Marine Academy of Technology and Environmental Science

Implementation of Artificial Ocean Alkalinization

A comprehensive analysis of the implementation and feasibility of artificial ocean alkalinization as a

means to mitigate the effects of ocean acidification and increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations.

Lexi Pereira

Mr. Werner

Oceanography

30 October 2020
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Implementation of Artificial Ocean Alkalinization

The atmospheric increase of carbon dioxide has drastically caused the pH of marine

surface waters to decline. In 2019, “the global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration reached

409.8 parts per million.” As displayed in figure 1, over the past 800,000 years, the highest peak

in carbon dioxide was 300 parts per

million. In comparison, the global

atmospheric carbon dioxide

measurement in 2019 was 409.8 ppm

(Lindsey).This drastic increase in

carbon dioxide is due to human input

of greenhouse gases into the

environment through a variety of

practices including transportation,

electricity production, agriculture, and industry (“Sources of Greenhouse Gas”). The atmospheric

increase of carbon dioxide has substantially caused the pH of marine surface waters to decline.

This process is termed ocean acidification (Stillman and ​Paganini​). To combat the negative

effects of ocean acidification, scientists are considering the use of “large-scale ocean

alkalinization” (Paquay and Zeeb).

To increase ocean alkalinity, scientists have proposed that large amounts of alkaline

substances be deposited into the ocean.

Once the materials are added to the

seawater, the alkalinity acts to “convert

dissolved CO​2​ into stable bicarbonate and

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carbonate molecules” (“What is Ocean Alkalinization?”). The alkali substances have the ability

to neutralize the artificial acids within the ocean water (“Total Alkalinity vs. pH”). A more

simple example of an everyday use of alkaline substances to raise the pH of a body of water is

the use of Soda Ash in pools. When the pH falls below 7 in saltwater or chlorine pools, it is

recommended that people add sodium carbonate (Na​2​CO​3​) to the surface of the water to lower

and maintain the pH (Deziel). The pH of

soda ash is typically between “11.3-11.8

pH” (Knight). Adding a base helps to

stabilize the pH of the pool and keep it at

a safe level for swimmers (Deziel). The

increase in ocean alkalinity acts as a buffer combatting the increase in acidity (Corbett).

Increasing the alkalinity of ocean water causes the pH to increase; therefore, the carbon ion

concentration increases, the hydrogen ion concentration decreases, and the aqueous carbon

dioxide concentration decreases. The following formula is the general chemical equation of the

reaction: pCO​2​ = pCO​2​ocean​ − pCO​2​atmosphere​. The atmospheric carbon dioxide is subsequently

reduced as the alkaline substances cause an uptake of artificial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

(Lenton et al.). Although the ocean is much larger than a pool and has a much more complex

ecosystem, adding alkaline substances can potentially mitigate some of the harmful effects on the

Earth’s ecosystem and organisms.

The most viable alkaline substances for the process are “quick lime (CaO), lime (calcium

hydroxide, Ca(OH)2), or calcium carbonate (CaCO3).” Further analysis shows how alkaline

substances react with water utilizing the chemical equation for the combination of quick lime and

water: CaO​(s)​ +H​2​O​(l)​ → Ca(OH)​2(s)​. From the dissociation reaction, the product generated is
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Ca(OH)​2(s)​. After the precipitation of the solid calcium hydroxide, one free calcium ion, Ca​2+​, and

two hydroxide ions, OH-, are produced: Ca​2+​ + 2OH​-​ = Ca(OH)​2​. The resulting solution is

highly basic (Ilyina et al.). As demonstrated in Figure 4, the addition of alkaline substances

“dissolve [and]... consume protons which

shifts the carbonate chemistry equilibrium

away from CO​2​ to HCO​3​-​ and CO​2​−​.”

Ocean alkalinization occurs naturally

through rock weathering. However, ocean

acidification is occurring faster than the chemical composition of the ocean can naturally be

restored (Bach et al.).

The alteration of the ocean’s chemical composition greatly affects ecosystems and marine

life. Scientists, including Kristy J. Kroeker, conducted a study “measuring responses of marine

organisms to ocean acidification.” The study analyzed how different taxonomic groups

biologically responded to changes in ocean acidification. The study focussed on answering three

key questions regarding the 228 studies:

“(i) how taxa vary in key physiological responses, as well as changes in abundance to

ocean acidification; (ii) how these effects vary across different life stages within common

taxonomic groups; and (iii) how increased temperatures influence the effect of

acidification across multiple response variables.” (Kroeker et al.)

Once data was collected, it was found that there was a clear reduction in organisms’ ability to

calcify, grow, and develop under the stress of ocean acidification. The study concluded that over

a long period of time taxa will experience “enhanced sensitivity” to their environment and be

negatively affected by the change in seawater chemical composition (Kroeker et al.).

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Studies have been conducted to analyze the effects of Artificial Ocean Alkalinization

(AOA) as a means of preserving Earth’s ecological balance and chemical composition. In a 2016

study titled “Reversal of ocean acidification enhances net coral

reef calcification,” a group of scientists mixed sodium hydroxide,

a passive dye tracer, and 270 tonnes of seawater. Each day they

pumped the solution onto “a coral reef flat” within Australia’s

Great Barrier Reef allowing for the solution to flow over the reef.

The team measured the calcification rate of the coral reef to

analyze and determine the effect of AOA. It was found that 17%

of added alkalinity was taken up or absorbed by the reef. The

group managed to manipulate the calcification rate of coral

reefs combating the effects of ocean acidification and to prove that coral reefs once calcified at

much faster rates years ago (Albright et al.).

