the corresponding
Nikuradse roughness, which is equal to the diameter D of the ripple on a Ripple
sand grains, is in the hydraulically smooth regime, i.e., Dþ ≤ 5 hr =Lr
F
C
P
C
(Schlichting 1979), D=αo ≤ 0:008 and D=d ≤ 0:001.
0.08 þ0:247 × 10
3 þ0:473 × 10
3
The integration of the wall stress and the dynamic pressure
0.14
0:107 × 10
3 þ2:273 × 10
3
along a ripple results into the horizontal friction drag force,
0.20
0:041 × 10
3 þ7:237 × 10
3
F F , and form drag force, F P , on the ripple, respectively. The
sum of these forces is the total horizontal drag force, F D , on a
ripple. The corresponding drag coefficient is defined as C D ¼ increase. Both forces are out of phase with the free-surface eleva-
2F D =ρU 2o Lr , while the component drag coefficients CF and CP tion and each other. The corresponding period-averaged, drag co-
are defined accordingly. Typical time evolution, during three wave efficients, C
P , are presented in Table 1. It is shown that the

F and C
periods, of the friction and form drag coefficients on a ripple (the period-averaged magnitude of the drag coefficients is at least two
seventh out of twelve) is presented in Fig. 13 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:08, orders smaller than their corresponding maximum value during a
0.14, and 0.2. The magnitude of the form drag force is the highest, wave period (Fig. 13); therefore, very weak mean drag forces are
and it increases with increasing ripple steepness, while the applied on the ripples during wave propagation. The mean drag
magnitude of the friction force is insensitive to the ripple steepness coefficient, C
D ¼ C
F þ C
P , increases with increasing ripple

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011 / 73
 0.2
(a)
0.1 7T/8
x2
0
3T/4
-0.1 5T/8
T/2
-0.2
-0.1 0 0.1
u1
0.18
No other uses without permission. Copyright (c) 2012. American Society of Civil Engineers. All rights reserved.
(b)
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Sardar Vallabhbhai Natl Inst. on 07/26/12. For personal use only.
0.175
x2
inviscid
0.17
0.165
0.224 0.225 0.226 0.227
J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng. 2011.137:64-74.
u1
Fig. 14. Typical instantaneous streamwise velocity profiles of wave
propagation over ripples (hr =Lr ¼ 0:2): (a) close to the free surface
during half a wave period; (b) close to the wave crest
steepness and is positive, i.e., in the direction of wave propagation.
This is an indication that, in the cases considered, the correspond-
ing ripple migration would have been in the direction of wave
propagation. In the literature (Blondeaux et al. 2000), both positive
and negative migration velocities have been reported.
Typical instantaneous streamwise velocity profiles close to the
free surface are presented in Fig. 14 for hr =Lr ¼ 0:2. It is shown
that, very close to the free surface, the solution deviates from the
inviscid behavior because of the tangential stress boundary condi-
tion at the free-surface, and a thin surface layer of thickness 3δ S is
formed.
Conclusion
The free-surface flow, developed by wave propagation over a bed
with ripples of parabolic shape and sharp crests, was simulated
numerically. The results, which were obtained assuming a smooth
ripple surface, are also valid for a rough ripple surface if the cor-
responding Nikuradse roughness, due to the ripple sand grains is in
the hydraulically smooth regime, i.e., Dþ ≤ 5 (Schlichting 1979)
and D=αo ≤ 0:008.
It was found that, for all values of ripple steepness considered,
the wave boundary layer thickness increases significantly over the
rippled bed because flow separation at the ripple crest generates
alternating circulation regions and vortices in the ripple trough that
carry momentum upward. Far above the ripples, the direction of the
period-averaged, streamwise velocity is opposite to the wave propa-
gation, while close to the bed, its magnitude is affected by the
ripples up to a height of about six times the ripple height above
the ripple crest. Our results verify that the sign of U
∞ depends
on kd and αo =Lr , according to Ridler and Sleath (2000) and not
on αo =kS . The direction of the mean streamwise velocity,
period-averaged and horizontally averaged along one ripple, is
74 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / MARCH/APRIL 2011
along the wave propagation only just above the ripple crest owing
T
to the jet effect induced by the above mentioned vortex shedding.
