MEI CONFERENCE 2013

What can you prove by induction?

Martyn Parker

M.J.Parker@keele.ac.uk
Contents

Contents iii
1 Splitting Coins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Convex Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 Tower of Hanoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4 Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5 Coins — rearranging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6 Goodstein’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

A Induction — Further details 12

1 Induction at A-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 What is mathematical induction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Why do we need all the bits? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5 Propositions that look like they can be proved by induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

B Solutions and further details 34

1 S PLITTING C OINS

S PLITTING C OINS

Suppose your start with seven coins.

◁ Suppose you start with seven coins.

◁ Split the coins into two groups anyway you want.
◁ Multiply the two numbers in each pile together.
◁ Keep doing this until you all the groups contain only 1 coin.
◁ Finally add up all these numbers.

For example, we could split the coins as follows

5 × 2 = 10.

1 × 1 = 1.

3 × 2 = 6.

1 × 1 = 1.

2 × 1 = 2.

1 × 1 = 1.

We get 10 + 1 + 6 + 1 + 2 + 1 = 21.

Q UESTION 1
Complete the table below computing the final total a few times splitting the piles in different ways. How does the
final total depend on the way you split the piles at each stage?

Contents Page 1
 Coins Final total
1 0
2
3
4
5
6
7 21,
8
9
10

Contents Page 2
2 C ONVEX P OLYGONS

C ONVEX P OLYGONS

The sum of the interior angles in any n -sided convex polygon is exactly 180(n − 2) degrees, for all n ≥ 3.

Let P (n ) be the proposition that sum of the interior angles in any n-sided convex polygon is exactly 180(n − 2)
degrees.
Base case n = 3. A 3-sided polygon is a triangle, whose interior angles were shown always to sum to 180 de-
grees by Euclid.
Induction hypothesis Suppose that P (k ) holds for some k ≥ 3. That is, the interior angles in any k -sided convex
polygon is exactly 180(n − 2) degrees.
Induction step We must show that P (k + 1) is true. That is, the interior angles of any k + 1-sided convex polygon
is exactly 180(k + 1 − 2) = 180(k − 1) degrees,
Let X be any (k + 1)-vertex convex polygon, say with successive vertices x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x k +1 .

Let Y be the polygon with vertices x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m . That is, Y is obtained by cutting out one vertex from X .

Now Y is also a convex polygon (proof?), so by the induction hypothesis P (k ), the sum of the interior
angles of Y is 180(k − 2).
Now let T be the triangle with vertices x k , x k +1 , x 1 . The sum of the interior angles in X is the sum of those
in Y plus the sum of those in T . (Proof?)
So the sum of the interior angles in X is
180(k − 2) + 180 = 180((k + 1) − 2) = 180(k − 1).

Since X was arbitrary, we conclude that the sum of the interior angles of any (k + 1)-sided convex polygon
is 180((k − 2) + 1) = 180(k − 1). That is, P (k + 1) holds.
Conclusion Thefore, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the princple of mathe-
matical induction, P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

Contents Page 3
3 TOWER OF H ANOI

TOWER OF H ANOI

Suppose there are n different sized discs which can be placed in three heaps 1, 2 and 3. A disc may be moved
legally from the top of one heap to the top of another heap provided that it is not placed on top of a smaller disc.
Initially the discs are all on heap 1; with the largest at the bottom and in decreasing order of size up the pile.
The other two piles are empty. Prove there exists a sequence of legal moves which will transfer all the discs to a
different heap.

Let P (n ) be the proposition that there exists a sequence of legal moves that transfer n discs from heap 1 to a
different heap.

Base case Given one disc on heap 1, we move it to either heap 2 or heap 3 in one move. Therefore, P (1) is
true.

Induction hypothesis: Suppose P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1. That is, there exists a sequence of legal moves
that transfer k discs from heap 1 to either heap 2 or heap 3. (Remember there is nothing special about the
numbering of a the heaps.)

Induction step We need to prove that P (k + 1) is true; that is, there exists a sequence of legal moves that
transfer k + 1 discs from heap 1 to a different heap.

By the induction hypothesis there is a sequence of legal moves that transfer the top k discs on heap 1 to a
different heap, in particular heap 2.

Now move the largest disc from heap 2 to heap 3.

By the induction hypothesis again we can move the k discs on heap 2 to heap 3 in a sequence of legal
moves.

Contents Page 4
 We have now performed a sequence of legal moves that transfer the k + 1 discs from heap 1 to a different
heap. Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion: Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the priciple of mathe-
matical induction P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

Contents Page 5
4 M ONEY

M ONEY

Suppose you have an infinite supply of 2p and 5p coins. Prove that you can obtain n pence using only 2p and 5p
coins for all n ≥ 4.

Base case When n = 4 we use two 2p coins. Therefore, P (4) is true.

Induction hypothesis Assume that P (k ) holds for some k ≥ 4. That is, k pence can be obtained using only 2p
and 5p coins.

Induction step We must show that P (k + 1) is true; that is, k + 1 pence can be obtained using only 2p and 5p
coins.
Firstly suppose there is a 5p coin used to create the k pence.

Remove this 5p coin and replace it with three 2p coins.

This will give k + 1 pence as required.

Contents Page 6
 Now suppose there are no 5p coins used to create the k pence (for example if k = 4).

In this case we remove two 2p coins which must be present since k ≥ 4 and replace them with one 5p coin.

This will give k + 1 pence as required. Hence, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Therefore P (4) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Hence by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction, the proposition P (n ) is true for all value of the natural number n ≥ 4.

Contents Page 7
5 C OINS — REARRANGING

C OINS

You have a collection of coins. You want to arrange them in continuous rows so each coin touches 2 coins below.
How many different ways are there to arrange the coins when you have 2 coins, 3 coins, 4 coins, and so on.

