M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d

Problem Solving
Chapter This chapter discusses the nature of problem solving and its two categories–

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routine and non-routine problem solving. Moreso, Polya’s Problem Solving
Principle will also be discussed in this chapter.

LEARNING TARGET
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to :
a. define roblem solving and its two categories;
LESSON 8:
b. differentiate routine and non-routine problem solving; and
Problem Solving
c. solve routine and non-routine problems.
8.1 Polya’s Problem Solving

Principles

8.2 Routine and

Problem Solving
Non-routine
P roblem Solving is a complex process which requires an individual to
coordinate previous experiences, knowledge, understanding, and
intuition, in order to satisfy the demands of the novel situation
George Polya (1973) is known as the Father of Problem Solving.
Lesson 8.1 Polya’s Problem Solving Principles
 Understand the problem
 Devise a plan
 Carry out the plan
 Look back

Understand the Problem

The following guide questions may be considered in order to understand
the given problem:
 What is/are the given information in the problem?
 What is the unknown?
 Can you state the problem in your own words?
 Can you define the important terms used in the problem?
 Can you picture out the problem with the given information?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find the solution?
 Is there extraneous information?
 Do you have all the necessary information to solve the problem?

Devise a plan
From the preliminary analysis of the problem, find if there is a connection
between the given data and the unknown. The following strategies may be used
in solving the given problem:
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 2

 Make a table or a chart.

 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.
 Eliminate possibilities
Carry out the plan
 Once a particular strategy has been set.
 Be patient to check each step;
 See to it that each step is correct; and
 If the chosen strategy does not work, then try a new one.
Look back
 Once you have solved the problem, examine the solution obtained.
 Can you check the result?
 Can you check if the argument is logical?
 Can you show a better solution?

Lesson 8.2 Problem Solving is categor ize into two basic types:
 Routine Problem Solving
 Non-routine Problem Solving
A. Routine Problem Solving
 Stresses the use of sets of known or prescribed procedures (algorithms) to solve problems.
 It involves using atleast one of the four arithmetic operations and/or ratio to solve problems that are practical in
nature.
Strength: It can be easily assessed by paper-pencil tests typically focusing on the algorithms being used.
Weakness: least relevant to human problem solving

B. Non-routine Problem Solving

 Stresses the use of heuristics
 Often requires little to no use of algorithms
 Heuristics is a procedures/strategies that do not guarantee a solution to a problem but provide a more highly
probable method for discovering the solution to a problem.
 A complex problem that requires some degree of creativity or originality to solve
 Typically do not have an immediately apparent strategy in solving. Often times, these problems can be solved in
multiple ways.
Strength: most relevant to human problem solving
Weakness: least able to be assessed by paper-pencil tests
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 3

ROUTINE NON-ROUTINE
Admin assistants Artists
Call center agents Creatives
Sales agents Consultants
Coaches
COGNITIVE Leaders
Managers
Engineers
Athletes

Assembly line (e.g. plumber) Waiters

Construction Janitors
MANUAL Street Police
Army

ROUTINE PROBLEMS
A. Number Problems
1. If five times the number plus thrice the number is 104, what is the number?
2. The difference between two numbers is 16. Three times the larger is seven times the smaller. What are the
numbers?
3. Find the three consecutive even integers whose sum is 174.
4. Find three consecutive odd integers whose sum is 129.
5. Find two numbers whose sum is 25 and whose difference is 3.
6. The difference of two numbers is 45 and one number is six times the other number. Find the numbers.
7. Find two consecutive integers whose product is 272.
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: NUMBER PROBLEMS).

B. Age Problems
1. Five years ago, John’s age was half of the age he will be in 8 years. How old is he now?
2. Ten years from now, Ana will be three times older than she is today. What is her current age?
3. Jandy is three times as old as Ceppee. Four years ago, he was four times as old as Ceppee. How old are
they now?
4. In 21 years, Kayleen will be four times older than she is today. How old is she now?
5. Twelve years from now, Jessa will be two times older than she is today. What is her current age?
6. Melody is three times as old as Jaypee. Ten years ago, she was eight times as old as Jaypee. How are they
now?
7. One half of Lito’s age 2 years from now plus one-third of his age 3 years ago is twenty years. How old is
he now?
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: AGE PROBLEMS).
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 4

