ISIJ International, Vo!. 32 (1 992), No, 3, pp.

395-404

Modelling of rvlicrostructural Evolution and Mechanical Properties

of Steel Plates Produced by Thermo-Mechanical Control Process

Atsuhiko YOSHIE.Masaaki FUJIOKA.Yoshiyuki WATANABE.1)

Kiyoshi NISHIOKA1)and Hirofumi
MORIKAWA2)
Plate & Engineering Metallurgy. Steel Research Laboratories, Technical Development Bureau. Nippon Steel Corporation,
Shintomi, Futtsu, Chiba-ken, 299-1 2Japan. )
1 Kimitsu R& D Laboratory, Nippon Steel Corporation, Kimitsu, Kimitsu,
Chiba-ken, 299-11 Japan. 2) Materials Characterization, Advanced Materials &
Technology Research Laboratories,
Technical Deveiopment Bureau. Nippon Steel Corporation, Shintomi, Futtsu, Chiba-ken. 299-1 Japan. 2
(Received on September 10. 1991, accepted in final form on December20. 1991)

For manufacturing the steel plates with good mechanical properties by Thermo-Mechanical Control
Process (TMCP), the manufacturing conditions are necessary to be controlled in an integrated manner
through the reheating step to the accelerated cooling step. The present mathematical model for the prediction
of the microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties of the steel plates produced by TMCP enables
this integrated control. The present report describes the flow and the each equation of the model and the
comparison betweenthe calculated results with this model and the data obtained by the rol ling experiments.
The model consists of four modules such as Reheating. Rolling. Cooling and Mechanical Properties in
which the metallurgical phenomenaoccurring at each step are calculated. The characteristic of the model
is shownas follows:
(1) The effect of work hardening of austenite by rolling in non recrystallization temperature region is
represented as the effect of average dislocation density (p) accumulated in austenite grains. The nucleation
rate of intragranular ferrite and that of grain boundary ferrite are distinctively formulated as functions of p.
(2) The effects of microalloying elements are considered in the formulation of metallurgical phenomena
and mechanical properties such as pinning and solute drag effects on the grain growth of austenite at the
reheating step, the restrainig effect on recovery and recrystallization of work- hardened austenite at the rolling
step, the restraining effect of solute elements on the progress of transformation at the coo[ing step, and the
solution hardening and the precipitation hardening for the mechanical properties of the plates.

KEYWORDS:
steel plate; TMCP;mathematical model; microstructure; grain growth; average dislocation
density; microalloying elements; intragranular ferrite,FATT.

l. Introduction
produced by TMCP.
For meeting severe demandof steel plates with good Occurring through Thermo-
2. MetallurgicalPhenomena
mechanical properties of welded joints as well as base
mechanical Control Process (TMCP)
metal, Thermo-MechanicalControl Process (TMCP)has
maderapid progress in recent years.1 ~ As
3)
TMCPcov- The schematic illustration of typical thermal cycle and
ers the control of austenite structure, precipitates and microstructural evolution each stage of
at is
TMCP
transformed structure in the reheating, rolling and shown in Fig. l. A
slab is reheated at relatively lower
cooling steps, this process proves to be most effective temperature region for keeping y grain size fine. Then it
when it is controlled in an integrated manner.4~7) is rolled at higher temperature region for making grains
y
Thoughmanyarticles and reviews on TMCPhave been refine by recrystallization. It is also rolled at lower
reported and some of them8~14) have referred to the temperature region just above A*3 point for making y
formulation of the metallurgical phenomenain TMCP, grains work-hardened. This rolled plate is directly
the integrated mathematical model that precisely predicts water-cooled at the determined cooling rate (Accelerat-
the change in microstructure through TMCP and the ed cooling; Ac. C) for the control of transformation
mechanical properties of steel plates produced by TMCP behavior.
has not reported. In the present report, the integrated The most metallurgicallycharacteristic phenomenon
mathematical model for the steel plates with the tensile of TMCP the transformation from work-hardened
is

strength below 600 MPaclass is shownat first and then austenite to each phase. Work-hardened austenite con-
the calculated results are examinedwith the data obtain- tains various kinds of defects such as dislocations,
a
ed by the rolling experiments of heavy section plates deformation bands, deformed annealing twins and so

395 C 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
Reheating Rough- Finish- Accelerated Reheating
rolling roiling cooling Metallurgicai
Input Output
Phenomena
a,
rt1
' a- r t',*=
Chernical Compsition ;i*1..'

7 Gra n Sze
Transformation *2~)
Initia] Size and Amount (~:2~)
Amountof eiements in
D
(Q CIIIII r~2_,
Grain Growth
of 7 and Precipitates
~~i~+3,
of precipitaies
Heating Conditions
Solution
c,
Q'
E
a) Roiliog
H Metaliurgical
Input Output
Phenomena
~) Static ,r~,1_
RollingConditions rrl).1..

