FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

BSC (HONS) CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

IBS COMPONENTS DESIGN (BCT 573)

TOPIC: CASE STUDY ON FAILURE OF PRECAST CONCRETE

GROUP MEMBERS:
NAME MATRIC NO
NAJIHA BINTI AZMI 2020963175
SHARIFAH NUR ATIQAH BINTI SYED 2020963365
MUZZAFAR SHAH
NUR AINIE IZATIE BINTI NONAZAHAR 2020963403

SUBMITTED TO: IR RAJA NURULHAIZA RAJA NHARI

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO PRECAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete is a method of construction in which concrete is cast into a reusable mould
or shape that is then healed, transported in a regulated environment to the construction site
and lifted into place. Precast concrete provides the potential to be properly cured and closely
monitored by plant personnel through the processing of precast concrete in a controlled
environment (precast plant). The advantages of using precast concrete are the higher material
consistency, when designed under managed conditions, and the reduced cost of constructing
large types of concrete poured on site. In the design of buildings and items of a repetitive
nature, such as schools and houses, it is mainly used. Each construction material & system
has its own characteristics that affect the layout, span length, construction depth, stability
system, etc. For precast concrete as well, this is the case. Not just in comparison to steel,
wood, & masonry structures, but also in relation to in-situ concrete casting. Precast concrete
members may be solid or may have hollow cores. Certain precast components have thinner
cross sections than cast in situ concrete. Precast concrete can be either standard or lightweight
concrete. All joints should, in theory, be made between the precast units in such a way that
the precast structure completed has the same meaning as an in-situ one. However, this is a
wrong method & one that is rather labour-intensive & costly.