C. Mixture Problems

1. Sixteen kilograms of Brand M Cinnamon was made by combining 12 kilograms of Indonesian cinnamon which
costs P950/kg with 4 kilograms of Thai cinnamon which cost P605/kg. Find the cost per/kg of the mixture.
2. Merion bluegrass seed sells for P400/kg. Kentucky bluegrass seed sells for P325/kg. How much of each be used
to make a mixture weighing 10 kg which cost P350/kg?
3. Mr. Ling has 5 kg of nuts that sell for P150/kg. How many kilograms of nuts that sell for P200/kg must be added
to have a mixture that sells for P175 a kilo?
4. How many kilograms of tea that cost P210/kg must be mixed with 12 kg of tea that cost P112.5/kg to make a
mixture that cost P170/kg?
5. How many grains of soil supplement that costs P350/kg must be mixed with 20 kg of aluminum nitrate that costs
P175/kg to make a fertilizer that costs P225/kg?
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: MIXTURE PROBLEMS).

D. Solution Problems
1. How many liters of 45% and 15% acid mixture should be combined to produce 30 L of 35% acid mixture?
2. You need 20 L of 20% acid solution. You have jugs of 10% solution and 25% solution. How many liters of each
should you combine to get the needed solution?
3. How many ounces of each 15% and 25% HCL acid solution must be combined to produce a 20 oz. of the
solution that is 20% HCL acid?
4. How much pure water is to be mixed with a 60 L of 70% alcohol solution to get 30% alcohol solution?
5. What quantity of 60% acid solution must be mixed with a 30% solution to produce 300 ml of a 50% solution?
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: SOLUTION PROBLEMS).

E. Work Problems
1. Peter can complete a job in 4 hours and Matt can do the same Job in six hours. How long will take if they will
work together?
2. Sherry and Denise together can mow a yard in 20 minutes. Alone, Denise can mow the yard in 30 minutes. How
long would Sherry need to mow the yard by herself?
3. Jerry needs 40 minutes to mow the lawn. Lou can mow the same lawn in 30 minutes. If Jerry alone works for 10
minutes, them Lou joins in, how long will it take them to finish the job?
4. Two hoses were used to fill a water trough. The first hose can fill it in 20 minutes while the second hose needs
only 16 minutes. If the second hose is used for the first 4 minutes and then the first hose is also used, how long
will it take them to fill the trough?
5. A large water tank can be filled in 12 hours and drained in 30 hours. How long will it take to fill the tank if the
owner has forgotten to close the drain valve?
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: WORK PROBLEMS).
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 5

NON-ROUTINE PROBLEMS
Logic Problems
1. Paulo, Vince & Miro play the basketball team. Their positions are forward, center and guard. Paulo and the guard
brought Gatorade for Miro. Paulo is not the forward. Who plays each position?
2. Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
 Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.

 Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.

 The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

 The banker lives next door to Brian.

3. At the local nursery school, I was chatting to my daughter’s friends and noticed a number of things. Jessica has
mousy colored hair and the girl with black hair was wearing a green dress. Lucy is not blonde and Lauren does not
have brown hair. Chloe was wearing a blue dress. The blonde girl was not wearing red and Lauren was not wearing
green. I can’t remember which girl was wearing a yellow dress. Can you determine the colors of the girl’s dresses
and their hair?
4. The cities of Atlanta, Chicago, Philadelphia, and San Diego held conventions this summer for collectors of coins,
stamps, comic books, and baseball cards. From the following clues, determine which collectors met which city.
 The comic book collectors’ convention was in August, as was the convention held in Chicago.

 The baseball card collectors did not meet in Philadelphia, and the coin collectors did not meet in San Diego.

 The convention in Atlanta was held during the week of July 4, whereas the coin collectors convention was
held the week after that.
 The convention in Chicago had more collectors attending it than did the stamp collectors convention.
5. Mrs. Robinsons’ 4th grade class took a field trip to the local zoo. The day was sunny and warm- perfect day to spend
at the zoo. The kids had a great time and the monkeys were voted as the class’ favorite animal. The zoo had four
monkeys: two males and two females. It was lunch time for the monkey and as the kids watched, each one ate
different fruit in their favorite resting place. Can you determine the name of each monkey, what kind of fruit each
monkey ate, and where their favorite resting place was?
 Sam who didn’t like bananas, like sitting on the grass.

 The monkey who sat on the rock ate the apple.

 The monkey who eat the pear didn’t sit on the tree branch.

 Anna sat by the stream but she didn’t eat pear.

 Harry didn’t sit on the tree branch.