Some initial arrangements are:

The sequence goes:

1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 18, 26, 38, 53, . . .
You can look this sequence up on the Internet using ’The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences’ (http://oeis.org)
and all you get is:

Number of stacks, or arrangements of n pennies in contiguous rows, each touching 2 in row below

We cannot prove anything by induction since we do not have a closed form for the number of ways given n coins.

Contents Page 8
6 G OODSTEIN ’ S T HEOREM

The hereditary representation of:

+1
+ 2 2 +1 + 2 .
2
◁ 266 in base 2 is 266 = 28 + 23 + 2 = 22
2
+1
◁ 35 in base 2 is 35 = 22 + 2 + 1.
◁ Take a number in hereditary base two notation and increase the base from 2 to 3:

– 22 +1 + 22+1 + 2 goes to 33 +1 + 33+1 + 3.

2 3

2 3
– 22 + 2 + 1 goes to 33 + 3 + 1.

◁ Subtract one.

– 33 +1 + 33+1 + 3 goes to 33 +1 + 33+1 + 2.

3 3

3 3
– 33 + 3 + 1 goes to 33 + 3.

◁ Now increase the base by 1 and then subtract 1.

– 33 +1 + 33+1 + 2 goes to 44 +1 + 44+1 + 1.

3 4

3 4
– 33 + 3 goes to 44 + 3.

◁ Amazingly this sequence will always converge to zero!

– Starting with 4 we reach a maximum of 3 × 10402653210 − 1. Stay there for 3 × 10402653209 steps, then
decrease to zero.
– Starting with 19, after 7 steps we have a number of the order 10369693099 .

◁ ’Amazingly to the power of 11’ it is mathematical impossible to prove this result by induction. (It is indepen-
dent of Peano arthimetic.)

Contents Page 9
 PART A
I NDUCTION — F URTHER DETAILS
1 I NDUCTION AT A- LEVEL

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove ∑nr=1 r = 12 n (n + 1).

There are a number of motivational arguments for this result.

A RGUMENT 1

This creates a rectangle which is 10 units by 11 units. The number of squares is equal to 10 × 11. However, we
only want half of them so the final total is 10×2 11 . This method clearly generalises to n .

A RGUMENT 2
n
Let s = ∑ r . Then
r =1
s= 1+ 2+ 3+ ... +98 +99 +100
s= 100+ 99+ 98+ ... +3 +2 +1
+
2s = 101 +101 +101 ... +101 +101 +101
Simplifying gives 2s = 100 × 101 since there are 100 lots of 101 on the right-hand side. Thus

100 × 101
s= .
2
This clearly generalises to n .

F ORMAL ARGUMENT — P ROOF BY INDUCTION

At A-level, after introducting these motivational arguments, we then tell them to prove the result by mathematical
induction. When asked how convincing the proof by induction is, the response is typically as follows:

How convinced are you? (1 high, 3 low)

Argument Student Academic Early Student
1 Rank 3 Rank 1/2 Rank 1/2
2 Rank 2 Rank 1/2 Rank 1/2
3 Rank 1 Rank 3 Rank 3

A. Induction — Further details Page 12

Q UESTION 2
Prove by induction that
12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)(n −1) n 2 = (−1)(n −1)
n (n + 1 )
.
2
for all natural numbers n .

A typical solution to this question would consist of:

◁ Check n = 1, properly!
◁ Assume true for n = k .
◁ Do some algebra to to get n = k + 1 out.
◁ Add some memorised lines at the end.
◁ Smile and move on.

The solution is pretty straight forward , but we are we doing?

A. Induction — Further details Page 13

2 W HAT IS MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION ?

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove by induction that

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)(n −1) n 2 = (−1)(n −1)
n (n + 1 )
.
2
for all natural numbers n .

What are we REALLY being asked to do?

◁ Statement 1:
12 = (−1)(1−1)
1 (1 + 1 )
.
2
◁ Statement 2:
12 − 22 = (−1)(2−1)
2 (2 + 1 )
.
2
◁ Statement 3:
12 − 22 + 32 = (−1)(3−1)
3 (3 + 1 )
.
2
◁ The proposition is asking us to verify an ’infinite number of statements’.

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove by induction that

2n > n
for all natural numbers n .

◁ Statement 1: 21 > 1.
◁ Statement 2: 22 > 2.
◁ Statement 3: 23 > 3.
◁ Statement 4: 24 > 4.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove the following by induction:

(x n ) = nx n −1
d
dx
for all natural numbers n .

d
◁ Statement 1: ( x ) = 1.
dx
d
◁ Statement 2: (x 2 ) = 2x .
dx
d
◁ Statement 3: (x 3 ) = 3x 2 .
dx
d
◁ Statement 4: (x 4 ) = 4x 3 .
dx
◁ ...

A. Induction — Further details Page 14

 T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove by induction that

7 n − 2n
is divisible by 5, for all natural numbers n .

◁ Statement 1: 71 − 21 is divisible by 5.
◁ Statement 2: 72 − 22 is divisible by 5.
◁ Statement 3: 73 − 23 is divisible by 5.
◁ Statement 4: 74 − 24 is divisible by 5.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Prove by induction that you can obtain n pence using only 2p and 5p coins for all n ≥ 4.

◁ 4 pence can be obtained using only 2p and 5p coins.

◁ 5 pence can be obtained using only 2p and 5p coins.
◁ 6 pence can be obtained using only 2p and 5p coins.
◁ 7 pence can be obtained using only 2p and 5p coins.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

For n ≥ 3, the sum of the angles in a convex n -gon is 180(n − 2) degrees.

◁ A convex 3-gon has ‘angle sum’ 180 degrees.