1.1 ADVANTAGES OF UTILIZING PRECAST CONCRETE IN CONSTRUCTION

1.1.1 Reduce construction time and cost
Precast concrete building saves precious time and reduces the risk of project delays and
future monetary losses. During the survey or earthworks on the construction site, precast
design and development of elements can be started. Development is also unaffected by
environmental conditions because of the casting area has regulated setting. The use of
large precast panels would also decrease the time needed to finish the structural works.
Other trades, such as painting and electrical wiring, may then begin to work earlier. In
conventional construction methods to produce a structural element, time-consuming
works such as formworks, scaffolding and curing are required. Structural elements are
manufactured in manufacturing plants in the prefabricated concrete construction process,
while other activities take place on the construction site. They are immediately sent to the
site when the structural elements are required, and continuously assembled, forming the
structural frame and enclosing the building. Modern equipment is used in precast
concrete manufacturing plants, with many technicians attending to some production
processes. This decreased the number of unskilled requirements considerably.
1.1.2 High quality and aesthetical value of products
Precast products are manufactured in a casting area where critical factors such as
temperature, mix design and stripping time can be closely monitored and regulated, and
this will mean that the quality of precast products is higher than cast-in-situ concrete. A
substantial sum of money will be saved by not having to perform rectification activities.
In addition, because of the factory-controlled prefabrication environment, many
variations of colours and textures can also be easily applied to the architectural or
structural components. It is possible to make a wide range of precast part sizes and
shapes, offering a great deal of flexibility and giving a fresher look to the structures.
1.1.3 Cleaner and safer construction sites
The use of precast elements removes or substantially decreases traditional shapes and
props. Precast construction also eliminates the issue of site wastage and the
environmental issues associated with it. The prefabricated goods often provide employees
with a safe working surface to work on. At the construction site, staff and materials are
also significantly reduced. The precast components are maintained at the factory yard
using Just-in-Time principles until the site is ready for installation. Also as elements are
manufactured in the plant and often built to be repetitive, both factory and construction
sites would experience minimal wastage.
1.1.4 Lower total construction cost
All of the above simplifies the processes of building and increases efficiency, quality and
protection. Therefore, gross building costs are reduced. More often than not in contrasting
in-situ and precast construction, most opponents of precast construction only use the cost
of materials without understanding that the conventional approaches have hidden costs.
The fact that Malaysia has always been able to source cheap labour from neighbouring
countries is also a contributing factor to the low consumption. Therefore, the players in
the industry are very hesitant to turn to new construction techniques. As a result, because
of the high reliance on manual labour, the country faces problems of low quality,
efficiency and protection in the construction industry. The country still suffers from both
the outflow of funds and social issues. If the supply of labour unexpectedly declines when
demand stays the same, labour costs will certainly rise and cause the industry more
problems.
1.1.5 Increase quality of structural elements
Precast concrete components that are produced using modern techniques and machinery
in plants. There is a high level of quality control on raw materials such as concrete, sand,
and reinforcement bars. The shapes used are of higher quality than those used on
construction sites. In precast parts, this enables truer shapes and better finishes. Precast
components have higher density and better control of cracks, providing better protection
against harsh weather and sound isolation. By using a vibrating table or external vibrators
placed on shapes, high density is achieved. For reinforcement bars, precast concrete also
provides better fire resistance. This reduces the amount of long-term motion that needs to
be recognised in building design when compared to in situ concrete.
1.1.6 Increase durability and load capacity of structural
The components of precast concrete are more resistant to acid attack, friction, corrosion,
impact, abrasion, and other environmental effects. Precast concrete buildings have longer
service years and need less maintenance and repairs.
1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF UTILIZING PRECAST CONCRETE IN
CONSTRUCTION
1.2.1 High capital cost
In order to set up a precast concrete facility, a significant amount of capital must be spent
initially. Sophisticated equipment is costly and requires heavy expenditure. In the
construction of high-rise buildings and apartments, which are at least 5 storeys high,
precast concrete is primarily used. In the construction of housing estates, precast concrete
is often used where the design of houses is standardised. Wide stadiums, halls,
warehouses, warehouses, airports and hangars are more ventures where precast concrete
is suitable. In order to ensure adequate profit to cover the initial capital expense, the size
of the construction projects using precast concrete must be large enough.
1.2.2 Sophisticated connection works
The behaviour of connections influences the consistency of precast concrete structures.
Connections between precast components must be properly monitored and performed
when assembling precast concrete structures. This way, a connection's intended behaviour
(simple, semi-rigid, or rigid) can be achieved. In addition, it is possible to have sufficient
sound insulation and prevent the issue of water leakage.
1.2.3 Transportation, handling difficulties and modification limitation.
Staff must be vigilant to prevent injury when handling precast concrete parts. Precast
components are produced in facilities that are not always located in the construction site
area. Using trucks, precast components must be transported from the plants to the sites.
Precast parts are usually wide and bulky, causing transportation difficulties. Portable
cranes or tower cranes can lift the precast components into position for erection at the
sites upon arrival. Typically, many cranes requiring wide space are used to improve the
speed of building. Proper design and site management of buildings is necessary. Staff are
well qualified to ensure proper alignment and connection of precast components to
prevent instances where the columns, beams, walls, or slabs are not well positioned,
dislocated, or out of plane. When possible alterations are taken into consideration, the
precast concrete framework is not versatile. For instance, for reconstruction purposes, the
walls of a flat constructed using load bearing precast walls should not be demolished, as
this would affect the stability of the entire precast structure.
1.3 CHALLENGES FACED BY UTILIZING PRECAST CONCRETE IN
CONSTRUCTION
1.3.1 Design
If properly built, the IBS system can offer a more efficient construction process due to
many benefits, such as higher construction speed, simplified construction process,
decreased environmental impact and decreased dependency on conventional labour.
Therefore, the challenge is to have a viable and creative IBS framework that is
appropriate to both builders and users.
The standardisation factor should be included in the design of the system in order to
achieve a viable IBS system. The use of standard connections, standard beams and
column sizes can be included in the standardisation. To the cost of production,
standardisation of components can be implemented. Many development or erection errors
due to variability can be minimised by applying standardisation. Standardisation may lead
to quality improvements, decrease variability and increase the ease of production. In this
scenario, the production of the components is a difficult factor relevant to a feasible
method. For example, to create precise and accurate measurements of width, width and
length, and other similar dimensions, the steel mould used to shape beams and columns
must have a high degree of precision. With ample toughness and strength, the mould
should be of good quality and will not be easily dented or buckled during concrete
compaction. In the case of mechanical connections, the built-in attachment accessories to
be cast into the concrete part must be placed precisely before the concreting process takes
place. Similarly, any sleeves or opening must be done precisely in the part.
1.3.2 Awareness
In order for the IBS method to be commonly understood and used, the challenge is to
create a knowledge mechanism. In their construction practises, many contractors and
even engineers are not well aware of the IBS system and are not involved with the use of
any IBS system. Therefore, a campaign to ensure that IBS systems are able to provide
quick, economical and high-quality products should be carried out in order to build
awareness among practising engineers and contractors. Seminars and short courses can be
part of the awareness campaigns. CIDB, for example, has held comprehensive workshops
and roadshows in conjunction with universities, manufacturers and professional bodies to
introduce contractors and engineers to the IBS system. In addition, practical training in
specialised works, such as operating cranes and welding works is also carried out to
provide specialised and qualified IBS industry personnel.
1.3.3 Knowledge
To design, produce and build a good IBS system, advanced and additional engineering
knowledge will be needed. From designers to erectors, all parties involved must have
adequate knowledge of the pre-fabricated component-based construction. In terms of
construction, engineers must have professional analytical and design skills.
Contractors and site engineers must have adequate knowledge of the secure and precise
methods of erecting and assembling loose components into a global structure in the
 construction sector. Students should be taught structural design principles, material
technology and building practises relevant to the IBS system at university level, such as
prefabricated concrete structures. Currently, several local colleges are enhancing their
curriculum by introducing new IBS-related subjects to the existing syllabus. For instance,
precast concrete design and construction subjects are also available as electives for final
undergraduate and graduate students.
In addition, testing and analysis must be carried out in order to show design viability.
Knowledge gained from advanced research will increase the degree of understanding of
the structure of IBS actions and, subsequently, the level of trust. The ability to produce
systematic IBS systems by engineers with strong technical knowledge in research, design,
manufacturing and construction. If the components are completely built for ability,
erection can be effectively done. In addition, compliance with good design and building
practises leads to precast concrete structures of high quality. The challenge in this regard
is to build many successful and efficient manufacturers and erectors with such skills to be
part of the IBS construction team.
1.3.4 Investment on heavy equipment for mechanized construction system
Some degree of reliance on heavy and special equipment such as cranes is imposed on the
efficient IBS construction method. The margin of profit has been diminished by the high
initial cost of setting up the manufacturing plant and the cost of transportation. It was
noted that despite all the benefits of IBS adoption, a large portion of players in the
construction industry still have a distorted view of the IBS system. It is currently
acknowledged that switching to IBS will not guarantee significant cost savings,
particularly with the limited volume of buildings being designed. IBS has however,
shown that the savings in construction time will compensate for the higher cost of
construction incurred.
2.0 METHOD CONSTRUCTION FOR PRECAST CONCRETE