 Mike doesn’t like oranges.

6. Alice came across a lion and a unicorn in forest of forgetfulness. The lion lies every Monday, Tuesday and
Wednesday and the other days he speaks the truth. The unicorn lies on Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays, and the
other days of the week he speaks the truth.
 Lion: Yesterday I was lying.
 Unicorn: So was I.
Which day did they say that?
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 6

7. Jim and Wanda both have some apples. If Jim gives Wanda an apple, they will both have same number of
apples. However, if Wanda gives Jim an apple, Jim will have twice as many apples as Wanda. How many
apples do Jim and Wanda each have?
8. I am a married woman. John’s son is my daughter’s father. What is my relationship to John?
9. Phil asks his friend Stan when his birthday is. Stan replies that he was 32 the day before yesterday and next year
he will be 35. When is his birthday and how is this possible?
10.One man shows to another man the portrait of a gentlemen and tells him: I have neither brothers nor sisters, but
this man’s father is the son of my father. Who is the man in the painting?
Note: See its solution in the Power Point Presentation (F ile Name: LOGIC PROBLEMS).

CHAPTER 3: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Read and understand the statements below. Write the letter of the correct answer.
1. There are three consecutive even numbers such that twice the first is 20 more than the second. What is the largest
even number?
a. 20 c. 24
b. 22 d. 26
2. Find a number such that five more than one-half the number is three times the number.
a. 3 c. 2
b. 6 d. 4
3. If one number is three times as large as another number and the smaller number is increased by 19, the result is 6 less
than twice the larger number. What is the larger number?
a. 5 c. 3
b. 15 d. 12
4. Twice the larger of two numbers is three more than five times the smaller and the sum of four times the larger and
three times the smaller is 71. What is the smaller number?
a. 5 c. 6
b. 14 d. 12
5. Leah is 2 less than three times Rachel’s age. Three years from now, Leah will be 7 more than twice Rachel’s age.
How old will Rachel be in 3 years from now?
a. 15 c. 30
b. 24 d. 12
6. A man is three times as old as his son. Four years ago he was 4 times as old as his son was at that time. How old is
the son?
a. 15 c. 30
b. 24 d. 12
7. John’s father is five times older than John. John is twice as old as his sister Alice. In two years time, the sum of their
ages will be 58. How old is John now?
a. 8 c. 16
b. 4 d. 10
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 7

8. A grocer mixes peanuts that cost P2.49 per gram and walnuts that cost P3.89 per gram to make 100 gram of mix-
ture that cost P3.19 per gram. How much peanuts is on the mixture?
a. 50 c. 70
b. 60 d. 40
9. How many grams of soil supplement that costs P280 per kilogram must be mixed with 20 kg of aluminum nitrate
that costs P140 per kilogram to make a fertilizer that cost P180 per kilogram?
a. 8 c. 800
b. 80 d. 8 000
10. How many grams of chocolate worth P600 per kg must be mixed with 10 kg of chocolate worth P450 per kg to
produce a mixture worth P500 per kg?
a. 5 c. 500
b. 50 d. 5 000
11. A store owner wants to mix cashews and almonds. Cashews cost P100 per kilogram and almonds cost P250 per
kilogram. He plans to sell 150 kilograms of a mixture. How many kilograms of almonds should be mixed if the
mixture will cost P150?
a. 5 c. 100
b. 50 d. 10
12. A solution that is 10% antifreeze is mixed with a solution that is 20% antifreeze to produce 50 L of solution that
is 15.6% antifreeze. How many liters of the 10% antifreeze are used?
a. 22 c. 22.2
b. 12 d. 23
13. How many liters of 14% alcohol solution must be mixed with 20 L of a 50% alcohol solution to get a 20% alco-
hol solution?
a. 100 c. 90
b. 10 d. 60
14. You have 6 liters of water that have 20 percent strawberry juice. How many liters of 80 percent strawberry juice
should be added to the mixture to make 75 percent strawberry juice?
a. 5.5 c. 6.6
b. 1.5 d. 0.5
15. If A can do the work in “x” days and B in “y” days, how long will they finish the job working together?
a. (x+y)/xy c. xy/(x+y)
b. (x+y)/2 d. xy
16. Jerry needs 40 minutes to mow the lawn. Carl can mow the same lawn in thirty minutes. If Jerry works alone for
10 minutes then Carl joins in, how long it takes them to finish the job?
a. 4.29 c. 8.57
b. 12.86 d. 7.29
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 8

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 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 9

Nature of Statistics
Chapter This chapter discusses some of the elementary statistical concepts that are

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necessary for more specialized statistical data analysis. Some of the concepts are
not new to you. You might have encountered them at one time or another.

