WATER WAVES ON CROWN BREAKWATERS

By Ifiigo J. Losada, 1 Robert A. Dalrymple, 2 and Miguel A. Losada 3

ABSTRACT: The linear theory for waves impinging obliquely on a vertical, porous
breakwater with an impermeable crown is examined. The wave-inducedflow within
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the breakwater is modeled by the 1972 theory of Sollitt and Cross. Using eigen-
function expansions for the velocity potentials seaward of the breakwater, beneath
the crown, and behind the structure, the reflection and transmission coefficients
are calculated to determine the sheltering provided by the breakwater. The results
agree well with other methods, including a plane wave analysis, obtained by ne-
glecting the evanescent wave modes. The distribution of the wave-inducedpressure
along the base of the crown is also calculated, showing that the linear pressure
gradient assumption usually applied for uplift forces on the breakwater crown is
inaccurate.

INTRODUCTION

Breakwaters, often consisting of r a n d o m l y placed stone, are used to pro-

tect harbors and coasts. The accurate prediction of the behavior of waves
impinging a porous structure is required, to forecast the sheltering afforded
by the structure. Most often, the b r e a k w a t e r is c a p p e d with a walkway and
a vertical splash barrier to prevent overtopping. This cap (or crown) is often
impermeable, and there have been m a n y failures due to the uplift pressures
within the porous m e d i u m (e.g. A n t a l y a , Turkey; Cudillero, Spain). The
most important factors in the design of such structures are the evaluation
of the reflection and transmission coefficients and of the global action of
the pressure exerted on the base and faces of the cap.
Theoretical solutions for the reflection and transmission coefficients and
for the pressure distribution have been derived previously by other authors
for normal wave incidence using different methods of approach (e.g. Sollitt
and Cross 1972a, 1972b; Steimer and Sollitt 1978). D a l r y m p l e et al. (1991)
obtained results for transmission and reflection coefficients for obliquely
incident waves using the assumption that the top of the porous m e d i u m was
open to the atmosphere.
In the present p a p e r , the theory of wave p r o p a g a t i o n by an infinitely
long, homogeneous, vertical, porous structure c a p p e d with an impervious
element is e x t e n d e d to the case of linear waves at oblique incidence. The
equivalent work condition established by Lorentz is applied to linearize the
damping inside the porous section of the structure through a linear friction
term, involving a friction coefficient f, which yields a potential flow p r o b l e m
in all regions: seawards, leewards, and beneath the crown (Sollitt and Cross
1972b; M a d s e n 1974). The theoretical solution has been o b t a i n e d using
eigenfunction expansions in the three regions, matching pressure and hor-

1Grad. Student, Ctr. for Appl. Coast. Res., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Del-
aware, Newark DE 19716.
2Prof. and Dir., Ctr. for Appl. Coast. Res., Dept. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of
Delaware, Newark DE.
3Prof., Dept. de Ciencias y Tecnicas del Agua y del Medio Ambiente, Univ. of
Cantabria, Santander, Spain.
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 1993. To extend the closing date one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The
manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March
15, 1991. This paper is part of the Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean
Engineering, Vol. 119, No. 4, July/August, 1993. 9 ISSN 0733-950X/93/0004-
0367/$1.00 + $.15 per page. Paper No. 1553.

367

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 izontal mass flux at the region interfaces. Using the orthogonality conditions
of the eigenfunctions over the depth, equations are developed and solved
to calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients of the waves.
It will be shown that by neglecting the nonpropagating evanescent wave
modes and thus simplifying the solution technique, we can describe the wave
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behavior sufficiently for almost all practical cases. This plane wave analysis
has been done in other fields of physics such as acoustics and electromag-
netics.
In the following sections we present the boundary value problem and the
matching conditions, then the full solution, including the evanescent modes.
The effects of the friction coefficient, angle of incidence 0, and various
geometries on the transmission and reflection coefficients and on the pres-
sure distribution are examined.

