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Determination of ground water quality of former Lake Haramaya, Oromia

Regional State, Ethiopia

Article  in  Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment · April 2012

DOI: 10.5897/JENE12.009

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Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment Vol. 4(7), pp. 194-200, April 2012
Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JENE
DOI: 10.5897/JENE12.009
ISSN 2006-9847©2012 Academic Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Determination of ground water quality of former Lake

Haramaya, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia
Zinabu Tebeje Zewdu
Institute of Technology, Haramaya University, Haramaya, P. O. Box 1069, Code 1110, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
E-mail: zinabut@yahoo.com. Tel: +251 911 383446.
Accepted 10 April, 2012

The assessment of the quality of available groundwater in a certain area is indispensable for the
development of human beings in every sector. This study conducted in 2010 assessed the groundwater
quality of former Lake Haramaya area to check its suitability for domestic purpose. Primary data were
collected from triplicate samples of six sources for physical, chemical and biological analysis. Based
on the physical analysis, the pH was within World Health Organization (WHO) standard unlike 33.3%
turbidity which was above the WHO guideline. The total dissolved solids (TDS) value indicated that the
2+
groundwater is classified as fresh water. The total hardness, concentrations of Iron (Fe ) and
2+
manganese (Mn ) ions in the groundwater are in the recommended interval. However, 50 and 33.3% of
the samples are above WHO recommendation for fluoride (F‾) and nitrate respectively. The
microbiological result indicates that treatment is necessary for 83.3% of the samples. Therefore,
attention shall be given for source protection than complicated treatment procedures. In these regard a
strong control and management system shall be introduced by establishing a committee who have a
stake on the resource. Though, ground water source is safer compared to other sources of water, the
study indicated the importance to conduct regular quality monitoring and treatment before use.

Key words: Drinking water, groundwater, Lake Haramaya, physical-chemical-biological parameters, well water.

INTRODUCTION

Water is an essential element for human and all other
living things. In addition to drinking, humans need water
for various purposes including bathing, washing and
cooking, as well as for industrial, agricultural and
recreational activities. Thus, the availability of adequate
water supply and its quality is essential for the existence
of life. Water used for drinking should be free from
pathogens, disease causing microbes, toxics or
physiologically undesirable chemicals, or biological
materials (Erah et al., 2002). However, pure water is
never found in nature. All water contains some level of
impurities which vary from dissolved gases, chemical
compounds, to suspended matters such as organisms
and dirt.
Water from various sources, surface as well as
subsurface, has been used for centuries to fulfill human
demand (Sandhu et al., 1976). The now extinct Lake
Haramaya had been the source of water for the towns of
Harar, Aweday, Haramaya and its surrounding
community for decades. The lake used to provide
freshwater for drinking, irrigation, fishing (Oreochromis
niloticus and Clarias gariepinus), animal watering, and for
migration birds. It has been used also for recreation
purpose for over 120,000 people in the region by the
local municipal (Brook, 2003, 1994). The lake, moreover,
used to give great view for the surrounding and keep the
ecology of the land. Haramaya University, one of the
pioneer universities in the country, was established five
decades before between Lake Haramaya and Gara
Muleta taking into consideration the beautiful view of the
lake. The 440 ha wide University has been using the lake
for teaching, demonstration, drinking and other activities
(Brook, 1994).
The previous Lake Haramaya was formulated from
rainfall precipitation and drains along the catchments. In
its hay days, Lake Haramaya boasted a depth of 10 to 12
m. A decade ago, the depth was 12 cm and currently
there no water at all (Figure 1). The Lake has been