The amplitude of the wall shear stress on the ripples increases
with increasing ripple steepness, while the corresponding friction
force on a ripple is insensitive to this increase. The amplitude of the
form drag force due to the dynamic pressure increases with increas-
ing ripple steepness; therefore, the percentage of friction in the total
drag force decreases with increasing ripple steepness. The period-
averaged drag forces on a ripple are very weak, while the influence
of form drag increases with increasing ripple steepness.
0.2
Acknowledgments
The financial support by the Research Committee (B.131) of the
University of Patras under the “K. Karatheodori Program” is
greatly appreciated.
References
Barr, B. C., Sinn, D. N., Pierro, T., and Winters, K. B. (2004). “Numerical
simulation of turbulent, oscillatory flow over sand ripples.” J. Geophys.
0.228
Res., 109(C09009), 1–19.
Blondeaux, P., Foti, E., and Vittori, G. (2000). “Migrating sea ripples.” Eur.
J. Mech. B, Fluids, 19, 285–301.
Blondeaux, P., and Vittori, G. (1991). “Vorticity dynamics in an oscillatory
flow over a rippled bed.” J. Fluid Mech., 226, 257–289.
Davies, A. G., and Villaret, C. (1999). “Eulerian drift induced by
progressive waves above rippled and very rough beds.” J. Geophys.
Res., 104(C1), 1465–1488.
Dimas, A. A., and Dimakopoulos, A. S. (2009). “Surface roller model for
the numerical simulation of spilling wave breaking over constant slope
beach.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 135(5), 235–244.
Fredsøe, J., Anderson, K. H., and Sumer, B. M. (1999). “Wave plus current
over a ripple-covered bed.” Coastal Eng., 38(4), 177–221.
Fredsøe, J., and Deigaard, R. (1992). Mechanics of coastal sediment
transport, World Scientific, Singapore.
Gotlieb, D., and Orszag, S. A. (1977). Numerical analysis of spectral
methods: Theory and applications, Society for Industrial and Applied
Mathematics, Philadelphia.
Grilli, S. T., and Horrillo, J. (1997). “Numerical generation and absorption
of fully nonlinear periodic waves.” J. Eng. Mech., 123(10), 1060–1069.
Huang, C. J., and Dong, C. M. (2002). “Propagation of water waves over
rigid rippled beds.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 128(5),
190–201.
Longuet-Higgins, M. S. (1981). “Oscillating flow over steep sand ripples.”
J. Fluid Mech., 107, 1–35.
Malarkey, J., and Davies, A. G. (2004). “An eddy viscosity formulation
for oscillatory flow over vortex ripples.” J. Geophys. Res., 109
(C09016), 1–13.
Marin, F. (2004). “Eddy viscosity and Eulerian drift over rippled beds in
waves.” Coastal Eng., 50(3), 139–159.
Nielsen, P. (1981). “Dynamics and geometry of wave-generated ripples.”
J. Geophys. Res., 86(C7), 6467–6472.
O’Donoghue, T., Doucette, J. S., van der Werf, J. J., and Ribberink, J. S.
(2006). “The dimensions of sand ripples in full-scale oscillatory flows.”
Coastal Eng., 53(12), 997–1012.
Ridler, E. L., and Sleath, J. F. A. (2000). “Effect of bed roughness on time-
mean drift induced by waves.” J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng.,
126(1), 23–29.
Scandura, P., Blondeaux, P., and Vittori, G. (2000). “Three-dimensional
oscillatory flow over steep ripples.” J. Fluid Mech., 412, 355–378.
Schlichting, H. (1979). Boundary layer theory, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Swart, D. H. (1976). “Coastal sediment transport.” Rep. R968: Part 1, Delft
Hydraulics, Delft, The Netherlands.
Wiberg, P. L., and Harris, C. E. (1994). “Ripple geometry in wave-
dominated environments.” J. Geophys. Res., 99(C1), 775–789.