Average D~slocatlon
Recovery and Density (P)
a,
Recrystallization
r~~2_.,

7 Grain Boundary
::
+'
of 7 Area per Unit
c:o ~) Nb Pfecipitation Voume(ST)
-::
a,J:;
~ou, OAmount
So ution
of Nb in

co
,:,L,o
J:
0~ Cooling
Grain Recrystallization Work- Transformation
growth hardening Metallurgieal
Input Output
of 7 Phenomena
r-a Cooling Conditions '**1
Fraction of Eaoh
rT+1) r~1._:

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of thermal cycle in TMCP

and Transformation
~1,
Phase
change in microstructure. ~) Ferrite

l
Grain
Size
~] Transformation
Temperature
C:1 Nb Precipitate OAmountof C

t
15
a'
Restraint of
Grain Growth
E2E Nb in Solution So ~n ution

,h Mechanical Properties
= Metallurgical
Output
Restraint of Input
J~ r~~~~~;7l~J' Phenomena
z
~e
~~h
Grain Growth
Recovery and
Reerystai Ii - Precipitation ~) Ductile
~ YS
'
Hardeni ng Fracture ~) TS
zation
Fo ~) Brittle
R FATT

l Restraint of
Tr orm tio
Fracture

Fig. 3. Flow chart of the mathematical model.

Reheating Rot I ing Cool ing

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration ofmetallurgical effects ofNb at respectively. Therefore, the prediction and control of the
each step of TMCP.
amount of precipitates at each step through TMCP are
important to obtain good mechanical properties.
forth. These defects are the possible nucleation sites of With the consideration of the metallurgical phenomena
mentioned above, the present mathematical model is
ferrite (Qc)
as well as elongated y grain boundary. There
developed. The objectives of prediction are the me-
is the order of precedence amongthese possible nu-
chanical properties and microstructure of TMCP steel
cleation sites of c(. The most precedent nucleation site
plates of which tensile strength are below 600 MPaand
is grain boundary of
In the case of Ac. y. that lowers C fraction of ferrite is above 50 olo.
transformation temperature region, before ferrite grains
those have transformed from preferred nucleation sites
such as prior y grain boundary grow and fill inside
3. The Mathematical Model
austenite, other ferrite grains can nucleate at remaining 3.1. The F•low of the Calculation
sites. As ferrite nucleation sites change from grain For the calculation of the microstructural
evolution
boundaries to intragranular sites by Ac.C,15) the through TMCP,each metallurgical phenomenonoccur-
microstructure of TMCP
plates is significantly refined. ring at each step is formulated. Themechanical properties
Therefore, for the precise prediction of the transforma-
are also formulated as functions of microstructure, sol-
tion behavior mentioned above, the formulation of
intragranular transformation of oc is necessary.
ute C
in oc and transformation temperature which are
previously calculated in the other steps.
Microalloying elements play important roles through The flow chart of the mathematical model is shownin
TMCP
process. The effects of Nbat each step of TMCP Fig. 3. This model is divided into four modules such as
are illustrated in Fig. 2. At the reheating step, both Nb Reheating, Rolling, Cooling and Mechanical Proper-
precipitates and Nbin solution restrain the grain growth ties. The calculated results of the previous modules are
of by pinning effect and solute-drag effect respective-
y input into the following modules as the initial condi-
ly.16) At the rolling step, both Nb precipitates and Nb tions. The details of the equations used in each module
in soluton retard the recovery and recrystallization of
are shownbelow.
worked y. At the cooling step, Nb in solution restrains
the progress of transformation and Nb precipitates in 3.2. The Reheating Module
ferrite matrix increase the strength of plates by pre- Changein austenite grain size during reheating step
cipitation hardening. The effective size of precipitates is was formulated for the three different stages respectively
different for each step. For examples, the effective sizes as follows:
of precipitates are around 100, lO,i7,18) and 3nml9) for l) Grain growth of y according to the dissolution of
reheating step, rolling step and precipitation hardening cementite (O) at + c( + temperature region,
y O
C 1992 ISIJ 396
 ISIJ International, Vol, 32 (1 992). No. 3
grain growth of
2)
fraction of
y according to the increase in the Heating Rate 7.5Clmin
y at y+ c( temperature region, 1ooo
Base: 0.1 C- 0.2 Si - 1.4
Mn- 0.005 N -4
3) normal grain growth of restrained with the
y A -2
precipitates of microalloying elements by pinning o
-S500 z
effect. :~ (a) A o
At y+ oe + e temperature region, y grain diameter is
1 200
(b)
(c)
~
assumedto grow according to Eq. (1). 2
o
~o Ioo A
o
C!
~
d(dy)/dt= D,v/dy x [(Cov (d) 4
~
Cy")/(Cy"
-
Cc()] ......(1)
E
~
o
50 6
where,
y dy: grain diameter,
time of grain growth, D,v'
t:
.:-

A
6 ~
diffusion constant of Cin
y, Cov' Cy" : concentration of e
,o
~ 20 8
~
co

l;
cal.
C y in at y/O and yloc boundaries respectively. Coc:
~
o Base (a)
exp. q:

concentration of Cin ce Cov' C and Coc are calculated

from the phase diagram.
y" '

v
5 Io +0.03 Al
+ 0.03 Al (c)
(b) A 10
o'

.t: 5 +0.035 Nb O 12
At y+0c temperature region, dy is assumedto increase +0 03 Al (d) []
according to Eq. (2). +0.01 Ti
2
dy [3X.//(4lcno)] l/3 .(2) 800 900 1OOO 11OO 1200 1300
= . . ... .
...
Heating Temperature (1C
)
where. Xy: fraction of y calculated from the phase dia- Fig. 4. Changein austenite grain size during reheating step.
gram, no: number of y grains per unit volume whenthe
dissolution of completes. e
Grain growth of yat ytemperature region is formulated where, I
a=b= Xo. X: the concentration of microalloy-
.