Figure 1. Aerial photograph of Lake Haramaya, 1996 (left) and Lake Haramaya in its hay days (right).
enormously used for domestic water supplies of Harar,
Haramaya and Aweday towns and for irrigation by the
local farmers. This has caused the extinction of the lake
and consequently water supply shortage for Harar,
Aweday and Haramaya towns. To alleviate this problem,
exploration of other sources of water including ground
water was mandatory.
Groundwater is generally a preferred source for water
supply compared to other sources because of its
constant and good natural quality as well as relatively low
capital cost of water supply system development. It
however requires appropriate physical, chemical and
biological treatment, depending on the nature of existing
pollutants before being supplied for domestic uses.
In an effort to sustain the water supply for Harar,
Aweday and Haramaya towns, the Harari and Oromia
National Regional States investigated and developed
groundwater wells in the vicinity of the lake. Currently,
these wells supply domestic water for the three towns. In
addition, Haramaya University and the surrounding
community have been exploring the ground water source
in the area as well.
However, the current exploration in the surrounding is
not done in a scientific manner. The quality of the water is
unknown and the current ground water balance of the
area is not deeply studied. As a result, it is very hard to
predict the withdrawal amount and potential quality
problems associated with the water. This study aims to
assess the physical, chemical, and biological quality of
water and make appropriate recommendations based on
identified quality issues.
METHODOLOGY
The method applied in this study is primary data collection from
Zewdu 195
sampled wells in the vicinity of the lake and analysis for physical,
chemical and biological parameters.
The study was conducted in 2010. Ground water wells were
carefully selected in the vicinity former lake. A total of six samples
were taken in triplicate, four wells from the University premises (S2,
M1, A3 and A8), and two samples (H1 and H2) from Harar and
Oromia Water supply wells in the vicinity of the lake area.
The selected physical parameters for the study were temperature
(T), electric conductivity (EC), pH, turbidity and total dissolved
solids (TDS). The physical parameters were measured on site for
all identified wells using ELE international Conductivity meter 4071
U.K, ELE international pH/mV meter U.K, HANNA instruments HI
9635 microprocessor conductivity/TDS meter, and HANNA
instruments HI 93703 microprocessor turbidity meter using standard
procedures (Tortora et al., 2003; APHA, 2005).
Samples for biological analysis were taken carefully to avoid
accidental contamination during sampling. The ice box used to
carry samples were cleaned and disinfected after each use to avoid
contaminating bottles surface and the sampler's hands. Sterile
gloves were used during sampling to avoid external contamination.
Date and other relevant information were recorded and samples
were clearly labeled on site. Samples were kept at +4°C to
minimize changes that may occur in the bacterial content of water
as a result of exposure to light and heat. The samples were
transported within 24 h of collection and analyzed for biological
parameters in Haramaya University and Dire Dawa Water Bureau
laboratories. Examination was conducted as soon as possible after
sampling and certainly within 48 h. Samples were analyzed
according to a standard procedure using membrane filtration
method followed by incubation of the membrane to give direct count
of colonies after 24 h for total coliforms (Tortora et al., 2003; WHO,
2003; APHA, 2005).
For chemical analysis, triplicate samples were collected for
replication (accuracy) purpose using half a liter plastic bottles from
the wells. A total of 18 samples were collected. Separate analysis
of the three samples was conducted and average values were
taken. Chemical analysis of samples was conducted for anion and
cation determination including concentrations of nitrate (NO 3-) and
hardness following a standard laboratory procedure.
Nitrate (NO3-) was identified using UV Spectrophotometric
Screening Method (APHA, 2005); where, matched silica cell of 1 cm
196 J. Ecol. Nat. Environ.
Figure 2. Location of Lake Haramaya Basin, Eastern Ethiopia.
(UV -Visible spectrophotometer) was used at 220 and 275 nm. Both
the sample and standard were treated by 1 M HCl. A wavelength of
220 nm was used to obtain NO 3- reading and a wavelength of 275
nm to determine interference due to dissolved organic matter. Both
for sample and standards, two times the absorbance reading at 275
nm was subtracted from the reading at 220 nm to obtain
absorbance due to NO3-.
Hardness, which reads the concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions, was determined as indicated in the literature
(APHA, 2005). Accordingly, 100 ml sample was transferred to
conical flask. 2 ml buffer solution was added followed by about 0.4
g of solid indicator. Samples were titrated immediately but slowly
with continuous stirring until the last reddish tinge disappears and
blue color was observed. Reagent blank used for comparison was
titrated in a similar way as for the sample. Finally,
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) titrant was standardized
against calcium standard.
Description of the study area
The former Lake Haramaya is situated in the Eastern Ethiopia
highlands in Haramaya District, Eastern Hararghe Zone of Oromia
Regional State. It lies between 9°22’03’’ to 9°30’ N Latitude and
41°58’14’’ to 42°06' E Longitude (Figure 2). The catchment is
situated on the main road from Addis Ababa to Harar town at a
distance of 505 km form Addis Ababa and 20 km north - west of
Harar towns. The total area of the catchment is 5,030 ha of which
the area that the lake used to occupy 228 ha. The catchment also
covers part of the Haramaya town, Haramaya University, Bate
town, five peasant associations (Damota, Ifa-Bate, Tuji-Gebissa,
Ifa-Oromia and Guba-Selama (Behar, 2002).
Lake Haramaya was formed due to marine transgression in the
region from Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous time approximately
225 to 100 million years ago. The lake basin comprises of
undifferentiated lower complex basement rocks overlain by shallow
marine sediments of Triassic and Jurassic age. The major portions
of the agricultural soils in the catchment are very shallow and most
soils of the steeper slopes are unproductive truncates exposed to
the sub soils (Behar, 2002; Boselline et al., 2001; Brook, 1994).
In the former Lake Haramaya area, there are eight wells of which
two belongs to Oromia region (well number 7 and 6) and six to
Harar town (well number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8). Well number 8 is new
and has not started operation yet. Well number 3 is not working
because of sand in the well and its unsuitability for pumping. On the
other hand, Haramaya University has constructed 14 boreholes
since 1952. Of these wells, 4 are operational. The history of static
and dynamic head fluctuations of all wells are not known till now.
From the scattered records available in the University, the depth of
the wells range between 20 to 72 m. The static water level, dynamic
water level and the yield ranges from 17 to 20 m, 15 to 45 m, 1 to 5
L/s, respectively, for continuous discharge.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Analysis of ground water quality
Samples were taken from six wells in Haramaya
catchment for biological, chemical and physical tests. The
coordinates of the sampled points are shown in Table 1.
Physical analysis
All the physical analyses results of the samples have
been compared with standard values set by WHO (1981,
1984). The mean value of pH and turbidity of the
measured samples were found to be 7.39 ± 0.40 and
3.88 ± 3.88, respectively as shown in Table 2. The pH is
within the WHO standard. For turbidity however, 33.3% of
the samples were above the WHO guideline. The high
turbidity for well number “A3, M1 and S2” could be
directly related to leakage of water source from marshy
land surrounding the wells that was observed during the
study.
TDS was also measured in the laboratory. The result
(Table 2) indicates that, almost all water samples have
TDS less than 550 mg/L, the average being 488 mg/L. In
general, the groundwater of the study area is classified
as fresh water (TDS less than 1000 mg/L). The electric
 Zewdu 197