◁ A convex 4-gon has ‘angle sum’ 360 degrees.
◁ A convex 5-gon has ‘angle sum’ 540 degrees.
◁ A convex 6-gon has ‘angle sum’ 720 degrees.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Every natural number is the sum of distinct, non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

◁ The number 1 is the sum of distinct, non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

◁ The number 2 is the sum of distinct, non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
◁ The number 3 is the sum of distinct, non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
◁ The number 4 is the sum of distinct, non-consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
◁ ...

A. Induction — Further details Page 15

 T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

If x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n are real numbers then

∣x 1 ∣ + ∣x 2 ∣ + ⋅⋅⋅ + ∣x n ∣ ≥ ∣x 1 + x 2 + . . . + x n ∣

◁ ∣x 1 ∣ ≥ ∣x 1 ∣.
◁ ∣x 1 ∣ + ∣x 2 ∣ ≥ ∣x 1 + x 2 ∣.
◁ ∣ x 1 ∣ + ∣ x 2 ∣ + ∣ x 3 ∣ ≥ ∣ x 1 + x 2 + x 3 ∣.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

(n − r )!r ! divides n! for all 0 ≤ r ≤ n .

(So the binomial coefficients are always integers, which is NOT obvious from just the formula.)

◁ (1 − r )r ! divides 1! for all 0 ≤ r ≤ 1.

◁ (2 − r )r ! divides 2! for all 0 ≤ r ≤ 2.
◁ (3 − r )r ! divides 3! for all 0 ≤ r ≤ 3.
◁ ...

T YPICAL INDUCTION QUESTION

Suppose there are n different sized discs which can be placed in three heaps 1, 2 and 3. A disc may be moved
legally from the top of one heap to the top of another heap provided that it is not placed on top of a smaller disc.
Initially the discs are all on heap 1; with the largest at the bottom and in decreasing order of size up the pile. The
other two piles are empty. Prove there exists a sequence of legal moves which will transfer all the discs to heap
2.

◁ Given two integers m and n , with n ≠ 0, there exist unique integers q and r such that m = bn + r and
0 ≤ r < ∣n ∣.

◁ Prime factorisation.
◁ Remainder and Factor theorem.
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn √
◁ For x 1 , . . . , x n ∈ R and positive, ≥ n x1 x2 . . . xn .
n
◁ and so on ...

P ROPOSTIONS

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)n −1 n 2 = (−1)n −1
n (n + 1 )
.
2
We want to show:

A. Induction — Further details Page 16

Or as symbols
{n ∈ N ∣ P (n ) is true} = N.
How can we show that a set S is equal to the set of natural numbers, N? The following conditions allow us to
show that a set S is equal to the set of natural numbers, N:

◁ If the set S contains 1.

◁ If when the set S contains k ∈ N then the set S also contains k + 1.

Then S = N. (Whether we start from 1 or 0 is the source of many a mathematical punch-up.)

It is important to realise that we have an if–then statement and we never declare that P (k ) IS true! So we never
write just ’P (k ) is true’, without a suppose.
These conditions are axioms, they cannot be derived.
P ROOF BY INDUCTION

To prove that a set S is equal to the set of natural numbers, N, we check:

◁ If the set S contains 1.

◁ If when the set S contains k ∈ N then the set S also contains k + 1.

For proof by induction the set S is the set {n ∈ N ∣ P (n ) is true. }.

A. Induction — Further details Page 17

3 W HY DO WE NEED ALL THE BITS ?

What happens if we do not perform all the steps required in a proof by mathematical induction?
E XAMPLE

Let P (n ) be the proposition that n + 1 < n for n ≥ 1.

Suppose P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1. Then k + 1 < k .
We need to prove that P (k + 1) is true; that is, k + 2 < k + 1.

k + 2 = (k + 1 ) + 1
< k +1 By the induction hypothesis
= k + 1.

Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

In this example we have only prove that if n + 1 < n is true for any value of n , then it is true for all values of n .
However, we have not verified that n + 1 < n is true for any value of n . This means we cannot deduce that n + 1 < n
for all values of n . Since there is no base case the proof fails.

Q UESTION 3

◁ Suppose P (n ) is the statement n 2 + 5n + 1 is even. Prove that if P (k ) is true then P (k + 1) is true.

◁ Suppose P (n ) is the statement n 2 + 5n + 1 is odd. Prove that if P (k ) is true then P (k + 1) is true.

Q UESTION 4
In fact, n 2 + 5n + 1 is odd for all natural numbers n ! Prove this.

E RMINTRUDE THE COW

Let P (n ) be the proposition that ’for any group of n cows they are all the same colour’

◁ Clear a single cow is the same colour as itself, so P (1) is true.

◁ Suppose P (k ) is true, so ANY collection of k cows are the same colour.
Consider some collection of k + 1 cows.

A. Induction — Further details Page 18

 Send one cow away.

The remaining k cows are the same colour.

Bring the cow back and send a different cow away.

We now have a collection of k cows, which must all the same colour.

A. Induction — Further details Page 19

 Bring the cow back and we now have k + 1 cows all of the same colour.

We have proven that P (1) is true and that P (k ) Ô⇒ P (k + 1) for k ≥ 2.

The mistake here is that P (k ) does not imply P (k + 1) for any k ≥ 1. In particular, it fails when k = 2, indeed the
implication fails only for this case.
F IBONACCI N UMBERS

The Fibonacci number are defined by F 1 = 0, F 2 = 1 and F n +1√ = Fn + Fn −1 for all n ≥ 2.

1 + 5
Let r be the positive real solution of r 2 = r + 1; that is, r = .
2

Let P (n ) be the proposition that F n = r n −2 for each Fibonacci number smaller than n .
Suppose P (k ) is true. Then F k = r k −2 .
We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is F k +1 = r k −1 .
We have

F k +1 = F k + F k −1
= r k −2 + r k −3
= r k −3 (r + 1 )
= r k −3 r 2 since r 2 = r + 1
= r k −1 .

Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
But we didn’t check P (1) which is false, F 1 = 1, which is not r 1−2 = r −1 .

Q UESTION 5
Where is the mistake in the following proof by induction?
Let F 1 = 0 and F 2 = 1 and define F n +1 = F n + F n −1 for all n ≥ 1. Let P (n ) be the proposition that F r is even 0 ≤ r ≤ n
for all natural numbers n .
Clearly P (1) is true, since F 1 = 0 is even.

A. Induction — Further details Page 20

Suppose P (k ) is true. That is, all F r are even for 0 ≤ r ≤ k .
Now F k +1 = F k + F k −1 is the sum of two even numbers so is even.
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
Since P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction
P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

Q UESTION 6
What is wrong with the following proof?
Let P (n ) be the proposition that n 2 − n + 41 is prime for all natural numbers n .
We have
12 − 1 + 41 = 41,
22 − 2 + 41 = 43,
32 − 3 + 41 = 47,
42 − 4 + 41 = 53,
52 − 5 + 41 = 61.
Each of these numbers is prime and this pattern clearly continues for each n , so n 2 − n + 41 is prime for all natural
numbers n .

Q UESTION 7
What is wrong with the following proof by induction?
Let P (n ) be the proposition that if n straight lines are drawn across a circular disc, such that no three meet in the
same point, then they divide the disc into 2n −1 parts.

Counting the number of regions gives:

Points Number of regions
1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5 16

Clearly the pattern for the number of regions continues and we have 2n −1 regions.

S UMMARY

◁ We need to show that the set of values for which P (n ) is true is the same as the set of natural numbers.
◁ We need to verify that P (1) is true.
◁ We need to check that if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true.
◁ This all has to be written formally.

A. Induction — Further details Page 21

4 E XAMPLES

T ILING A GRID

Consider the following tiles:

For all n ≥ 0 there exists a tiling, using only the four L-shaped tiles above, of a 2n × 2n square grid with one square
removed.

For any of these infinitely many boards we are going to show how if precisely one square is removed at random
from such a board, you can always tile what remains using the below tiles!
With a 2 by 2 board this is easy: whichever square is removed you are left with 3 squares which form an L-shape!

We’re now going to show you how it’s done with an 8 by 8 board. Imagine a square has been removed at random.

◁ The trick is to break the board up into four 4 by 4 boards as indicated by the red lines (notice that 4 is one
power of two down from 8). Three of the 4 by 4 boards do not have a square removed.

◁ Place a tile which covers the middle corner square of each of the 4 by 4 boards which have not yet had
a square removed. We now just have the problem of dealing with 4 by 4 boards each with one square
removed!

◁ So, using the same idea as before, break each of these 4 by 4 boards up into four 2 by 2 boards.
◁ In each of the 4 by 4 boards, three of the 2 by 2 boards have no square removed. So place a tile covering
the ‘middle corner’ square of each 2 by 2 board which does not yet have a square removed.

◁ We are left with sixteen 2 by 2 boards, all with a square missing, so slot in one L-shaped tile for each 2 by
2 board!

The logic behind proving the statement for an 8 × 8 board is

◁ We can prove the statement for any 2 × 2 board;

◁ Hence we can prove the statement for any 4 × 4 board;

A. Induction — Further details Page 22

 ◁ Hence we can prove the statement for any 8 × 8 board.
We need to formalise how we would continue this line of reasoning for any 2n × 2n board.

Written out properly Let P (n ) be the proposition that for any n a 2n × 2n with one square removed can be
covered using only the four tiles

Suppose n = 1 then we have a 2 × 2 board. Removing one square will leave exactly one of the tiles given in the
list. Hence, the board can be covered with on of the tiles in the list.
Suppose that P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is, a 2k × 2k board with one square removed can be tiled using only
the four given tiles.
Consider a 2k +1 × 2k +1 board. This board consists of 4 copies of a 2k × 2k board. We remove one tile, this must
be contained in one of the four 2k × 2k boards. At the meeting point of the remaining three boards we can use
one of the four permitted tiles to cover the three squares at the meeting point. Hence, we now have four 2k × 2k
boards each with one tile missing.

By the induction hypothesis each of these boards can be tiled using only the four permitted tiles. Hence,
Therefore, the entire 2k +1 × 2k +1 board can be tiled using only the four permitted tiles. Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
Hence, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction the proposition P (n ) is true for all values of the natural number
n.
TOWER OF H ANOI

Suppose there are n different sized discs which can be placed in three heaps 1, 2 and 3. A disc may be moved
legally from the top of one heap to the top of another heap provided that it is not placed on top of a smaller disc.
Initially the discs are all on heap 1; with the largest at the bottom and in decreasing order of size up the pile. The
other two piles are empty. Prove there exists a sequence of legal moves which will transfer all the discs to heap
3.

A solution to this problem when there are three discs is given by:

A. Induction — Further details Page 23

The proposition we wish to prove is, P (n ): The minimum number of moves required to move n disc from the
heap 1 to heap 3 is 2n − 1.

Base case In the case of the tower of hanoi, the starting point is n = 1. In this case there is one disc and hence
one move is required to move this disc from heap 1 to heap 3. In this case P (1) is the statement that
the minimum number of moves to move the roof from the left tower to the right tower is 21 − 1 = 1 moves.
Therefore, P (1) is true.

Induction hypothesis Suppose that P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1. In other words, the minimum number of moves
to required to move k discs from the heap 1 to heap 3 is 2k − 1.