1. In the storage yard, the element is inspected for damage during storage. If damaged,
approval from structural and architectural supervisors is needed before hoisting.

2. The element is hooked up in the position as it will be installed. If walls are stored
horizontally, the element has to be turned by an additional crane operation or by a •gym·.

Figure: The element is hooked on directly from the frame and hoisted to be installed

3. On the building, the location space of the element is thoroughly cleaned and all joints'
backings and waterproofing are fixed according to the joint's details.
4. The estimated level and horizontal location of the element is established by shims and
bolts.

Figure: Joint preparation with backing strip

Figure: Steel dowel resting on shims and shims ready for the wall element
5. Grouting is mixed specifications for the grouting must be strictly followed and supervised
as it is loadbearing and part of the main structural system.

Figure:
Grouting
mortar mixed on
the
construction
floor

Figure:
Grouting
mortar mixed
centrally
for

quality control

6. The element is hoisted and settled in its place and checked for vertical and horizontal
positioning, hooked up and balanced by the crane.

Figure: Horizontal adjustment Figure: Setting of the element

7. Eventual adjustments - horizontal and vertical - are done while the element is hooked up
and only when the location is within the tolerances can adjustable bracings be fixed.

Figure: Bracing

8. When all bracings are installed the element is hooked off and the vertical alignment for
wall and column elements finally adjusted by the bracings.