Table 1. Location coordinates of sampled wells.

S/N Description Northing Easting Remark

1 S2 09° 24' 16.4" 42° 01' 53.7" 72 m well depth where water level is at 18 m
2 A3 09° 24' 47.9" 42° 02' 28.9" 48 m well depth where water level is at 12 m
3 A8 09° 25' 18.9" 42° 01' 42.8" -
4 M1 09° 24' 49.1" 42° 02' 22.9" 58 m well depth where water level is at 14 m

Sample was taken from reservoir supplied from three wells and directly pumped to deliver water to
5 H1 09° 23' 58.9" 42° 01' 42.5"
Harar town and Haramaya University by car

Sample was taken from reservoir constructed in the middle of the former Lake and supplied from
6 H2 09° 24' 08.3" 42° 01' 33.2"
another three wells.

Table 2. Physical, chemical and biological analysis results and WHO standards (1981 and 1984).

WHO
S/N Description S2 A3 A8 M1 H1 H2 Average Ave. dev
Recommended Maximum
Physical parameter
1 pH 7.34 6.86 7.55 7.39 7.52 7.65 7.39 ± 0.40 6.5-8.5 -
2 Temperature (°C) 22.1 21.9 22.6 21.5 23.8 22.0 - - - -
* *
3 Turbidity (NTU) 0.76 7.76 0.16 14.37 0.20 0.00 3.88 ± 3.88 <5 -
4 TDS (mg/L) 523 338 468 473 411 453 488 ± 35 500 1500
5 EC (µS/cm) 1046 676 936 946 812 896 971 ± 75 - -

Chemical parameter
6 Total hardness (mg/L CaCO3) 456.4 454.6 465.4 376.4 329.4 521 488.7 ±32.3 - 500
7 Alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3) 395 290 405 380 350 373 384 ± 11 - -
8 Fluoride (mg/L F‾) 0.7 0.65 0.65 1.0 0.8 1.05 0.88 ± 0.18 0.7 1.5
9 Iron (Fe) 0.02 0.01 Trace 0.01 Trace Trace 0.01 ± 0.01 0.1 1.0
2+
10 Manganese (Mn ) 0.008 0.006 Trace 0.008 Trace Trace 0.004 ± 0.004 0.02 0.5
11 Nitrate (mg/L NO3) 13.2 19.8 26.4 24.2 26.4 22 17.6 ± 4.4 25 45

Biological parameter
12 TC (CFU/100 ml) 0-3 >50 4-50 >50 4-50 4-50 - - 0/100 ml
*Mostly contamination occurs since it is near to Ifa-Bate area and flood passes near by the well source.