THEORETICAL FORMULATION
We consider the interaction of an obliquely incident gravity wave train
with a single homogeneous, isotropic vertical porous structure of width b
and height a, crowned by an impervious element of the same width, between
two semiinfinite fluid regions of constant depth h, as shown in Fig. 1.
Characteristics of the porous medium are its porosity e, the linear friction
factor f, and the inertial term s (Sollitt and Cross 1972b). For all compu-

(a)
zr b
Wave
z=O

.a

X
Y
(b)

FIG. 1. Definition Sketch

368

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 tations in this paper, s = 1. The incident wave train is partially reflected
and partially transmitted through the gap, while the motion inside the porous
structure decays with x.
For an inviscid and incompressible fluid and irrotational flow, the wave
field may be represented by a velocity potential in each of the fluid regions:
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q~l in the seaward region and q~3 in the leeward region.

In the porous medium beneath the impermeable core, region 2, the in-
compressible fluid motion for the discharge velocity is also described by a
potential function a~2 (Sollitt and Cross 1972b). Each of the three boundary
value problems is governed by Laplace's equation and the corresponding
boundary conditions. We suppose that a wave, traveling at an angle 0 to
the x axis, is incident on the capped breakwater, which lies along the y axis.
Thus these potentials can be separated
qb~(x, y, z, t) = Re(qbi(x, z)e--i(ky--crt)) i = 1, 2, 3 ............. (1)

where ~ = wave frequency; ~, = ko sin 0; and ko = progressive mode wave

number.
Applying Snell's law, we require that the y variation of the solution in
each region must b e the same, to satisfy the matching conditions at each
vertical interface. The potential qbi must solve the following problem.

Governing Equation in Region i

a2~i 02~i
X2(I)i = 0 - h --< z --< 0; i = 1, 3 and
OX 2 OZ 2

-h~z~a; i = 2 ...................................... (2a)

and

a = gradq~i. ............................................... (2b)

Boundary Conditions
The kinematic bottom boundary condition is

O~, 0 at z = - h; i = 1, 2, 3 ......................... (3)

Oz
The combined kinematic and dynamic flee-surface boundary condition is

O~, F
Oz h qbi = 0 a t z = 0, i = 1, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)

where F = ~ah/9; in which g = gravitational acceleration. Given flow

condition through the crown

d___2~d0= 0 atz = -h + a; i = 2 ......................... (5)

Oz
The matching condition at the transitions (x = 0 and x = b) are specified
in terms of the pressure and mass flux, and ensure the continuity of the
solution in adjacent regions. The mathematical expressions of the matching
conditions to be fulfilled are given by the following.
369

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 Atx=O
For no flow into the crown
q~x= 0 at -h +a<z<-O ................................ (6)
The continuity of velocity is
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q~x = e ~ at -h<z-< -h + a ........................... (7)

The continuity of pressure is
ap~ = ( s " if)~2 at -h<z--- -h + a ...................... (8)

Atx-- b
For no flow into the crown
q~3x = 0 at -h + a<z<-O ................................ (9)
The continuity of velocity
eqSz~ = qb3x at -h<z<- -h + a .......................... (10)
The continuity of pressure
(s - i f ) ~ 2 = ~3 at -h<z<- -h + a ..................... (11)

FULL SOLUTION
In the water region, a solution is derived by using a separation of variables
technique that leads to a Sturm-Liouville problem convenient for solving
homogeneous boundary value problems.
In region 1, the potential q~l (e.g. Dalrymple et al. 1990) is