In another study, published by Earth System Dynamics, the effect of artificial ocean

alkalinization on oceanic carbon uptake was investigated. Generally, “oceans take up about 28 %

of anthropogenic CO​2​ emitted annually” naturally. The group of scientists used the

“CSIRO-Mk3L-COAL Earth System Model” to simulate an increase in ocean acidification and

the addition of 0.25 Pmol yr−1, alkalinity (Lenton et al.). This model is used to represent

“atmosphere, land surface, oceans and sea-ice” and investigate climate change through complex

computer code (Gordon et al.). Additionally, the study incorporated a variable often overlooked:

emissions (Lenton et al.). Generally, there are four scenarios referred to as Representative

Concentration Pathways which represent “time-dependent projections of atmospheric greenhouse

gas.” The different scenarios are used to predict levels of carbon emissions (Wayne).
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Specifically, in the study, two scenarios were taken into account: high emissions and low

emissions. The low emissions scenario, RCP2.6, “limit[s] the increase of global mean

temperature to 2 °C” and the high emissions scenario, RCP8.5, simulates a drastic increase in

global mean temperature to 12.6 °C (Collins et al.; Vuuren et al.). For context, as of April 2020,

the global mean temperature was 1.06 °C (Sanchez-Lugo). During the study, it was concluded

that the use of artificial ocean alkalinization is primarily effective under low emission scenarios:

“we see that under RCP2.6 the carbon uptake

associated with AOA is only ∼ 60 % of the

total, under RCP8.5 the relative changes in

temperature are larger, as are the changes in

pH (140 %) and aragonite saturation state

(170 %).” Conclusively, it is imperative to

mitigate ocean acidification using artificial

ocean alkalinization prior to extensive

increases in the mean global temperature that are predicted to occur during the next one-hundred

years (Lenton et al.).

Overall, the process of artificial ocean alkalinization has the potential to positively impact

the ocean through increasing oceanic carbon uptake, increasing oceanic pH levels, and, in turn,

decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. In the ideal ocean alkalinization model,

developed by researchers from multiple universities including Oxford, artificial alkalinization

has the potential to “increase surface seawater alkalinity by about 100 to >2,000 µmol kg−1 by

the year 2100.” To combat the over-saturation of carbon dioxide fully, “hundreds of gigatons of

carbon dioxide (CO​2​)” must be removed from the ocean (Bach et al.). Although scientists have
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predicted an approximate amount of necessary increase in total alkalinity, further

experimentation and research is required to realistically find a balance between human

interaction and natural occurrences.

In the future, it is necessary for scientists to approach mitigating ocean acidification

through artificial means cautiously. Altering the chemical composition of the world’s largest

ecosystem can have a drastic impact if not done carefully and with extensive research. Models

predict that “thousands of tons of pulverized material” would need to be deposited into the

ocean. However, the process’ potential long term impact is unknown. Small scale

experimentation, such as the study conducted in Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, is necessary to

gauge the process’ potential. In the end, governmental policymakers and environmentalists must

establish regulations to prevent the misuse of a potentially beneficial process:

“Because the oceans are divided between many countries and many jurisdictions, there is

a risk of researchers ‘shopping’ for coastal waters with less regulation. It may be wise,

then, to develop additional international governance tools to ensure that AOA research

complies with acceptable environmental and scientific standards.” (Corbett)

There are three main aspects of artificial ocean alkalinization that are essential to address before

implementing the new process: How will the process affect the ocean’s ecosystem? Who will

control the processes? How will the process be compensated for? (Corbett). As ocean

acidification increases and atmospheric carbon dioxide increases, scientists must look to

alternatives such as artificial ocean alkalinization to combat the negative effects of human

activities before it is too late.

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Works Cited

Albright, Rebecca, et al. “Reversal of Ocean Acidification Enhances Net Coral Reef

Calcification.” ​Nature,​ vol. 531, no. 7594, 2016, pp. 362–365., doi:10.1038/nature17155.

Bach, Lennart T., et al. “CO2 Removal With Enhanced Weathering and Ocean Alkalinity

Enhancement: Potential Risks and Co-Benefits for Marine Pelagic Ecosystems.”

Frontiers in Climate,​ vol. 1, 2019, doi:10.3389/fclim.2019.00007.

Collins, Matthew, et al.

Corbett, Charles. “Antacids for the Sea: Artificial Ocean Alkalinization.” ​Legal Planet,​ Legal

Planet, 27 Jan. 2020,

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Deziel, Chris. “What Is Soda Ash for Pools?” ​Hunker,​

www.hunker.com/12000171/what-is-soda-ash-for-pools.

Gordon, Hal, et al. ​The CSIRO Mk3.5 Climate Model​. CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2010.

Ilyina, Tatiana, et al. “Assessing the Potential of Calcium-Based Artificial Ocean Alkalinization

to Mitigate Rising Atmospheric CO​2​ and Ocean Acidification.” ​Geophysical Research

Letters​, vol. 40, no. 22, 2013, pp. 5909–5914., doi:10.1002/2013gl057981.

Knight, Eric. “Why Does Soda Ash Cloud up Pool Water?” ​Orenda Technologies,​ 6 Nov. 2018,

blog.orendatech.com/why-does-soda-ash-cloud-up-pool-water.

Kroeker, Kristy J., et al. “Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms: Quantifying

Sensitivities and Interaction with Warming.” ​Global Change Biology​, vol. 19, no. 6,

2013, pp. 1884–1896., doi:10.1111/gcb.12179.

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Lenton, Andrew, et al. “Assessing Carbon Dioxide Removal through Global and Regional Ocean

Alkalinization under High and Low Emission Pathways.” ​Earth System Dynamics,​ vol. 9,

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