Induction step We now need to show that this supposition allows us to deduce that the minimum number of
moves with k + 1 discs is 2k +1 − 1.
Suppose there are k + 1 discs on heap 1. The induction hypothesis allows us to move the top k disc to heap
3 in a minimum of 2k − 1 moves. But it actually tells us more than this, it tells us we can move the top k disc
from any heap to any different heap in a minimum of 2k − 1 moves. Therefore, by the induction hypothesis
we can move the k discs on the heap 1 to heap 2 in 2k − 1 moves.
We can now move the k + 1th disc (the largest disc) to heap 3. Once we have done this the induction
hypothesis tells us that we can move the k disc on heap 2 to heap 3 in a minimum of 2k − 1 moves.
To complete the induction step we just need to add up the number of moves and check it is what we expect
from P (k + 1). Indeed, the total number of moves is:

2k − 1 + 1 + 2k − 1 = 2×2k −1 = 2k +1 −1.
² ® ²
Move k discs to heap 2 Move large disc to heap 3 Move k discs from heap 2 to heap 3

Conclusion Therefore P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Hence by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction, the proposition P (n ) is true for all value of the natural number n .

I NTEGRATION

The number of subsets of a set with n elements is 2n .

Let P (n ) be the proposition that a set with n elements has 2n subsets.

Base case (n = 0 or n = 1 both work) Suppose n = 1. Since any 1-element set has 2 subsets, namely the empty
set and the set itself, and 21 = 2, the statement P (1) is true.

Induction hypothesis Suppose the proposition P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is, any k -element set has 2k
subsets.

Induction step We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is, any set with k + 1 elements has 2k +1 subsets.
Let A be a set with k + 1 elements. Let a be an element of A .
Consider A ′ = A − {a }. (That is, the set A ′ is the set A without the element a .) The set A ′ has k elements.
Any subset of A either contains a or it does not.
Those subsets of A are exactly the subsets of A ′ . By the induction hypothesis there are 2k such subsets.
Any subset of A that contains a must have the form B ′ ∪ {a }. That is, it is a subset of A ′ with a included.
There are 2k subsets of A ′ and thus 2k subsets of A that contain a .
Therefore, there are 2k + 2k = 2k +1 subsets of A . This shows that P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

D IFFERENTIATION

Prove the following by induction:

(x n ) = nx n −1
d
dx
for all natural numbers n .

A. Induction — Further details Page 24

Let P (n ) be the proposition that
(x n ) = nx n −1 .
d
dx
Base case When n = 1, we have d
dx
( x 1 ) = 1. Moreover, 1 × x 1−1 = 1. Therefore, the proposition is true when n = 1
and P (1) is true.

Induction hypothesis Suppose that P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is,

(x k ) = kx k −1 .
d
dx

Induction step We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is,

(x k +1 ) = (k + 1)x k .
d
dx
Using the product rule we have

( x k +1 )
d d
= (x k × x )
dx dx
d d
= (x k ) × x + x k (x )
dx dx
= k × x k −1 × x + x k × 1
= x k (k + 1 )

Here the induction hypothesis is used for the third equality. Hence, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition is true for all natural numbers n .

I NEQUALITIES

Prove the following by induction: 2n + 1 < 2n for all natural numbers n ≥ 3.

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

2n + 1 < 2n .

Base case When n = 3, we have 2 × 3 + 1 = 7. Moreover, 23 = 8. Therefore, the proposition is true when n = 3.

Induction hypothesis Suppose the P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 3; that is,

2k + 1 < 2k

Induction step When n = k + 1 we need to show that

2k + 3 = 2(k + 1) + 1 < 2k +1

When n = k + 1.

2 (k + 1 ) + 1 = 2k + 2 + 1
= 2k + 1 + 2
< 2k + 2
< 2k + 2k
= 2 × 2k
= 2 k +1

Here the induction hypothesis is used for the first inequality. The second inequality follows since 2 < 2k for
k ≥ 3. Hence, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition is true for all natural numbers n ≥ 3.

A. Induction — Further details Page 25

 D IVISIBILITY

Prove by mathematical induction that f (n ) = 7n − 2n is divisible by 5 for all natural numbers n .

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

f (n ) = 7 n − 2 n
is divisible by 5.

Base case Suppose n = 1, then f (1) = 71 − 21 = 5. This is clearly divisible by 5. Therefore, the proposition is true
when n = 1.

Induction hypothesis Suppose the proposition P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is,

f (k ) = 7 k − 2 k

is divisible by 5. Thus f (k ) = 7k − 2k = 5M for some natural number M .

Induction step Consider the case when n = k + 1, we need to show that

f (k + 1) = 7k +1 − 2k +1

is divisible by 5.
When n = k + 1 it follows that

f (k + 1 ) − f (k ) = 7k +1 − 2k +1 − (7k − 2k )
= 7k +1 − 7k − 2k +1 + 2k
= 7k × (7 − 1) − 2k × (2 − 1)
= 6 × 7k − 2k
= (5 + 1) × 7k − 2k
= 5 × 7k + 7k − 2k
= 5 × 7 k + f (k ).

Hence f (k + 1) − f (k ) = 5 × 7k + f (k ). By the induction hypothesis f (k ) is divisible by 5, which implies

f (k + 1) − f (k ) is divisible by 5. So f (k + 1) − f (k ) = 5N for some natural number N . Thus f (k + 1) =
5N + f (k ). By the induction hypothesis f (k ) is divisible by 5, hence f (k + 1) is divisible by 5. Hence
P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

S EQUENCES

A sequence (u n ) is defined by u 1 = 7 and u n +1 = 7u n − 3. Prove the following using mathematical induction:

(13 × 7n −1 ) + 1
un =
2
for all natural numbers n .

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

(13 × 7n −1 ) + 1
un = .
2
(13×70 )+1
Base case Suppose n = 1, then u 1 = 2
= 7. This is just the value of u 1 as defined. Therefore, the
proposition is true when n = 1.