aPl(x, z) = Io(z)(e-ixV'~o- x2 + Roeix g~V'U[:7-

x~ + ~ i,,(z)R,,ei~.- ~ .. (12)
n=l

where the infinite sum represents a family of evanescent modes to satisfy

the matching conditions at the interface. We choose the branch of the square
root that satisfies
Re(~/-k 2 - )k2) ~ 0 and Im(V"/7~ - k 2) -< 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13)
The subscript zero refers to the progressive m o d e that propagates to and
reflects from the breakwater. The n evanescent modes exist near the break-
water to help satisfy the matching conditions there. They decay rapidly away
from the breakwater and are characterized by the infinite number of purely
imaginary roots of the linear dispersion relation
F = knh tanh k , h n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (14)
This transcendental equation has real roots + k0, where ko > 0, which
corresponds to the propagating mode. Ro is the (complex) reflection coef-
ficient for the plane wave mode and the incident wave is assumed to have
unit amplitude (without loss of generality in this linear analysis).
The depth dependency of the problem is provided by the In(z), which
are given by
I . ( z ) - i9 cosh k . ( h + z)
--- n = 0,1,2,3,. .................. (15)
cosh k , h
370

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 F r o m the Sturm-Liouville p r o b l e m , it is well known that the eigenfunc-
tions [cosh k.(h + z), n = 0, 1, 2 , . . . ] corresponding to distinct eigenvalues
kn are orthogonal, with

f o cosh k.(h + z)cosh km(h + z) dz = ~nmN 2 ................. (16)

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-h

where

sinh 2knh + 2k,,h

N:(k.) = .................................. (17)
4kn
and 3.m is the K r o n e c k e r delta, which is zero unless n = m, where it is
equal to unity.
In region 2, the velocity potential depends on the wave angle of incidence.
F o r normal incidence we assume

~2(x, z) = (Aox + Bo) + ~ P~(z)[A,,e -*r + x'- + B.e(x-b)'r + x2]

n=l
.......................................................... (18)
or, for oblique incidence

~2(x, z) = ~ P,,(z)[A,,e -x'r + as + B,,e(.~-b).r + as] . . . . . . . . . . . . (19)

n~0

where An and B. = complex unknown amplitudes of the waves inside the

porous structure.
The depth d e p e n d e n c y for this p r o b l e m is given now by

P.(z) = cos K~(h + z) ...................................... (20)

where [cos K.(h + z), n = O, 1, 2 . . . . ] can be shown to be a complete
orthogonal set in the domain - h <- z < - h + a, with

f -h+a COS K,,(h + z)cos Km(h + z ) d x

h
= 8.mQ 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (21)

where
Q2(Kn) = a if n = 0 ................................ (22a)
a
QZ(Kn) = ~ if n = 1, 2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (22b)

Inside the porous structure and beneath the crown, K . satisfies the relation

n,l-g
K. = -- at n o r m a l incidence n = 1, 2, 3 , . ................ (23a)
a

n,ff
K. = -- at oblique incidence n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (23b)
a

in o r d e r that the no vertical flow condition at z = - h, - h + a be satisfied.

Finally in region 3,
371

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 (I)3(X, Z) : VoIo(z)e -i(x-b) ~2~~ + ~ T.I.(z)e-i(x-b)Vk~ -x2 . . . . . . . . (24)
n=l

where I0 and In are defined as before in (15); To = complex transmission

coefficient; and Tn, n > 0 are the complex amplitudes of the evanescent
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modes at the leeward interface.

To match the solution at the interfaces (x -- 0 and x = b), we substitute
the potentials ~ ( i = 1, 2, 3) in (6)-(11). A system of equations is obtained
in which the unknowns are Ro, R., To, Tn, An, and B.. Each interfacial
boundary condition includes an infinite series of terms. The orthogonality
of the In series over the depth domain ( - h , 0) and of the P~ series over
( - h, - h + a) is used to remove the depth dependency of the system. Thus
we get the following system of equations:

-Fore + LmRmF,~m - e ~ W n ( - A ~ + BnEE)Xnm = 0

tl--O

X o m "4- ~ X n m R n -- (S -- i f ) ( A . , + BmE;)Jmm = 0
n~O

e ~ Wn(-AnE2 + B.)X~m + LmrmmTm = 0

n--O

(s - if)(AmEm + Bm)Jmm - ~ T~X,m = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (25)

n=0

in w h i c h m = 1, 2 , . . . , ~ ; w h e r e
Vk~ - X2
Ln - ........................................... (26a)
X/k 2 - k2
~-+ ~2
W. - i ~ .......................................... (26b)

En -+ = e - + b ~ + x~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (26c)

X~m =
f_7 ~I.Pm dz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (26d)

Jnm = P,,P,,~ dz ...................................... (26e)

rnm = lflm dz ......................................... (26f)

-h

The system of equations becomes finite by establishing finite upper limits

for M and N, which are the number of evanescent modes in the water
regions and in the porous medium. The choice of M and N has been done
using the Hudde and Latens (1985) suggestion that the number of evanescent
modes on the water side is dictated by the ratio of the widths, that is M >
e~N, (a = h/a). This ensures that each mode in the porous medium, which
is small, is matched with a similarly shaped mode in the water region and
improves the accuracy of the solution. After truncating the series we get a
system of 2(M + 1) + 2(N + 1) equations with the same number of
372

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 1.00 f] Et

0.90
Z
0.~
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0.70
9
0.60
Z
9
0.50 - Black
N
A Present Theory
0.40

0.30

0.20 i

0.~ 0.20 0.40 0.6~ 0.~ 1.~ 1.~ 1.~ 1.~

ko(h .)
-

0.90

z 0.80

0.70

o o. 60

Z 0.6e

o. 40

e. 30 ~ A F. John (Ippen)

0.20

0.10
/
0.~ 0.?0 0.~I~ 0.~0 0.~ 1.~ 1.20 1.40 1.6~
ko(b/2)
FIG. 2. Predicted Results Compared to Other Theories: (a) Black and Mei (1970)
(b/d = 0.5, hM = 2 , f = 0, ~ = 1, 0 = 0); ( b ) I p p e n (1966)(h/b = 0.5, d = 0 , f = 0,
~=1,0=0)

unknowns which can be solved by using the International Mathematical and

Statistical Library routine L E Q T 1 C ,

PLANE W A V E APPROXIMATION
The plane wave assumption simplifies the solution technique consider-
ably. Only the most progressive mode in each region is used in satisfying
the matching conditions.

373

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 Z 0.80
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9 0.610
9
Z
g 0.40 g [] Plane Wave

A (6,3) Modes
.r o
<> (12,6) Modes

0.00
0.~ e.~ 1.~ 1.~ 2.~ 2.~ a.~ a.~
koh
FIG. 3. Reflection Coefficient versus Relative Water Depth (h/b = 2, h/d = 1.42,
f = 0.5, ~ = 0.45, 0 = 15)

The velocity potentials in each region reduce to

9 l(x, z) = Io(z)(e -ixv-~o - x2 + Roe uV-fgo- ; ) .................... (27a)

dP2(x, z) = P o ( z ) ( A o e - x ~ o o + x2 + B o e ( ~ _ b ) V ~~ + x2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (27b)

@3(x, z) = Tolo(z)e-i(x-b)V-go - as ............................. (27c)

Following the previous procedure, we get a system of four equations and

four unknowns, The main advantage of this approximation is that we obtain
analytical expressions for R0 and To

J=
R o = (s - i f ) ( A o + B o E o ) ~ - 1 .......................... (28a)

To = (s - i f ) ( A o E o + Bo) J~ .............................. (28b)

X=

2
Ao m
D(s - if) ~
s
+ - -
,~
-?Wo x=) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(28c)
2Eg (J~
Bo m
D(7 - X=) (28d)
s-/f Wo W .....................

where
374

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 O.9e,
Z

0, 70.
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8 0.60.
e.se.
0.40.