on assumption that grain grows according to the classical ing elernents such as Al, Nb and Ti in precipitates and
theory summarized by Nishizawa.16) In the case that in matrix respectively. D*: diffusion constant of each
grain growth is dominated by the diffusion of Fe at grain element in y-Fe.
boundary, y grain diameter is described as Eqs. (3) and As the calculated diameters of Al addedsteel (the curve
(4) (b)) are larger than the observed data, the restraining
.

effect of AlN
dy2-dy~=k2't ..........(3) on the grain growth of austenite might be
................ estimated too small. Then, the value of constant, 3/2, in
k2 =4(TVM=(TVDgbI~RgT
........
..........(4)
3
Eq. (7) is modified to for adjusting the calculated results
to the observed data. In Fig. 4, the calculated dy is
where, dyo: initial grain diameter, t: time of grain growth,
comparedwith the observed data for microalloyed steels
(T: grain boundary energy, V: molar volume, M: mobility,

~: thickness of grain boundary, Rg:

and they show good agreement in every cases. For
gas constant. T: examples, calculated weight percent of Ti as TiN and Al
temperature, Dgb: diffusion constant at grain boundary
as AlN are 0.0099 and 0.0039 ~/o at I 050'C, respectively.
which is described as Eq. (5).
The calculated sizes of precipitates of TiN and AlN at
Dgb=Dgb
exp(- QIRgT) .........
..........(5) l 050'C are 40 and 700 A, respectively.
where, Dgob: a coefficient, Q: activation energy. 3.3 The Rolling Module
In the case of low alloy carbon steel, the value of Dgb Main metallurgical phenomenaduring the hot rolling
is expected to be close to that of
pure Fe. Onassumption of steelplates are work-hardening, recovery and static
that values of Dgob and
Q
are 2cm2/s and 41 kcal/mol
respectively in Eq. (5), calculated dy during reheating at
recrystallization of y. Dynamic recrystallization hardly
ever occurs because of low rolling temperature and
the constant heating rate of 7.5'C/min is shown as the small strain per reduction.20-22) As mentioned before,
curve (a) in Fig. 4. the possible nucleation sites of cc are grain boundaries
y
The effect of precipitates such as AlN, NbC, TiC and and lattice defects inside y introduced by rolling.
TiN on austenite grain diameter is formulated as Eqs. Therefore, the phenomenabelow are necessary to be
(6) and (7). formulated.
l) Elongation of y grains by rolling.
d(dy)/dt
= M(2aV/Rg-AGpi.)
..........(6)
...... 2) Refining of
y grains by rolling in recrystallization
AGpi~ 3aVf/2r ..........(7)
temperature region.
= ......
3) Increase in lattice defects in grains by rolling in
where, .f: volume fraction of precipitates calculated from y
the reported equations of the solubility products, r: non recrystallization temperature region.
radius of precipitates, the
Each metallurgical phenomenon above is expected to
average (T, V:
samevalue in increase nucleation sites and nucleation rate of oc and
Eq. (4).
results in of the microstructure after
the refinement
Onassumption that precipitates grow according to the transformation. The elongation of grain also increases
Ostward ripening law, r is described as the Eqs. (8) and y
the nucleation site of the recrystallized
(9). v grain.
3.3.1. Elongation of Austenite Grains
-rg=k3't ..........(8)
..... elongates
Rolling y grains and increases the grain
k3 =(2/3)2 .2(a+b)aVlaRgT' D.X/(Xo_X)2 ....(9) boundary area per unit volume (Sy) that means the

397 C 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
amount of nucleation site at grain boundary. The
y
increase in Sy is expressed by the following equation on p= (po ~ P,,.)X,** + p,,. ....
..........(
14)
assumption that a spherical grain is deformed to an
y where, p,,.: dislocation density in unrecrystallized
ellipsoid by rolling.23) is
ywhich
calculated with Eq. (1 3), X...: fraction of recrystallized
described as Eq. (15).
Sy = (24/1~Do){0.49 1exp(8) + O. 155 exp( - e) y
O. 143 exp(- 3e)} X...= I -exp{ -~(t-T)"} ..........(15)
+ ....................................
(10) ....