Induction hypothesis Suppose the proposition P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is,

(13 × 7k −1 ) + 1
uk =
2

A. Induction — Further details Page 26

Induction step Consider the case when n = k + 1, we need to show that

(13 × 7k ) + 1
u k +1 = .
2
The definition of the sequence (u n ) implies that:

u k +1 = 7u k − 3
(13 × 7k −1 ) + 1
= 7( )−3
2
k
13 × 7 + 7
= −3
2
13 × 7k + 7 − 6
=
2
13 × 7k + 1
= .
2
The second equality follows from the induction hypothesis. Hence, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

I NTEGRATION

Show that for all n ≥ 0 ∞

∫ x n e −x d x = n!.
0

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

∞
∫ x n e −x d x = n!
0

Base case Suppose n = 0. We have

∞ ∞
∫ e −x d x = [−e −x ]0 = 0 + 1 = 1 = 0!.
0

Therefore, P (1) is true.

Induction hypothesis Suppose the proposition P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 0; that is,
∞
∫ x k e −x d x = k!
0

Induction step We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is,

∞
∫ x k +1 e − x d x = (k + 1 )!
0

The induction step is performed using integration by parts (which is exactly how you would derive the result
in the first place)!
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ x k +1 e −x d x = [x k +1 × (−e −x )]0 + ∫ e − x (k + 1 ) x k d x
0 0
∞
= 0 + (k + 1 ) ∫ e −x x k d x
0
= (k + 1)k! By the induction hypothesis.
= (k + 1)!

Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principle of Mathe-
matical Induction the proposition P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .

A. Induction — Further details Page 27

 C ONVERGENCE OF SEQUENCES

1. Prove that the cube root of an irrational number is irrational.

√ 1
2. You are given that 3
5 is irrational. Let a n = 5 3n . Prove that the sequence (a n ) is irrational for all n ∈ N.

3. Deduce that given m ∈ Z there exists a sequence of irrational numbers converging to m . (You may assume
that as n tend to infinity that 31n → 0.)

1 p p3
1. Let y be irrational. Suppose for a contradiction that y 3 = q
where p, q ∈ Z and q ≠ 0. Then y = q3
is a rational
number since p 3 and q 3 ≠ 0 are integers. This contradiction establishes the result.
1
2. Let P (n ) be the proposition that a n = 5 3n is irrational.
√
3
Base case When n = 1 we have a 1 = 5. We are given that this number is irrational, hence P (1) is true.
1
Induction hypothesis Suppose P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is, then a k = 5 3k is irrational.
1
Induction step We need to prove that a k +1 = 5 3k +1 is irrational. Now
1
1 1 3
5 3k +1 = (5 3k )

1
by the indices laws. By the induction hypothesis 5 3k is irrational and we have proved that the cube root
1
of an irrational number is irrational. Therefore, 5 3k +1 is irrational. Hence P (k ) is true.
Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore, by the Principal of
Mathematical Induction P (n ) is true for all n ∈ N.

3. Let m ∈ Z. Define u n = ma n . Then as n → ∞ it follows that a n → 1 and so u n → m .

This proof has combined several things we’ve seen before: direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by induction
and then combining results to prove a new result.
The fact we have assumed 31n → 0 as n → ∞. This is used at A-level when we sum an infinite geometric series
and deduce that
a (1 − x n +1 ) a
→
1−x 1−x
when −1 < x < 1.
F IBONACCI N UMBERS

Every positive integer can be represented as the sum of one or more distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way
that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. (In fact, it is unique, but we don’t prove
this, although it can be done by induction.)

An example and non-example of such expressions are:

100 = 89 + 8 + 3, yes100 = 89 + 8 + 2 + 1. no

Let P (n ) be the proposition that each integer r with 1 ≤ r ≤ n can be represented as the sum of one of more
distinct Fibonacci numbers, with the sum not including any two consecutive numbers.

Base case The true of P (1) is clear, since r = n = 1 is a Fibonacci number.

Induction hypothesis Now suppose that P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1. That is, for every positive integer r with
1 ≤ r ≤ k can be represented as the sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers and the sum does not include any
two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.

A. Induction — Further details Page 28

Induction step We need to show that P (k + 1) is true. That is, for every positive interger r with 1 ≤ r ≤ k + 1 can be
represented as the sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers and the sum does not include any two consecutive
Fibonacci numbers. Clearly, we just need to check the case r = k + 1 (the induction hypothesis deals with
the other cases.)
If k + 1 is a Fibonacci number then we are done and P (k + 1) is true. Now suppose k + 1 is not a Fibonacci
number, then there exists i such that F i < k + 1 < F i +1 .
Now k + 1 = F i + n for some positive integer n . If we can show that n is the sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers
that do not include F i −1 then we are done.
Now n = k + 1 − F i . The largest that n can be is k , so 0 < n ≤ k . (If n = 0, then k + 1 = F i and if n = k , then F i = 1
and so k + 1 = 2 and the proposition is clearly two.) So we may now assume n = k + 1 − F i < k . But by the
induction hypothesis we know that n is the sum of distinct Fibonacci numbers with the sum not including
two consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
We finally need to check that the sum n does not include F i −1 for otherwise k + 1 = F i + n would contain the
consecutive Fibonacci numbers F i and F i −1 .
Suppose F i −1 was contained in the representation of n , then since F i +1 = F i + F i −1 we have

k + 1 = F i + n = F i + F i −1 + m = F i +1 + m > F i +1 .

This is a contraction, therefore, the representation of n does not contain F i −1 . Therefore P (k + 1) is true.

Conclusion Since P (1) is true and the truth of P (k ) implies the truth of P (k + 1) the principle of mathematical
induction implies that P (n ) holds for all natural numbers n .