conductivity in the study area is found to be in the range of 0.5 to 0.55 of the TDS value. The small TDS value and lesser major ionic constituents
198 J. Ecol. Nat. Environ.
Table 3. Distribution of tested samples for TC (CFU/100 ml) according to their level of contamination and treatment procedure required.
Degree of Number of tested sample
Range of TC a Treatment procedure
contamination (%)
0-3 0 1 (16.7%)
4-50 1 3 (50.0%)
51-50,000 2 2 (33.3%)
>50,000 3 0
a
(Al-Khatib and Orabi, 2004).
indicate that the area has only local flow systems
whereby water reaches the discharge area without
undergoing substantial flow paths. It also means the
recharge and discharge areas are very near to each
other so that the residence time of groundwater within
rocks or aquifers is very short unlike the regional flow
systems (Enger and Smith, 1995). Such type of flow
system has an immediate response to the rain water and
the quantity of groundwater discharge is the direct
consequence of rainwater.
Chemical analysis
The total hardness concentration in mg/L of CaCO3 in
the watershed is found to be 488.7 ± 32.3 ranging
between 329.4 and 521 mg/L. All samples were below
the WHO maximum value except one which can be
classified as very hard water and found at the center of
2+ 2+
the previous lake. The concentrations of Mg and Ca in
all the samples were below the upper limit of WHO
standard which is 150 and 200 mg/L, respectively (WHO,
2009). Hardness in water causes serious public health
threat and can be minimized by reducing the uptake of
heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn) from water pipe material. As
per WHO guideline, hardness above 200 mg/L causes
scaling and excessive soap consumption contributing to
high phosphate concentration. It also cause economical
problem by increasing detergent use, destruction of
clothes, and high energy consumption as a result of
scaling and corrosion on domestic devices. Besides, the
energy and time wasted by the women in preparing foods
and drinks due to the scaling effect and during washing to
form foam is considerably significant. Moreover, high
level of hardness could causes harsh effect on human
skin and hair (Trifunovic, 2006). On the other hand,
tuberculation is a serious problem caused in the distri-
bution network. Tuberculation refers to the accumulation
of scaling materials inside distribution pipe mainly at the
areas of pitting corrosion (localized non uniform corrosion
hardly detected before a hole appears). Tuberculation
rarely affect the water quality unless some of the
tubercles are broken, however it can decrease the cross
sectional area of CI pipe from 47 to 76% and leads to a
drastic increase of pipe roughness (Trifunovic, 2006).
Alkalinity of the samples were 384 ± 11, ranging
No treatment required
Chlorination only
Flocculation, sedimentation then chlorination.
Very high contamination, need specific treatment
++
between 290 and 405 mg/L CaCO3. In all the wells, Ca
+
was the dominant cation with reasonable amount of Na
(Table 2).
The fluoride (F‾) concentration in the watershed is 0.88
± 0.18, ranging from 0.65 to 1.05 mg/L. Over 50% of the
samples are above the WHO recommended value. The
most common composition of fluoride in water bodies is 1
mg/L for seawater and for typical rivers/lakes. The value
is mostly less than 0.5 mg/L (Trifunovic, 2006). However,
in the study area the possible rise of fluoride might be
associated with the presence of fluoride-bearing minerals
like apatite, fluorite and biotite in the rocks. Fluoride is
also an element that is sometimes deficient, but in the
provision of rural water supplies from groundwater,
excess is more likely to be a problem. The range of
desirable concentrations of fluoride in drinking water is
relatively small. At concentrations below 0.5 mg/L, dental
caries may result and fluoride is added to many tooth-
pastes and some water supplies to promote dental
health. On the other hand, concentrations above the
guideline in drinking water can cause dental fluorosis
(Trifunovic, 2006).
2+ 2+
Iron (Fe ) and the manganese (Mn ) concentration in
the study area were found to be 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.004 ±
0.004, respectively. The concentrations of iron and
manganese ions in the groundwater of the study area are
in the recommended interval (WHO, 2009).
The most abundant nutrient in water from all samples
was nitrogen in the form of nitrate. The measured nitrate
concentration in the study area was 17.6 ± 4.4 ranging
from 13.2 to 26.4 mg/L. 33.3% of the sample were above
the WHO recommended value. Unlike most other
elements in groundwater, nitrate is not derived primarily
from the minerals in rocks that make up the groundwater
reservoir. Nitrate in groundwater generally originates from
nitrate sources on the land surface, in the soil zone, or in
shallow subsoil zones where nitrogen-rich wastes are
buried. Here the high value of nitrate is mostly due to the
open area defecation as there is no proper sanitation
system in the area and also from use of fertilizers by
farmers surrounding the area (Behar, 2002).
From the previous physical and chemical analysis
result, most of the ground water satisfies the
recommendations given by the WHO hence are suitable
for drinking purpose. However, since the TDS result
revealed local flow is predominate and the high turbidity