where, Do: grain diameter before rolling, true strain. where, e: a coefficient, n: a constant, T: incubation
y 8:
period.
3.3.2. Refinement of Austenite Grains by Recrystalli- The Eqs. (13) to (15) are formulated on the basis of
zation the decrease in flow stress of the second pass of the double
Austenite grains are refined during the rolling in the compression test according to the procedure reported in
recrystallization temperature As mentioned region. the previous paper.25) The coefficients
before, dynamic recrystallizatlon does not readily occur
be
and lr have
the samefunction form as described in Eq. (16).
and static recovery and recrystallization mainly occur. As these metallurgical phenomenadiscussed above
Microalloying elements exert a great effect on the
occur continuously in practical multi-pass rolling, the
progress of recrystallization but a small effect on the interpass recovery and recrystallization must be taken
recrystallized
grain size (D..*). Since D..* measuredfrom into account. Unless recrystallization is complete before
the specimens quenched after compression with certain the next rolling pass, coarse and strain-hardened un-
deformation conditions by using a hot deformation recrystallized grains are present together with fine
simulator24) showedonly
slight change with the change y
recrystallized grains with low dislocation density. As
in deformation temperature and Nbconcentration, D*.. y
the austenite structure at the next pass is assumedto
(
wasformulated into Eq, I l) as a function of e and Sy. inherit the average size of the
non recrystallized and the
D***=s/(Sy'e)~ .........(11) recrystallized grains and the average value of dislocation
...
density, the Eqs. (12) to (15) can be dlrectly appiied to
where, s, m: constants, s= 5.0, m=0.7. multi-pass rolling. Whenrecrystallization occurs by the
3.3.3. Increase in Lattice Defects in Austenite Grains accumulation of multi-pass rolling strain, the recrys-
Rolling in non recrystallization tallized grain diarneter can be calculated by substi-
temperature region
changes the morphology of grain boundary and in- tuting the stored strain (8.) calculated from the with
y Eq. (12) for the strain 8 in Eq. (1 1). If the effect of the
p
troduces various lattice defects into
y grains. Since these rolling in temperature region is
lattice defects are markedly reduced in
a recrystallized y non recrystallization
expressed by in this way, the austenite structural change
grain, relatively
many lattice defects remain in non p
in continuous multi-pass rolling
recrystallized
ygrains. Strictly speaking, the effect of each can be sequentially re-
defect presented in the stages of rolling and interpass recovery
on nucleation rate and growth rate of c( during
tfansformation are necessary to clarify. However, based and recrystallization.
It is well knownfact that the recrystallization of in
on the idea that the effects of these lattice defects are y
difficult to separate from each other, dislocation density the hot rolling process is affected by microalloying
is assumedto represent the effect of all the lattice defects elements. In particular, Nbis markedly effective in small
becausethe numberof dislocations is far morethan those amounts and is most useful in practical terms. In this
of other defects and other defects as well as average model, the effect of Nb in solution on the change in
p
dislocation density (p) increase according to the increase is formulated. Concretely, the coefficients and T in be
in rolling strain. Eqs. (12) to (1 5) are expressed as the samefunction form
The average dislocation density is calculated from the of the amount of Nb in solution and in precipitates as
is shownin the Eq. (16) for
square root of the fiow stress measured in compres- an example.
sion test by using Thermecmaster.24) The change in
dislocation density during rolling and interpass time is
b= bo exp(bo i C*N~bl
+ bo 2CPN'b*')dy~bi"b exp(
- Qb/RT)
...(16)
divided into three stages as shown in the previous
where, dy: diameter, i: strain rate. Qb: apparent
report. 25) y grain
(Increase in
p during work-hardening)
activation
Q
energy , b= 34 100, Csol
Nb, CP""
Nb
concentration
of Nb in solution and in precipitates respectively, bo,
'

p=b/c{ I -exp(-c'8)} +poexp(-c'e) .......(12)

bol, b02, mb, nb: constants, b0= l.33 x 107, bol=5.41,
where, b02 =0.92, mb=-0.207, nb=0. 105.
b, c: coefficients as for work-hardening and
dynamic recovery respectively, po: initial dislocation The amount of Nb in solution during rolling is
calculated according to the formulation shown by
po = 106 mm~
density, 2.

(Decrease in by recovery during interpass time) Akamatsu.27) In thls formulation, the nucleation site,
p driving force of the precipitation of Nb and diffusion
p=(pd-Po)exp(-d•t)+po -"-""-"-(13) constant of Nb in y were expressed as the functions of
where, the average dislocation density just after rolling re-
d:
a coefficient as for static recovery, pd: dis-
Iocation density just after redtiction. duction.
The effect of Nb concentration on the flow stress
(Decrease in p by recrystallization during interpass time)
(8=0.05) of the second pass of the double compression

C 1992 ISIJ 398

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3

Exper i ment Calculation

\~
Nb (wt ~~)
20
,:,
D 0.03 - - - - recove ry
J' A 0.009 reerysta IIizat ion
Nb= 0.03~6 O 0.0 Vincubation period
~ ~~1:r-- ~~- __J
a o.009~~
~ 10
eq
Fig. 5.
0.0
~ Effect of Nbconcentration on the fiow stress of the second
lO~
pass of double compression tests. (0.10/0C-1.350/*Mn
0.20/.Si, true strain (8) of Ist and 2nd pass=0.2. Abscissa

OI0-1 indicates the interpass time of Ist and 2nd pass)

1Oo I O1 102
Time after Deformation ,
(s)