LEARNING TARGET
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to :
a. define statistics;
LESSON 9: b. differentiate descriptive statistics from inferential statistics;
Some Basic Terms in Statistics
c. identify the population and sample; and parameter and statistic in a given
situation; and
9.1 Descriptive and Inferential d. identify the different types of variables.
Statistics

9.2 Population and Sample

9.3

9.4
Parameter and Statistics

Constant and Variable

S tatistics have become an integral part of our daily life. We encounter
statistics on printed materials and social media platforms. We also
encounter them when we discuss the weather forecasts, unemployment rate,
9.5 Types of Variable election poll, medal tally, population census, and etc. Subconsciously, we are
9.6 Classification of Variable constantly collecting, organizing and analyzing information and use this data to

(Experimental Classification) make judgments and decisions that affect our way of life.

Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor. In educational

9.7 Classification of Variable
researches, a statistician may record students’ performances both in the pretest
(Mathematical Classification)
and posttest and then compare those performances. In other areas like public
9.8 Levels of Measurement health, for instance, the Department of Health administrator might record the
number of COVID cases in the Philippines per region. In addition, in a customer
satisfaction survey, a statistician may record each client’s satisfaction rating for
the services they availed. These are only a few examples of how statistics works
in various discipline. Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of
surveys and as a tool in scientific researches to make decisions based on
controlled experiments.

We define statistics as a branch of mathematics that examines and

investigates ways to process and analyze the data gathered. Statistics provides
procedures in data collection, presentation, organization, and interpretation to
have a meaningful idea that is useful to decision-makers. It is also deals with
drawing conclusions about a population from knowledge of the properties of a
smaller group which is deemed representative of the population.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 10
LESSON 9 : SOME BASIC TERMS IN STATISTICS
9.1 Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Statistics is a process of utilizing data to make sound conclusions. The two broad areas of statistics are
descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics consists only the collection, or ganization, summar ization and pr esentation of data.

Inferential statistics consists of gener alizing fr om samples to populations, per for ming estimations and
hypothesis tests, determining relationship among variables, and making predictions.

Example 1. If Mr. de la Cruz has to provide monthly satisfaction rating report to each office in the university
he is working with, he may collect information from the filled out customer satisfaction feedback forms. Then, he
may organize, analyze, present and interpret his obtained data for whatever purpose it may serve. Here, he is using
descriptive statistics.

Example 2. Mr. Lopez summarizes his sales and expenses in his online shop to get to know the status of his
online business. Then, he organizes and analyzes the data to make wise decisions. Here, Mr. Lopez uses
descriptive statistics.

Example 3. If you want to know the difference of academic performance between students’ in online and
remote teaching, in this case, inferential statistics will be used.

Practice Drill

In each of these statements, tell whether descriptive or inferential statistics have been used.
1. Financial analysts say that stock market may soon hit bottom. (Inferential Statistics)
2. The monthly average expenditure of per household is P10,000. (Descriptive Statistics)
3. The personnel of BQ Mall records the number of shoppers everyday. (Descriptive Statistics)
4. The Philippine Regulation Commission ranks the result of the Certified Public Accountants professional
examination in 2018. (Descriptive Statistics)
5. Two hundred fifty students have their GPA and metacognitive levels. The researcher aims to determine its
correlation. (Inferential Statistics)
6. Dr. Sy presents the enrolment record of all colleges and universities in the Philippines. (Descriptive Statistics)
7. Mrs. Santos recorded the average price of face shield available in the market. (Descriptive Statistics)
8. PAG-ASA forecast the number of typhoons that will hit the Philippines in the upcoming years due to global
warming. (Inferential Statistics)
9. Mr. Cruz checked the classroom attendance and recorded the names of the absentees. (Descriptive Statistics)
10. In a pen factory, a production operator is asked to random check 25 pens from each box of 100 pens to
determine the quality of the product. (Inferential Statistics)

Take this Challenge

Exercise 1: Identify each of the following as either descriptive or inferential statistics.