I NFINITELY MANY PRIMES

The n th Fermat number, F n , is defined by

n
F n = 22 + 1
for n ∈ N.

1. It is claimed that
F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F n −1 = F n − 2 (A.1)
for all n ∈ N.
Prove by induction that Equation (A.1) holds for all natural numbers.

2. Hence, deduce that no two Fermat numbers have a common factor greater than 1.

3. Hence, prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers.

[Hint: You will find it useful to recall that if n is an odd number then the only common factor of n and n − 2 is 1.]

1. Let P (n ) be the proposition that

F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F n −1 = F n − 2.

Base case When n = 1 we need to check that

F 0 = F 1 − 2.
We have F 0 = 3 and F 1 = 5. Hence, since 3 = 5 − 2, P (1) is true.
Induction hypothesis Suppose P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is,

F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F k −1 = F k − 2.

Induction step We need to show that

F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F k −1 F k = F k +1 − 2

A. Induction — Further details Page 29

 By the induction hypothesis
F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F k −1 F k = (F k − 2 )F k
k k
= (22 + 1 − 2)(22 + 1)
k k
= (22 − 1)(22 + 1)
k k
= 22 × 22 − 1
k +1
= 22 −1
2 k +1
= 2 +1−2
= Fk +1 − 2.
Thus if P (k ) is true it follows that P (k + 1) is true.
Conclusion Hence, P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true. Therefore it follows by the Principle
of Mathematical Induction that P (n ) is true for all natural numbers n .
2. Suppose F a and F b have a common factor m . We may assume that a < b (otherwise just flip the two numbers
round). By our proved result
F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F a . . . F b −1 = F b − 2.
So m divides F 0 F 1 F 2 . . . F a . . . F b −1 and thus m divides F b − 2. This implies that F b and F b − 2 have a common
factor m . Since F b is odd, it follows that the only common factor of F b and F b − 2 is 1. Therefore, m = 1.
3. Any Fermat number must either be prime or can be factorised into prime factors. Since no two Fermat numbers
have a common factor greater than 1, each Fermat number must consist of primes or prime factors different to
all other Fermat numbers. Clearly there are an infinite number of Fermat numbers so there must be an infinite
number of primes.

To prove the fact given in the question, suppose n and n − 2 are divisible by p . Then n = pr for some integer r
and n − 2 = ps for some integer s . Subtracting gives 2 = pr − ps = p (r − s ). Since p and r − s are integers either
p = 1 and r − s = 2 or p = 2 and r − s = 1. Suppose p = 2, then an even number divides into the odd number n . This
contradiction shows that p = 1 giving the result.
P IRATES GOLD

Some pirates have got hold of some gold bars. The gold bars are 2 × 1 units in size. The pirates have boxes which
are 2 × n in size.
The pirates wonder how many different ways there are to arrange the gold in: 2 × 2, 2 × 3, 2, 2 × 5 and 2 × n boxes.

One arrangement in a 2 × 8 box is:

It shoud be clear that that this actually can be proved by induction:

So, we get the relation

P n = P n −1 + P n −2
This relation can be proved by induction.

A. Induction — Further details Page 30

5 P ROPOSITIONS THAT LOOK LIKE THEY CAN BE PROVED BY INDUCTION

G OLDBACH CONJECTURE

Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.

Comments:

◁ Examples are: 4 = 2 + 2, 10 = 3 + 7 = 5 + 5, 100 = 47 + 53.

◁ Not asserting uniqueness or distinct primes.
◁ Proved by hand up to 105 by Nils Pipping in 1938.
◁ Extended by computer up to 1018 .
◁ Unproved generally as of when I wrote this sentence.

A. Induction — Further details Page 31

 PART B
S OLUTIONS AND FURTHER DETAILS
S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 1:

Coins Final total

1 0
2 1
3 3
4 6
5 10
6 15
7 21
8 28
9 36
10 45

We might conjecture that: the final total is always 21 n (n − 1). How do we prove this?

◁ There are 12 n (n − 1) handshakes (edges) between the coins.

◁ To get each coin on its own we need to remove each edge.
We now prove this by mathematical induction. Let P (n ) be the proposition that given any pile of n coins, then no matter how the piles of split
the final total is always
1
f (n ) = n (n − 1).
2
When n = 1, we have one coin, there is no second coin so the final total will be 0. Moreover, 12 × 1 × 0 = 0. Therefore, P (1) is true.
Suppose P (k ) is true for all 2 ≤ i ≤ k with k ≥ 1. That is,
1
f (i ) = i (i − 1).
2
We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is,
1
f (k + 1) = k (k + 1).
2
Suppose we have k + 1 coins. Let 1 ≤ i ≤ k . Then split the (k + 1) coins into a pile of i and (k + 1) − i coins.
The product is now given by
i [(k + 1) − i ].
Since i ≤ k and (k + 1) − i ≤ k we have
1 1
f (i ) = i (i − 1 ) f (k + 1 − i ) = (k + 1 − i )(k − i ).
2 2
So the final product will be
1 1
i (k + 1 − i ) + f (i ) + f (k + 1 − i ) = i (k + 1 − i ) + i (i − 1) + (k + 1 − i )(k − i )
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹¶ 2 2
Product for current pile
1
= [2i k + 2i − 2i 2 + i 2 − i + k 2 − ki + k − i − i k + i 2 ]
2
1
= (k + 1)k.
2
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true. Since P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true, by mathematical induction P (n ) is true for all natural
numbers n .
In a very real sense, the formal proof by induction is far less convincing that the argument using the graph!