tests shown in Fig. 5. The flow stress of the second

is

pass decreases with the progress of recovery and re-

crystallization of worked as was shownin the previous
report.lo)
y
The caiculated results expressed the restrain- \\ Ae3
ing effect of Nb on recovery and recrystallization with \
sufficient a \
accuracy. \
: \ A1
~ \
3.4. The Cooling Module ~\
1, \\ // \~ +,
I a \ \\/ /Acm
3.4. Characteristic of Transformation during Ac.
. C E \
Metallurgical o
terms which are necessary to be con- / \\ \
h \ /
\
\ /
sidered for the formulation of transformation during
\\
\l
/ \T o
Ac. C
are reduced to the following: l~\\
(1) Increase in PhaseTransformed in Lower Tempera- // \\\_ Ms
ture Region
Carbon concentration
Microstructure of TMCP
plates is controlled both by
Fig. 6. Start conditions of transformation from austenite to
cooling rate and finish temperature of Ac. C. Whichphase
ferrite (A*3), pearlite (A*~), bainite (To) and martensite
forms by continuous cooling generally depends on the (M,).
thermodynamicconditions those limit phases according
to phase diagram and the kinetic conditions. Thermo-
tion are the following conflicting ones.
dynamically, ferrite, pearlite, bainite and martensite are
assumedto be able to form whentemperature, T, is below
The effect of Nbin
solution on the progress of ferrite
transformation has been investigatedlo) and solute Nb
A.3, A.3 and A.~, To and Msrespectively, as shownin
Fig. 6. In the case that various phases competewith each
proved to retard ferrite transformation clearly. On the
other hand, Nb in solution at the start of rolling finely
other in practice, a phase most advantageous in energy
precipitates during rolling. These precipitates raise the
terms is assumed to transform. The products of the
change in fraction and free energy of different phases non recrystallization temperature region. WhenNb
microalloyed steel is acceletatedly cooled, the strain-
A B
such as and are comparedaccording to the Eq. (17).
induced precipitation of Nb results in the increase in
dXA/dt• IAGAI> IAGBI •••••••••••••(17) intragranular nucleation sites, promotes transformation,
and produces an extremely fine microstructure. There-
where. XA, XB: fractions of phases A and B, respectively,
fore, both effects of Nbin solution and Nb precipitates
t: time, AGA,AGB:free energy change with the transfor-
mation from austenite to phases A or B, respectively. are included in the equations of nucleation rate, I* and
I., and grain growth rate. Gf of ferrite transformation
(2) Changein Nucleation Sites in the present model.
Principal
nucleation site both in recrystallized and non 3.4.2. Formulation of Transformation Behavior
recrystallized grain isgrain boundary while that of
y Onassumption that the effects of the defects introduc-
work-hardened y changes from grain boundary to inside
ed inside y grains on transformation are represented by
of grain during Ac. Cas mentioned before. Deformed
y the effect of dislocation density, the formulation of
structure in a work-hardened austenite grain were transformation can be linked with the Eqs. (12) to (15).
illustrated in detail by Kawasaki and Matsu0,28) while
The relation between calculated average dislocation
Umemoto
et al.29)
indicated the various nucleation sites
density, p**1' and nucleation enhancementfactor, n, is
within Ingrains.
the present model, the ferrite trans-
y indicated in Fig. 7. The factor is the quotient of the
formation is separatedly formulated for grain boundary n
nucleation rate of worked and that of unworkedy. The
o( and intragranular oc. y
value of was determined by counting the numbers of
n
(3) Effects of Microalloying Elements c( grains in unworkedand worked of plain carbon steel. y
The effects of microalloying elements on transforma- The ferrite nucleation rate from work-hardened linearly
y
399 O 1992 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1 992), No. 3
750 700 650 (1c)

14
1oo O 10
o O
,,, plain
o
12 oarbon steel
80 \05
_
il E
O 10
O O
\ 60 o o O. O1 O. OZ O. 03
CNb (w t gla)

8
F 40 ,D
~
,S
E, 6
20 o :
O
1:
Ce
4 O.Olwt~6Nb steel
,D
20 40 60 80 1OO O
S 2
I
PcaI Po Z ,. '.' 0.03wt~Nb steel
Fig. 7. Relation between calcuiated dislocation density p.*l oo ,,~
and nucleation rate enhancementfactor n. (0.loloC-
0.98 1.02
(10~3Krl)
106
. 1IO
.

1.370/0Mn0.20/0Si, po: initial dislocation density,

1/T
I**= o: nucleation rate of unworkedsteel, I*: nucleation Fig. 8. Dependenceof temperature on ferrite nucleation rate
rate of worked steel) estimated from CCTexperiments. Inset shows the
dependenceof Nb concentration on If/Io at 700'C.
I
(O, o/oCi .370/0Mn-0.2010Si
+ (Nb), Io: nucleation rate
increases with the increase in p**1' in plain carbon steel, initial austenite grain diameter:

The transformation behavior of at

y grain ferrite l OO/am)
boundaries and inside of y grains is expressed by the
approach described below. 800 750 700 (1c ) 650
(Transformation in which o( nucleates on y grain
boundary)
10 f
\
The ferrite nucleation rate, Is' is given by
(~12 ~ o
0.5 'v
,9
~
/
I (p/po)f2(C~M~~E)D,yT l/2exp{
f (T, C~AE)/RTAG2}
.(18)
u'E (,

o
,L~P s
\/
y //
. o o.OI
CNb (wt"/')
O.oa 0.03 ~'
,~;'~

cf
f /
where, CsM'~E: concentration of microalloying elements ..e / ,5~~\

~8 ~~:Ollc'$;
such as Nband V in solution, D,y: diffusion constant of
e
ar
l
es l /
:\~'ell I $~~O
l(,)!e
C in y, AG: drlving force of transformation per unit $
~
~:~;'~).~'//~~!~~~~~A~
volume, f2: function of C~kEfor phenomenologically
adjusting the value of I*, f3: function of T and C~~E
///ll
,+4
for phenomenologically adjusting the dependence of
temperature on I*. The concentration of C in y is con-
~
~ '/' "I "I"I
sidered to increase with the increase in fraction of c(. 'l"'p~'1'