1. The average salary of 50 high school teachers randomly selected from Bilar District in 2020 was P24, 495.
2. The metacognitive awareness level of freshman students of BISU-Bilar A.Y. 2018-2019 was rated 3.62 from a
scale of 1 to 5 and was described ‘high’.
3. A study has concluded that the average credit card debt of college graduates has increased from year 2009 to
2019.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 11

4. The average satisfaction rating of the registrar’s office is 4.6 described as “Very Satisfied”.
5. In 2019, the average publishers of Jehovah’s Witnesses preaching each month was 8,471,008.
6. Mr. Sebastian’s average sales in his online shop was P42, 550/ month.
7. Rico’s savings in the first quarter of 2020 is P42, 550.
8. The overall customer satisfaction rating of the guidance office by 598 clients was 4.86 on a scale of 1 to 5.
9. The relationship between metacognitive awareness and academic achievement was seen high based on
researches about metacognition.
10. The budget allocation of College of Teacher Education for A.Y. 2020-2021 is P3.5 million.

9.2 Population and Sample

Population consists of all the member s of the gr oup about which we want to dr aw a conclusion.

Sample is a por tion, or par t of the population of inter est selected for analysis.

Example 1. If you wish to draw conclusions about the BMI of 10 000 students in your school (the population),
you may examine only 500 students (a sample) selected from the 10 000 students.

Example 2. If you want to know the amount of sugar in cake batter, then you may taste a teaspoon of it
from the mixing bowl. The sample is a teaspoon of the cake batter and the population is the whole mixing bowl of
the cake batter.

Practice Drill

In each of these statements, tell whether population or sample have been used.
1. A certain supermarket, offers free taste of a brand of fruit juice. Each customer is offered 10 ml to determine
the quality of the product. (Sample)
2. Mr. Uy wants to know the percentage of defective drums they produce in a week by examining 10 drums each
day produced at various times during a day. (Sample)
3. The registrars’ staff encoded the grade point averages (GPAs) of all students at BISU Bilar Campus.
(Population)
4. Mr. Santos searched the OLSAT rating of randomly selected group of students from College of Arts and
Sciences. (Sample)
5. The lady guard recorded the age of every third customer who go in for a movie theater. (Sample)

Take this Challenge

Exercise 2: Identify each of the following statements as either population or sample.

1. Dr. Reyes recorded the lengths of Milkfish he caught in his fish cages.
2. The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) conducted the Census 2020.
3. Nikko wants to know whether several boxes of bulb lights are free from defects. He inspects ten bulbs from
each box.
4. Rico bought a sack of rice. He first examined only a handful of rice from the sack to determine its quality
5. In a CBC blood test, the medical technician or nurse takes only a few cubic centimeters of blood from the
patient.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 12

9.3 Parameter and Statistic

Parameter is a numer ical index descr ibing a char acter istic of a population.

Statistic is a numer ical index descr ibing a char acter istics of a sample.

Example 1. Suppose you draw conclusions about the weights of 5 000 students in your university by
examining only 200 students selected from the population. After collecting data, you observe that most of the 200
students are 17 years old. The statistic here is 17 years old.

Example 2. After a nationwide survey, the National Statistics Office (NSO) reported that the average size of
a Filipino family is six persons. Here, the parameter is 6 persons.

Practice Drill

In each of these statements, identify both parameter and statistic in the study.
1. A research assistant wants to estimate the Grade Point Average (GPA) of freshman students of certain a state
university. From a simple random sample of 200 freshman students, the research assistant obtains a sample
GPA of 1.775. (The parameter is the Grade Point Average (GPA ) of freshman students and the statistic is the
sample GPA of 1.775 from 200 freshman students.)
2. A researcher intends to estimate the average farm size in Nueva Ecija. From a simple random sample of 40
farms, the researcher obtains a sample mean farm size of 1.6 hectares. (The parameter is the average farm size
in Nueva Ecija and the statistic is the mean farm size of 1.6 hectares from the sample of 40 farms.)

Take this Challenge

Exercise 3: In each of these statements, identify both parameter and statistic in the study.

1. An energy official wants to estimate the average oil output per well in the Philippines. From a random sample
of 60 wells throughout the country, the official obtains a sample mean of 80.5 barrels per day.

2. The International Dairy Foods Association (IDFA) wants to estimate the average amount of calcium male
teenagers consume. From a random sample of 150 male teenagers, the IDFA obtained a sample mean of 1, 081
milligrams of calcium consumed.

3. A school administrator wants to estimate the mean score on the verbal portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) for students whose first language is not English. From a simple random sample of 30 students whose
first language is not English, the administrator obtains a sample mean SAT verbal score of 458.