and nitrate showed the possibility of short detention time
of the water in the soil, it implies the importance for
conducting microbiological analysis.
Microbiological analysis
Groundwater is generally a preferred source of water
compared to other sources because of its constant and
good natural quality. For all the six samples, the
microbiology was analyzed for total colifoms, according to
a standard procedure by membrane. According to the
WHO guideline, the guideline value of coliform organisms
in drinking water is 0 CFU/ml. The result of the analysis is
summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
The result indicates that treatment is necessary for
83.3% of the samples. The high bacteriological load in
“A3 and M1” is associated with its shallowness and
possibly the waste water flow from adjacent upstream
area of Ifa-Bate. High turbidity values observed in the two
wells is also associated with their bacterial load. For this
reason, it is highly important to clean the area
surrounding the wells or avoid using these wells for
drinking purpose due to the necessity of complex
treatment procedures required that include flocculation,
sedimentation and chlorination which may be
unaffordable.
In general, the WHO recommends that residual
chlorine shall be at least 0.5 mg/L after a contact time of
30 min for pH and turbidity less than 8 and 5 NTU,
respectively for proper disinfection (Trifunovic, 2006).
However, the high turbidity in the study area could lead to
shielding effect during chlorination, whereby the chlorine
and organisms do not come in contact, which leads to
more chlorine consumption. Hence, excess disinfectant,
primarily chlorine, is needed to be added to impact the
microorganisms. However, this has its own negative
effect. Excess chlorination, in the presence of organic
matter, form disinfection byproducts (DBPs) like
trihalomethanes (THMs), which are carcinogenic,
mutagenic and with the potential to cause central nervous
system damage. Therefore, high precaution shall be
considered for source protection in order to maintain the
health of the community instead of excess use of chlorine
(Tebeje, 2010, 2011; Spencer and Winkowska, 1991).
Moreover, if the area persists to be the water supply
source to the three towns and the University, then the
catchment should be zoned at least into three different
sections: the lake vicinity free from agriculture and
grazing land, certain radius from the lake vicinity free
from farmers who uses pesticide, herbicides and
fertilizers and the last zone for free farming area. It is also
advisable to conduct regular quality supervision.
Conclusion
Based on the physical analysis, the mean value of pH
Zewdu 199
and turbidity were found to be 7.39 ± 0.40 and 3.88 ±
3.88, respectively. The pH was within WHO standard
unlike 33.3% turbidity which were above the WHO
guideline. The high turbidity in some of the wells could be
directly related to leakage of water source from marshy
land surrounding the wells but also high bacterial load.
Based on TDS value, the groundwater of the study area
was classified as fresh water (TDS less than 1000 mg/L)
and the electric conductivity was found to be in the range
of 0.5 to 0.55 of the TDS value. The small TDS value and
lesser major ionic constituents imply the area has only
local flow systems. The total hardness concentration in
mg/L of CaCO3 in the watershed is found to be 488.7 ±
32.3, ranging between 329.4 and 521 mg/L, which are
below the upper limit of WHO standard. However, the
fluoride (F‾) concentrations in the watershed is 0.88 ±
0.18, ranging from 0.65 to 1.05 mg/L, where 50% of the
sample is above the WHO recommended value. Iron
2+ 2+
(Fe ) and the manganese (Mn ) concentration in the
study area were found to be 0.01 ± 0.01 and 0.004 ±
0.004, respectively. The concentrations of iron and
manganese ions in the groundwater of the study area are
in the recommended interval. The measured nitrogen in
the form of nitrate concentration show that 33.3% of the
sample were above the WHO recommended value (mean
value 17.6 ± 4.4 ranging from 13.2 to 26.4 mg/L). Open
area defecation and fertilizers wastes from local farming
activity caused the higher values.
On top of this, the microbiological result indicates that
treatment is necessary for 83.3% of the samples.
However, high turbidity in the area could lead to shielding
effect during chlorination. Excess chlorination on the
other hand has impact on health. Therefore, attention
shall be given to source protection rather than
complicated treatment procedures. In these regard, a
strong control and management system shall be
introduced by establishing a committee comprised of
local government official, water bureaus, farmers, the
university and other bodies who have a stake on the
resource. There is further a need to conduct regular
quality monitoring.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges the Ministry of Water Resource
and Haramaya University for their generous support to
conduct the laboratory analysis for free. He would also
like to thank the editors for their wise questions and
constructive criticism which rendered this study, a
readable and acceptable piece of work.
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