The function f2 is assumedto modify the diffusion con- o O. 94 O. 98 1.02 106

C
,

stant of and to express the effect of C~M~~Eaddition 1/T (10~K~1)

while f3 is assumedto express the change in y/y grain
Fig. 9. Dependenceof temperature on growth rate of ferrite
boundary energy by the segregation of C~~E. For Nb grain estimated from experiments. Inset shows CCT
added steels, f2 and f3 are described into Eqs. (19) and the dependence of Nb concentration on Gf/Go at
(20) respectively. 700'C. (O. "/.Cl .370/0Mn-0.2"/.Si + (Nb), Go: growth
I
rate in plain carbon steel)
,f2 =exp{,f21 f22[1 -exp(-f23CsN'bl)]} .......(19)
-
f3=f31-f32[1 exp( f33CsN'bl)] ...........(20) 'flA {,fll ~'fl2[1 -exp(-fl3C~N~bl)]} .........(22)
=
where, f21' f22' f23' f31, f32' f33: constants. f21 =42.0, 'flB ='fl4 ~'fl5[1 -exp( -,fl6C~N'bl)] ...........(23)

f22=2.0, f23=98.1, f31 09xlO f32 58xlO

-""""-"""--(24)
= exp(.flA/T-flB)
'fl
f33 100.1.
=- where, constants. ,fl I =0.22,
The growth rate of o( grains, Gf rs expressed by Eq. .fl
1'
fl2' fl3' 'fl4' 'fl5' fl6:
(21) with the consideration of the experirnental results fl2 =6 600, ,fl3
= fl4= 1 106, 5.6, fl5 5.8, fl6 =96.
=
as that the effect of p on Gf rs small. of Nbconcentration
Theeffects on I* and Gf calculated
Gf = fl(T C'M'kE)G.hk ..........(21
) with the Eqs. (18) to (24) are illustrated
9, respectively.
in Figs. 8 and
In the case of 0.03 wto/o Nb steel, I, and
where, function of T and C~kEfor phenomenologi-
fi:
Gf decrease to the value around l/4 and l/3 of plain
cally adjusting the dependenceof them on Gf as shown
carbon steel at 700'C respectively.
in Eqs. (22) to (24), G.hk: growth rate shownby Kaufman,
respectively.30)
The ferrite fraction transformed from y grain bound-
Zener and Hillert aries (XGBF) is given according to the nucleation and

@1992 ISIJ 400

 ISiJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
growth (NG) mechanismby present model.

XGBF I exp{ (3/8)1.Gf(Sy/3)4t4} .........(25) 3.5. The Mechanical Properties-Module

The Eq. (25) is adopted before the fraction occupied by The important mechanical properties of steel plates
ferrite grain boundaries (Xs) is, 0.95 and below. Xs such as tensile strength (TS), yield strength (YS) and
on y
is described by brittle-ductile transition temperature of Charpy impact
test (FATT) are formulated with the calculated mi-
X I- exp{ -(1/8)IsG~(Sy/3)3t3} ...........(26)
crostructure and transformation temperature.
Tensile strength is assumed to be predicted by the
WhenXs is above 0.95, XGBFis given according to
site-saturation (S-S) mechanismby strain partition method shown by Tomoda and
Tamura.32) The derived equation is shown in the Eq.
I -exp(-SyGft)
XGBF= ..................(27)
(36).

The e( grain size (DGBF)is given by TS=p{fF(Hf+qDJ1/2)+.fpHp+ fBHB} + r ...(36)

XIG/B3F
!! N- G ba
where, ,fF, fP, fB: fractions of ferrite, pearlite and bainite
DGBF~
= aoc Syls(1-Xs)dt ...(28)
respectively, Hf' Hp, HB: microhardness of ferrite,
pearlite and bainite respectively, Df: c( grain diameter,
where, ac(, bc(: constants, aoc=4.7 x 10~4, boc=0.8. The
p, q, r: p=0.16, q=3.75, r=22.8. The mi-
constants,
integration is conducted while ferrite transforms by N-G crohardness of ferrite and bainite are described as the
mechanism. linear functions of transformation temperature calcu-
(Transformation which
nucleates inside
in
y grains)
oc
lated in the cooling module. The Vickers microhardness
The nucleation rate of intragranular ferrite (Iv) is

expressed as Eq. (29) assuming that nucleation site is

of pearlite is given as constant value of 222 for Nb
added steels and 188 for the other steels respectively
dislocation.
because the measured microhardness is approximately
lv=(p/po)f4(T, CsMo~E)D.yT1/2exp(
G IkT) (29) the samefor the speclmens of different Cconcentration
and cooling rates.
where, f4: function of T and CsMo~Efor phenomenologi-
cally adjusting the dependenceof them on lv' G*: criti-
The relation amongthe microhardness of each phase,
the summationof the products of the microhardness and
cal nucleation energy on dislocation.
the fractions, and the observed TS is shownin Fig. 10.
The growth rate of intragranular ferrite is the sameas In these cases, all the specimens are dual phase steels
Eq. (21). The fraction of o( transformed inside
(XIGP) is given according to N-Gmechanismby
y grains
65 o
XIGF=I -exp{ -(1r/3)1.G~t4} ..............(30) od'
"'cD
The oe grain size (DIGF) is given by 60
eo
o
d~1.(~2i~b'~