Figure: Hook-off
9. The grouting under walls can be laid out on the loadbearing surface before the element is
positioned or it can be pressed into the joint after settling of the element. In both methods
it is very important that the grout is sufficiently dry and is densely packed in the joint so
that the anticipated loadbearing capacity can be obtained. A thorough supervision is
necessary.
 Figure: Compacting and finishing Figure: Setting on
mortar bed

10. When all the loadbearing vertical elements are braced and grouted, the horizontal beams
and slabs can be positioned. Again special care must be taken to clean the loadbearing
surfaces before resting of the beam and slab components.

Figure: Slab component installation

11. Vertical joints can be rebarred and cast before or after positioning of slab elements, but
will normally have to be structurally finished before construction of the next storey can
start. Special care shall be taken to ensure that the shuttering for the vertical joints is
flushed or evenly recessed from the wall surface and tight and firmly fixed. The open side
of the vertical joints are normally on the inside and the flushed or recessed casting is easy
to finish with plaster, shimming and paint.

Figure: Slab - facade wall joint Figure:

Vertical internal and external
open joints

12. The vertical ties for structural bracing shall now be connected either by casting out
special connection fittings or by welding. This operation is crucial for the structural
soundness of the building and must be thoroughly supervised.

Figure: Reinforcement of topping

13. The reinforcement and the horizontal ties are now installed on the slab elements and in
the joints and cast - preferably in one operation to ensure a continuous cohesion. The
cutting, bending, welding, laying and binding of this reinforcement in the topping and the
horizontal joints, together with the casting, is the most labour -intensive work in the PC
method and have to be carefully supervised and approved at various stages. A careful and
detailed design of this reinforcement and extensive use of pre-welded cages and
connections can minimise the time and labour force needed on the building for this
operation and reduce the overall time consumption.

Figure: Special slab part cast in-situ in between the standard slab elements.

14. After the approved curing time of topping and joints' casting, element erection on the next
storey can start.

15. Bracing on the storeys below can be removed after an approved schedule.

16. Internal finishes and services' works can follow the element erection process 3-5 floors
below as soon as bracings and props for the slabs are removed. The amount of work on
the internal finishes on PC components are normally reduced considerably due to the high
quality of the PC surface compared to an in-situ cast surface.

17. The external finishing works on a full PC construction are normally confined to. Backing
and sealing of joints - mainly vertical, patching up of a few erection damages, cleaning of
the facade and coating with paint. These comparable light works as well as the
supervision and inspection can be done from the top of the finished construction and
down the facades using gondolas or flexible work platforms.
2.1 CALCULATION FOR SECTION ANALYSIS

Design Example
Characteristic dead load (permanent action) from finishes, partitions, etc. (excluding self-
weight), 2x = 1.5 kN/m2, characteristic live load (variable action), qk = 2.5 kN/m2. Grade
C25/30 concrete (fck = 25 N/mm2), Grades 500 (fyk = 500 N/mm2) and 250 steel for the
main reinforcement and links respectively, and nominal concrete cover = 25 mm (to links).
Design the reinforcement for the end span (and first interior support).

Solution
Table 7.4N: End span, K= 1.3, concrete lightly stressed (P = 0.5) and fax = 30 N/mm2, basic
L/d = 26. With b/bv = 500/125 = 4 > 3......modification factor = 0.8
Modification factor for span less than 7m=1.0.
Modification factor for steel area provided, say = 1.2.. (Max= 1.5)
Allowable L/d ratio = 1.3 x 26 x 0.8x10x1.2 = 32. Therefore d min - 6000/32=188 mm. With
12 mm diameter main reinforcement, 6 mm diameter links, and 25 mm concrete cover to
links, h = !88 + (72/2) + 6 + 25 = 225 mm. Try an overall depth of the slab, h=250 mm.

Consider a width of slab of 500 mm (the width of slab carried by one rib)
Self-weight of slab = [(0.06 x 0.5 ) + (0.125 x 0.19 ) ) x 25 = 1.34kN/m
Design load 1.35 [1.34 + (0.5 x 1.5)] + 1.5 (0.5 x 2.5) = 4.70 kN/m
Total design load on a span = F = wL = 4.70 x 6.0 = 28.2 kN.
OR
For 1m width of slab
Self-weight of slab = [0.06 + {(1000/500) (0.125 x 0.199}] x 25 = 2.69 kN/m2
Design load = 1.35 (2.69 +1.5) + (1.5 x 2.5) = 9.40 kN/m2
Considering 0.5 m width of slab, Design load = 0.5 x 9.40 = 4.70 kN/m
Bending Moment and Shear Force ;( Table 3.12, BS8110; 1997)