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 2:

Let P (n ) be the proposition that

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)n −1 n 2 = (−1)n −1
n (n + 1 )
.
2

B. Solutions and further details Page 34

When n = 1, then
(−1)(1−1)
1 (1 + 1 ) 1×2
= = 1.
2 2
12
Also = 1. Therefore, P (1) is true.
Assume P (k ) is true for some k ≥ 1; that is,

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)k −1 k 2 = (−1)k −1
k (k + 1 )
.
2
We need to prove that P (k + 1) is true; that is,

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)k −1 k 2 + (−1)k (k + 1)2 = (−1)k

(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
We have
12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + . . . + (−1)k −1 k 2 +(−1)k (k + 1)2
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
First k terms

= (−1)k −1
k (k + 1)
+ (−1)k (k + 1)2 (by the induction hypothesis)
2

= (−1) k (k + 1)
[(−1)−1 k + 2(k + 1)]
2
(k + 1)
= (−1)k [−k + 2k + 2]
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= (−1)k .
2
Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
Since P (1) is true and if P (k ) is true, then P (k + 1) is true, the principle of mathematical induction implies P (n ) is true for all natural numbers
n.

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 3:

◁ Suppose P (k ) is true; that is k 2 + 5k + 1 is even. We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is,

(k + 1)2 + 5(k + 1) + 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 + 5k + 5 + 1 = k 2 + 7k + 7
is even.
Since
k 2 + 7k + 7 = k 2 + 5k + 1 + (2k + 6) = k 2 + 5k + 1 + 2 (k + 3 )
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
Assumed to be even even
it follows that k 2 + 7k + 7 is even. Indeed, since we’ve assumed P (k ) is true, k 2 + 5k + 1 is even and 2(k + 3) is even and the sum of
two even numbers is even. Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.
◁ Suppose P (k ) is true; that is k 2 + 5k + 1 is odd. We need to show that P (k + 1) is true; that is,

(k + 1)2 + 5(k + 1) + 1 = k 2 + 2k + 1 + 5k + 5 + 1 = k 2 + 7k + 7
is odd.
Since
k 2 + 7k + 7 = k 2 + 5k + 1 + (2k + 6) = k 2 + 5k + 1 + 2 (k + 3 )
´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶ ´¹¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¸ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¹ ¶
Assumed to be odd even
it follows that k 2 + 7k + 7 is odd. Indeed, by the induction hypothesis k 2 + 5k + 1 is odd and 2(k + 3) is even and the sum of an even
number and an odd number is odd. Therefore, P (k + 1) is true.

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 4:

Suppose n is even. Then n = 2m for some m ∈ Z. Thus

n 2 + 5n + 1 = (2m )2 + 5(2m ) + 1 = 4m 2 + 10m + 1 = 2(2m 2 + 5m ) + 1

Since 2m 2 + 5m is an integer, 2(2m 2 + 5m ) + 1 is odd and it follows that n 2 + 5n + 1 is odd.

Suppose that n is odd. Then n = 2m + 1 for some m ∈ Z. Then
n 2 + 5n + 1 = (2m + 1)2 + 5(2m + 1) + 1 = 4m 2 + 14m + 7 = 2(2m 2 + 7m + 3) + 1.

Since 2m 2 + 7m + 3 is an integer, 2(2m 2 + 7m + 3) + 1 is odd. Therefore, n 2 + 5n + 1 is odd.

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 5:

The statement F k +1 = F k + F k −1 is false when k = 1. Since F k +1 = F 2 = 1.

B. Solutions and further details Page 35

We have proved P (1); P (1) and P (2) implies P (3); P (2) and P (3) implies P (4).
Since P (2) is not true and hence we have not verified that P (k ) implies P (k + 1).

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 6:

Except, 412 − 41 + 41 = 412 clearly is not prime!

Let P (n ) be the proposition that n 2 − n + 41 is prime for all natural numbers n .
When n = 1, 12 − 1 + 41 = 41 is prime. Therefore, P (1) is true.
Suppose P (k ) is true; that is, k 2 − k + 41 is prime.
We need to prove that P (k + 1) is true; that is, (k + 1)2 − (k + 1) + 41 is prime.
(k + 1)2 − (k + 1) + 41 = k 2 + 2k + 1 − k − 1 + 41
= (k 2 − k + 41) + 2k.
Now (k 2 −k +41) is prime, but this does not imply the resulting expression is prime. As we have seen, let k = 40 to generate a counter-example.

S OLUTION TO Q UESTION 7:

In fact we actually have the following:

Points Number of regions

1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5 16
6 31
7 57

In fact it gets worse, the actual formula is

n n
( ) + ( ) + 1.
4 2
You need to know that for a planar graph with V vertices, E edges and F faces, then V − E + F = 2. (This is Euler’s formula.)
◁ The number of faces F is equal to the number of regions, except there is an additional region outside the circle.
◁ Now we find V .
– Note there are n points on the circle.
– Now there are also some vertices where the edges cross. Now we create a new vertex when two edges cross: to create an
edge we need to select 2 of the n points. So to create two edges we need to select 4 of the n points. There are (n4 ) ways to do
this.
– Therefore, there are n + (n4 ) vertices.
◁ We now need to determine E .
– Firstly there are n edges which are the circular arcs.
– Next, at each of the (n4 ) interior vertices there are 4 edges. This gives 4(n4 ) edges.
– Next there are (n2 ) chords. (Each chord is determined by selecting 2 of the n points.)
– We have counted 2(n2 ) + 4(n4 ) edges. But each has been counted twice. So there are n + (n2 ) + 2(n4 ) edges.
◁ Euler’s formula now gives
n n n n n
F = 2 + E − V = 2 + n + ( ) + 2( ) − (n + ( )) = 2 + ( ) + ( ).
2 4 4 2 4
◁ But remember we have counted the face exterior to the circle, so the number of regions is F − 1.

B. Solutions and further details Page 36