DIGF= Xll/G3F
!{
coc
N-G
Iu(1 ~ XGBF-XIGF)dtfd' ~ ""(31)
E
55

E ~)e~~e 0'33
where, cc(, cc(=2.38 x lO~ Il, da=0.5
da: constants. \~
~~
eJ)
50
Pearlite and bainite transformations can be represented
UD 1
by similar equations by assuming that they proceed after h 45 ,P~
the saturation of nucleation site on grain boundaries.
y
(Pearlite transformation) 40 Iopen :Transverse
Isolid
Longitudinal
:
Xp=1-exp(-SyGpt) .......
..........(32)
35
where, Gp: growth rate of pearlite shownby Eq. (33).
220
Gp=.f5(T, C~M~~E)Gpo """"-(33) uo
-"' ' o
where, function of T and CSMO~E
,fs: for phenomenologi- ~ 200 o .o
,~~
.N
cally adjusting the dependence of them
on Gp, Gpo: I 180
growth rate of pearlite shownby Puls and Kirkaldy.31) > oCb!o
(Bainite transformation) + 160 o
~1 ,,.

XB=I -exp(-SyGBt) .........

..........(34)
~ 40
oS)o o fopen :Longitudinal
Isolid
where, GB: growth rate of bainite shownby Eq. (35). 120 : Transverse
GB=,f6(T)GzHK """"-"-""-"-"(35) 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
where, f6: function of T for phenomenologically macro Hv (10kg)
adjusting the dependenceof T on GB. Thoughthe Eqs. Fig. 10. Relation amongmacro Hv, (X,,Hr+XuH~1) and TS.
(34)and (35) are necessary to be examined more, these (Xr' X[[: fractions of ferrite and the second phase
equations can be adopted within the objectives of the respectively, H,.. H]1: micro hardness of ferrite and
the second phase, respectively)

401 O 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol, 32 (1992), No. 3
such as ferrite-pearlite and ferrite-bainite. As TS cor- As a the equation for the prediction
result, of YS is
relateswith other terms well, the Eq. (36) is confirmed described as Eq. (38).
to be valid to predict tensile strength.
The equation that predicts YS is divided into two YS=a0+sDfl/2+t .......
..........(38)

terms. Oneis the term, ao, showsthe resistance working where, s, t: constnts, s= 1.72, t=4.55.
on a dislocation that moves from a source to a grain Transition temperature ofCharpy impact test, FATT,
boundary. Another is the term depending on ferrite grain is formulated into the similar function form as that of
size. The (TO is consist of five terms shown below. YSas is shownin Eq. (39), because a crack of fracture
is assumedto initiate by stress concentration induced by
cro
= (7.~nst + (T,~t + a*~b + (Tppt + (Td,sl piled-up dislocations at grain boundary of an adjacent
where, a constant, (Ti~t' a*~b: solution hardening by
CT*.~~t: grain.
interstitial and substitutiona] elements respectiveiy, appt'
precipitation hardening, adi~1: stress increment by the
FATT=u(ro~vDfl/2+w ...... ..........(39)

increase in dislocation. where u v w constants u O84 v 17 3, ,t'=77.1.

For each term of the Eq. (37), alloying elements taken
into consideration are Mn, Cu, Ni, Si and for
as"b' Nb P 4. Experiments
V
and those precipitate in ferrite for (1ppt' Both ai~t and
(Tdi~1 are set as constants because their deviations are very The microstructural change through reheating, rolling
small within the objectives of the present model. and cooling of heavy section steel plates and the me-

Table l. Chemical composition of the steel tested. (wt"/.)

C Si
Mn P S Cu Ni Nb Ti Al N
0,08 O.
14 l .35 0,004 0.001 0.12 0.40 0.007 0,009 0.024 0.0030

Accelerated
Finishing
Reheating CeeIing
Roughing to 60
mm Transfer time
1050~x 120 to Each Temp.
to 119 Start temp. 60s
min. Average Coeling
mm 800 'C
Rate 7C/s
Fig. Il. Experimental conditions.

~:~
_~ ~ I~

1~J~~..

(a) Tae 781'C (AC) (d) Tae 440'C

* =

(b) Tae 660'C (e) Tae 360'C

* *

Fig. 12.
Effect of finish temperature of accelerated cooling, Tae,
(c) Tae = 580'C (f) Tae = 20'C on microstructure.