REINFORCEMENT
(a) Mid-span A-B:
M=0.086 FL = 0.086 x 28.2 x 6 = 14.6 kNm
T section, b = 500 mm, d = 250 – 25 - 6 - (12/2) = 213 mm
Assume 0.8x = hf= 60 mm
MF = 0.567 fck b hf( d - 0.5hr)
= 0.567 x 25 x 500 x 60 (213 - 30) = 77.8 kNm > 14.6 kNm
Neutral axis lies in the flange, treat as a rectangular section 500 x 250 mm.

K = M/fck b d2 = 14.6 x 10^6/ 25 x 500 x (213)2 = 0.026 <0.167

z= d {0.5+ [0.25 - (0.026/1.134)]0.5 } = 0.98 d > 0.95 d
Use Zmax = 0.95d = 0.95 x 213 = 202 mm
As = M/0.87 fyk z = 14.6 x 10° / 0.87 x 500 x 202 166 mm2=
9.2.1.1: Asmin = 0.26(fctm/fyk) bd ......but should not be less than 0.0013bd
Table 3.1: fctm = 2.8..... Asmin = 0.26 x (2.6/500) bd = 0.0014 bd
= 0.0014x 125 x 213 = 37 mm
Provide 2 H12 (As=226mm2)
(b) Support B:
M=0.086 FL = 14.6 kNm.
Solid section 500 x 250 mm
3.5.2.4, BS8110; 1997....20 % redistribution of moment at support... S=0.8
K’ = 0.363 (8 -0.44) - 0.116(8-0.44)2 = 0.116
K = 14.6 x 10R / 25 x 500 x (213)2 = 0.026 < 0.116
As = 166 mm2 as in (a)
As min = 0.0014 bd = 0.0014 x 500 x 213 = 149 mm2
Provide 2 H12 ( As = 226 mm2)

(c) At the section where the ribs terminate:

This section occurs 0.5 m from the centre line of the support interior support B) The moment
here may still be hogging. If this is the case, only the ribs provide the concrete area in
compression to resist the moment, hence the capacity of the section should be checked...

M=- 14.6 - {4.7 (0.5)/2} + (0.6 x 28.2 x 0.5) = -6.7 kNm (hogging)
Rectangular section 125 x 250 mm
K= 6.7 x 10°/25 x 125 x 2132 = 0.047 <0.167
z = d {0.5+ [0.25 -(0.047/1.134)]OS) = 0.96 d
Zmax = 0.95 d = 0.95 x 213 = 202 mm
As = 6.7 x 10R/0.87 x 500 x 202 = 76 mm2
Provide 2 H12 (As = 226 mm2)...
The top reinforcement at Support B is extended into span for 0.3 L = 1800mm from the face
of the supporting beam, i.e. far beyond this section - no extra steel is req'd.
Shear
Max shear force at support (support B) = 0.6F = 0.6 x 28.2 = 16.9 KN
The critical section is where the rib terminates, i.e. 0.5 m from the centre line of the support
Ved = 16.9-(0.5 x 4.7) = 14.6 kN
For no shear reinforcement, Ved should be less than Vrdc
VRd.c = [0.12 k (100 p, fck) ^1/3] bd
k = 1 + (200/d) 1/2 = 1 + (200/213) 12 = 1.97 < 2.0....... Use 1.97
Pi = As, / bd = 226 / 125 x 213 = 0.0085 <0.02......... Use 0.0085
Vrdc = [0.12 x 1.97 (100 x 0.0085 x 25) 3) x 125 x 213 = 17.4 KN
Vmin = (0.035 k312 fck ^1/2) bd
= (0.035 x 1.97312 x 2519) x 125 x 213 = 12.9 KN
Therefore VRd,c = 17.4 KN > Ved.............OK.
But since two bars are provided in the rib, the use of links is recommended to ensure that the
bars are securely located during construction. Provide say, R6 – 1000