0.30
0.20
0.10

e.~
0.~ 0.~ 0.40 0.~ 0.~ 1.~ t.~ 1.~

koh
l.ee
0"90
o.80 1
0.70

0.5e
Z 0.40

0"3e
O.2et
0.10
o.ee!
koh
FIG. 4. Reflection: (a) and Transmission; (b) Coefficients for Different Angles of
Incidence (h/b = 2, h/d = 4, f = 0.5, e = 0.45)

r = s -TyWo - Eo J* x= Wo) 2 . . . . (28e)

and the other parameters are defined as in (26).

PRESSURES UNDER CROWN

An important factor in the design of the crown breakwater is the action

of the pressure exerted on the base of the impervious structure. The current
recommended methods assume that the pressure distribution along the base
of the crown is linear, which is inaccurate as shown by Liu (1985) and other
researchers for normal incidence.
Sollitt and Cross (1972b), obtained the following linearized Bernoulli
equation.
375

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 = = .

z
ca
55.3
e
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9
r~
t
A f=2
ca 0.2~ o f=3

z r o 3
ca

o
e.61t
o
ez
o

0 a/h=0.50

X a/h=0.25
EI'Lt:~
0

FIG. 5. Reflection Coefficients versus Angle of Incidence: (a) for Different Friction
Coefficients; (b) for Different Drafts (~:h = 1.71, [ = 1, ~ = 0.45)

O4) p
s-- +- + gz + fe~ = 0 .................................. (29)
Ot p

where p = mass density of water. Substituting the expression of ~2 in (29),

we get the following expression for the pressure field in region 2:

P2
- ~(is + f)d~2 - gz ................................... (30)

T h e v e r t i c a l f o r c e Fv i n d u c e d b y t h e w a v e s i m p i n g i n g o n t h e s t r u c t u r e is
evaluated integrating the pressure space distribution beneath the crown

F~ = p dx = -ptr(is + f) f cb2 d x ........................ (31)

376

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 1.11t 9

1.8@ 9

~ e.ee.

m e.~-
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~. 11.711.

rn~t~--EJ
,< 11.me-
z
r~
11.411. <> f=3

11.311.

11.211
11.8@ 11/111 11k~ o ~ o.~ ~ 11~ 11511 11~ ~ 18@
x/b
1.40

1.21~ [] 8=0

m 1.8@
o o 00

<
Z
>. 11.6e

11.4o

11.20
0.l~ 11.'111 1 1 . ~ ~.~ o.~ e.~ e.;~ ..711 11.~ 11.W .8@
x/b

FIG. 6. D y n a m i c P r e s s u r e Distribution for Different: (a) Friction C o e f f i c i e n t s h/b

= 5, h/d = 5, kh = 1.71, ~ = 0.45, 0 = 10); (b) A n g l e s of Incidents (h/b = 1.25,
h/d = 2, kh = 0.86, ~ = 1,f= O); (c) Drafts (kh = 0.66, ~ = 1 , f = 0,0 = 0); ( d )
h/L (h/b = 1.66; h/d = 1.25, ~ = 1 , f = 0, 0 = 0)

carrying out the integration, the following expression is obtained,

F~ = -p~(is + f) [ ~=oPn(A. + Bn) l ~- / ~e2 +- b ~ ~l J ........... (32)

RESULTS AND C O N C L U S I O N S

The numerical results obtained in the present analysis agree with those
predicted, for normal incidence, by other authors utilizing alternative so-
lution techniques. The variational technique of Black (1970) in Fig. 2(a)
shows identical results for the present theory for reflection coefficients using
the full solution (M = 12, N = 6). John's shallow-water dock theory, Ippen
(1966) also concurs for normal incidence and plane wave solution, Fig. 2(b).
377

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 1.20.
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1.00.
~a

0.G0.