C 1992 ISIJ 402

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No, 3
~~~ E
:~
F.GBF,lGF • +XIGF DIGF
XGBFDGBF •
1oo l DF:=
XGBF+
a 20 XIGF

8 80
~
(o
G)
E 15 cl;
-~-
--~--
exp.
cal.
{~ 60
:5
(~
\
\
\
C ~~
+ 40 ~
~] ~~i LEl ~~~ L~] IE~ D~i~ ~~ * 10
~o
~
(D
+ 20 ~] [~]

~] ~] ~~EJ b--~•~- O
~ 5
(D
~
o e)
exp eal exp eal exp oal exp ca l exp ca I uo
(1'

Tae 781 ~(AO 660~ 580~) 440~c 20~ *

~ o
781 660 580 440 360 20
Fig. 13. Effect of finish
temperature of accelerated cooling,
Tae, on the fraction of each phase. (F: ferrite, GBF: Finish temperature of Accelerated Cooling, Tae' ('C)
grain boundary ferrite, IGF: intragranular ferrite, P:
Fig. 14. Effect of finish temperature of accelerated cooling,
pearlite, B: bainite)
Tae, on average ferrite grain diameter. (XGBF, XIGF:
fractions of grain boundary ferrite and intragranular
ferrite respectively, DGBF, D[GF: average grain di-
chanical properties are calculated consistently with the
ameters of grain boundary ferrite and intragranular
present model and the calculated results are compared ferrite respectively)
with the observed data of rolling experiments shownin
the previous report. 12) The chemical compositions of the
60
steel tested and the experimental conditions are shown - 25
in Table I and Fig. Il respectively. For all the ex- (>--- ~)*_~
periments, the finish temperature of Ac.C (Tae) were
varied and the other conditions were not varied. QIE 50 -50
+O~
E ~
5. Results and Discussion
\ t)O
~,:
O
H
The microstructure of
40 - --CL :~L - 75
the plates is shownin Fig. 12. U)
> \ LL
In the case of the air cooled p]ate, microstructure consists
of polygonal ferrite and pearlite. According to lowering
VD
h ~7~ /
4C~~\
~
tb
/
Tae, c( grains becomefine and acicular and the fraction ~~ /
/

of bainite increases.
30
\
/ - IOO
Figure 13 Indicates the comparison of the fraction of
each transformed phase between the observed and the O 200 400 600 800
Finish Temp. of Accelerated Cooling, Tae' ('C)
calculated results. Separating the intragranular ferrite
(IGF) from grain boundary ferrite (GBF) is difficult by Fig. 15. Comparison of mechanical properties between the
observation of the steel plates with extremely fine mi- observed and the calculated.

crostructure. On the other hand, they can be distinc-

tively calculated by the present model. The fractions
6. Concluslons
observed and the calculated correlate very well in Fig.
13. The metallurgical
phenomenaand mechanical prop-
The change in average grain diameter (DF) of
ferrite ertiesof the steel plates produced by were for- TMCP
DGl}F and DIGFaccording to the decrease in Tae is shown mulated. Next, the calculated results with this model
14. As ferrite transformatlon had not finished
in Fig.
was examined with the experimental data. Main results
during Ac.C when Tae was 580'C and above, DF are summarizedas follows:
decreased according to the lowering of Tae. WhenTae (1) Al, Nb and Ti bearing
The y grain diameters of
was below 580'C, DFis almost the samebecause ferrite steels during reheating were distlnctive]y formulated for
transformation had already completed. the three stages such as + o( + e, + c( and temperature
Figure 15 shows the comparison of the mechanical
y y y
region.
properties between the tested and the calculated. In spite (2) Change in microstructure during muiti-pass
of the large change in TS, YS and FATTaccording to rolling was represented by the grain boundary area per
the change in Tae, both results show good agreement. unit volume and the average dislocaton density in y
With these results, the present model is considered to be grain in the present model.
accurate enoughfor the prediction of the microstructural (3) Ferrite transformation
was distinctively formu-
evolution and the mechanical properties of the steel plates lated for the grain boundary ferrite and the intragranu-
produced by TMCP. lar ferrite. The nucleation rate of the each above were
described as functions of the concentration of microal-
loying elements in solution, temperature and the aver-

403 O 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1 992), No. 3
age dislocation density. of Steels and Other Metals (THERMEC-88),ed. by I. Tamura,
Mechanical properties such as TS,YSand FATT
(4) ISIJ,Tokyo, (1988), 799.
ll) The 13 Ist and 132nd Nishiyama Memorial Seminar, ISIJ, Tokyo,
were formulated as the functions of the fraction and (1989),
microhardness of each phase, oe grain diameter, and
l 2) A. Yoshie, M. Fujioka, Y. Onoeand K. Nishioka: Proc. Int.
chemical compositions. Conf. on Computer Applications to Materials Science and
(5) The microstructural change through and TMCP Engineering (CAMSE '90), ed, by
M
Doyamaet a!., The Nikkan
the mechanical properties of heavy section plates were Kogyo Shimbun, Ltd., Tokyo, (1990), 815.

calculated consistently with the model integrated with 13) N. Komatsubara, K. Kunishige, S. Okaguchi, T. Hashimoto, K.
Oshimaand I. Tamura: SumitomoMet., 42-4 (1990), 104.
all the modules. As the calculated results correlated
with the tested results fairly well, the present model
l4) P. D. Hodgson and D. C. Collinson: Proc. Int. Conf. on
Mathematical Modelling of Hot Rolling of steel, ed, by S. Yue,
was confirmed to be valid to simulate metallurgical AIME-ISS, Hamilton, (1990), 239.
phenomenaoccuring through TMCP
and mechanical l 5) K. Amano,T. Hatomura, M. Koda. C. Shiga and T. Tanaka:
Proc. Int. Symp. on Accelerated Cooling of Steel, ed. by P. D.
properties of the steel plates produced by TMCP.
Southwick, AIME, Pittsburgh, (1986), 349.
Acknowledgments l 6) T. Nishizawa: Tetsu-to-Hagan~, 70 (1984), 1984.

The authors wish to thank to Professor Emeritus J. l 7) S. S. Hansen, J. B Vander Sandeand M. Cohen: Metall. Trans.
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C 1992 ISIJ 404