Deflection
Percentage of required tension reinforcement. (Mid-span)
P = As reg / bd = 166 / 500 x 213 = 0.00156
Po = (fck) ^1/2 x 10^-3= (25) ^1/2 x 10^-3= 0.005
P<Po.....Use Equation 7.16a.
Eqn. 7.16a: L/d = K [11 + {1.5 (fes2 (po/p)} + {3.2 (fck) ^1/2 (Po/p-1) ^3/2}}]
L/d = 1.3 [11 + {1.5(25) ^1/2 (0.005/0.00156)} + {3.2 (25) ^1/2 (0.005/0.00156-1)^3/2}]
= 1.3 [11 + 24 + 52.4] = 1.3 [84]
But it is recommended that the maximum value in the bracket is 40.
Modification factor for span less than 7 m = 1.0
Modification factor for steel area provided = As prov / As req = 226/166 = 1.36 < 1.5
Modification factor for flanged section with b/by = 500/125 = 4 >3..... is 0.8
Therefore, Allowable L/d ratio = 1.3 x 40 x 1.0 x 1.36 x 0.8 = 56.6
And Actual L/d ratio = 6000/213 = 28.2 < 56.6, Satisfactory.
Reinforcement in Topping
Single layer of welded steel fabric
As = 0.13% bhf; = 0.13 x 1000 x 60/100 = 78 mm2/m
Maximum dist. = lr / 2 = 500/2 = 250 mm
Provide square mesh A98 (As = 98 mm2/m, S = 200 mm)
2.2 CAUSES OF STRUCTURE FAILURE AND ITS EFFECT
EFFECTS (MAJOR) CAUSES
1. A sudden collapse of the roof beam  The precast erector did not seem to have
Airside Building. followed the erection sequence
recommended by the precast element
designer in its entirety.
 That section c-c of beam was deficient
as it failed to develop the required
flexural strength due to insufficient
embedment length of the bottom bars.
 The precast elements manufacturer and
the plant quality control personnel had
stated that the shop drawing did not
specifically indicate the location of rebar
in beam, but, rather it had been shown in
the general area of where it could be
placed.

2. Parking garage collapse during  Poor grouting placed between the

construction at Miami College. column and the footing.
 The increased load on the interior
column exceeded the anchor bolts and
shim plates capacity.
 Precast structural members were not
adequately supported by welding and
bracing (29 CFR 1926.704(a)). These
deficiencies added to the structural
instability.
 EFFECTS (MINOR) CAUSES
3. Cracks  Not have attained sufficient strength
before demoulding
 Cracks may have occurred during initial
lifting due to friction between the
elements and the casting mould forms.
 May occur during erection due to lack of
planning and provision given to the
precast panel geometry.

4. Chip-off and damages  Caused by the hard bearing at supports

or excessive force exerted on the
elements when handling.
 Lifting inserts or hooks used may not be
adequate in taking the load or are not
properly embedded in elements.
Ahmad Baharuddin Abd. Rahman, Wahid Omar. (2006). Issues and Challenges in the
Implementation of Industrialized Building Systems in Malaysia. Retrieved From:
http://eprints.utm.my/id/eprint/529/1/AhmadBaharuddinAbd2006_IssuesAndChallengesInTh
eImplementation.pdf

Chidambaram, R. (n.d.). Pre-Cast Concrete Connections, Issues and Innovative Solutions.

Retrieved January 5, 2021, from http://www.pessi.in/pdf/krs%20precast.pdf

Construction Incidents Investigation Engineering Reports | Investigation of August 14, 1990

Collapse of Precast Concrete Beams At Airside Building, Midfield Terminal Project,

Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania |

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2020). Osha.Gov.

https://www.osha.gov/doc/engineering/1990_12_01.html#3

‌Common Defects. (n.d.). Precast Concrete Element. Retrieved January 5, 2021, from

https://www.bca.gov.sg/professionals/iquas/others/precastdefect.pdf

Kjaerbye, P. O. H. (2002). Precast Buildings: Design and Implementation of the Precast

Method.

Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi. (n.d).12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Precast Concrete.

Retrieved from
https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/232-advantages-and-
disadvantages-of-precast-concrete
Sheikh Anwarul Mahdi. (n.d). What is Precast Concrete? Retrieved from
https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/concrete/230-precast-concrete
UKEssays. (2018). Precast Concrete: Advantages and Disadvantages. Retrieved from
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/construction/precast-concrete-construction.php