.<
z 0.60-

0.40
X a/h=0.25

0.20
o.o0 e.'~e e.k~ e.;o e.~o e.~ 0.;o o.~o e.~o o.~o 1.oo
x/b
1.30

1.10

0.90 Q h/L--O.14 ~ "~-"~---~ A

0.00 A h/L=O.07

0.70 <>h/L=O.033

0.60
o . ~ o.'lo o.~o o . ~ o.~o o.~o ~.~ o.~o e . ~ ~.~o 1.oo
x/b

FIG. 6. (Continued)

Fig. 3 shows the reflection coefficient predicted by the plane wave ap-
proximation and the complete solution, using two different sets of values
for the evanescent modes. The plane wave approximation diverges from
the full solution as the relative depth increases; however, for small kh, the
relative error between plane wave approximation and full solution is small,
validating the advantages of this simplification for kh < 1. Also Fig. 3 shows
that doubling the number of evanescent modes, results in a very small change
in R.
For oblique incidence, we examine the reflection and transmission coef-
ficients as a function of wave period, depth, friction factor, wave direction
and draft. In Fig. 4, the reflection and transmission coefficients are plotted
versus koh for full solution and various angles of incidence. The results show
that shorter waves experience more reflection and less transmission for any
incidence angle. Moreover, higher angles of incidence lead to an increase
of reflection and correspondingly to a decrease of transmission.
Fig. 5(a) demonstrates that the reflection coefficient is generally larger
378

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 1.0e

Z
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r.

~ e.~-~
Co.4o
r,

.%e . l e A Black
e.~e
1.4e

ko(h - a)

e.90-

_ e.ee-
~ e.7e-

~ e.:~-
b. e . 2 ~ -

~ ~.1~-

e~ e~ ~.~ 1.~ 2~ 2.~ 2~

hoh

5~.7e

< e.: : ~

>" ~ . 1 0

FIG. 7. Vertical Force Coefficients: (a) Predicted, Compared to Black and Mei
(1970) (h/d = 2, b/d = 0.5, ~ = 1 , f = 0, 0 = 0); (b) v e r s u s Relative W a t e r Depth of
Different A n g l e s of I n c i d e n c e (h/h = 2, b/g = 1.66, ~ = 0 . 5 , f = 1); (c) v e r s u s A n g l e
of I n c i d e n c e for Different P o r o s i t i e s h/b = 1.33, b/d = 3, kh = 1.03, f -- 0.5)

379

J. Waterway, Port, Coastal, Ocean Eng., 1993, 119(4): 367-380

 for higher friction coefficients. In addition as we increase the draft, de-
creasing a/h, Fig. 5(b), the results indicate an increase in the reflection
caused by the structure. Maxima and minima occur at different angles of
incidence as f, a/h, and h/L changes.
Fig. 6 presents the behavior of the dimensionless dynamic pressure dis-
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tribution, p/pgai~c, under the crown as a function of the angle of incidence,

f, a/h, and h/L, All figures show that in general the dynamic pressure
distribution deviates from a straight line. Usual design methods assume by
cancelling the pressure at the rear part of the structure that the effect of
the waves behind it may be neglected. However our results point out that
this assumption may produce unsafe design. The larger angles of incidence
lead to smaller uplift pressures. Higher friction coefficients tend to linearize
the pressure distribution, probably because for high damping, the behavior
of the model is analogous to Darcy's law. The linearization appears for an
increase of wavelength and draft, too.
The dimensionless vertical force coefficient, FJ(pgb ), has been plotted
in Fig. 7. Fig. 7(a) shows a favorable comparison between the present theory
and the results taken from Black (1970) for normal incidence. The results
presented in Fig. 7(b) demonstrate that shorter waves lead to smaller uplift
forces. In addition, the uplift force decreases with the increase of the angle
of incidence. Finally Fig. 7(c) indicates that an increase of the porosity
induces a decrease of the vertical force.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The first and second writers acknowledge support by the N O A A Office
of Sea Grant, Department of Commerce, under Grant NA87AA-D-SG040.

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