9.4 Constant and Variable

A constant is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that does not vary. For example, the temperature at
which water boils is a constant.

A variable is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that can take of different values. It can vary in
quantity , or in quality. Variables can be classified in different ways.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 13

9.5 Types of Variable

Qualitative Variable is var iable that is conceptualized and analyzed as distinct categor ies, with no
continuum implied. Also, categorical variable; observations that are put in the same or different classes, each
class being considered as possessing some common characteristic that is not shared by those in classes.

Examples: eye color, gender, occupation, religious preference, etc.

Quantitative Variable is a var iable that is conceptualized and analyzed along a continuum implied. It
differs in amount of degree. Also termed as numerical variable; variable that yield frequencies when counted,
giving rise to discrete variable of when measured yield metric or continuous variable.

Examples: height, weight, age, salary, etc.

Practice Drill

Identify the following variables as qualitative or quantitative.

1. The 15 low temperature readings for the month of June. (Quantitative)
2. The scores of 40 students on a Statistics Examination. (Quantitative)
3. The blood types of 120 teachers in a secondary school (Qualitative)
4. The last four digits of SSS numbers (Qualitative)
5. Tally of medals won by Philippines in the recent SEA Games (Quantitative)

Take this Challenge

Exercise 4: Identify the following var iables as qualitative or quantitative.

1. Motorcycle ownership of students
2. Net weight (in grams) of cookies
3. Marital status of medical technologist in a government hospital
4. Time it takes to run an Olympic size oval.
5. Weights of dragon fruit sold in the market
6. Colors of cars in a grocery store.
7. Gallons of vanilla ice cream in a food factory
8. Seating capacity of the Mall of Asia Arena
9. The average age of people living in the Municipality of President Carlos P. Garcia
10. Religious Affiliation

9.6 Classification of Variable (Experimental Classification)

A researcher may classify variables according to the function they serve in the experiment.

Independent variable is a var iable contr olled by the exper iment/r esear cher , and expected to have any
effect on the behavior of the subjects.

Dependent variable is a measur e of the behavior of subjects and expected to be influenced by the
independent variable.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 14

Example 1. To predict the value of fertilizer on the growth of plants, the dependent variable is the
growth of plants while the independent variable is the amount of fertilizer used.

Example 2. Suppose males and females are compared regarding their performance in mathematics.
Here, gender is the independent variable and the performance in mathematics is the dependent variable.

Example 3. Mrs. De Borja wants to know if the beliefs of students about Mathematics affect their
performance in the subject. Here, the dependent variable is the performance of the students and the independent
variable is the beliefs of the students.

Take this Challenge

Exercise 5: Identify the dependent and independent variables in each of the following titles of students’
researches.
1. Freshman Students’ Metacognitive Awareness in Relation to their Mathematics Achievement
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:
2. The Effect of Metacognitive Approach in Teaching Mathematics on Students’ Achievement
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:
3. Learners’ Interactive Hub: Its Impact to Students’ Learning Motivation
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:

9.7 Classification of Variable (Mathematical Classification)

Variables may also be classified in terms of the mathematical values they may take on within a given interval.

Continuous variable is a var iable which can assume any of an infinite number of values, and can be
associated with points on a continuous interval.

Example: height, weight, volume, etc.

Discrete variable is a var iable which consist of either a finite number of values or countable number of
values.

Example: gender, course, Olympic games, etc

Practice Drill

Identify the following variables as continuous or discrete variable.

1. Outcomes in flipping a coin (Discrete)
2. Square root of 5 (Continuous)
3. Number of online purchases made in a week (Discrete)
4. Student number (Continuous)
5. Weight of students in the higher education institution (Continuous)
6. A box of milk which weighs 1 kilogram (Discrete)
7. Toyota Vios sales for the last 3 months (Continuous)
8. Amount of money spent on grocery in a month (Continuous)
9. Number of pizza sold each day in Pizza Hut (Discrete)
10. Water temperatures of ten rivers in the Philippines on a given day (Continuous)
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 15

Take this Challenge

Exercise 6: Identify the following var iables as continuous or discrete variable.

1. The volume of a cylinder
2. A gallon of ice cream
3. BISU-Bilar’s number of student enrollees for academic year 2020-2021
4. Number of irrigators association in the Province of Bohol under National Irrigation System (NIS)
5. DOST Undergraduate Scholarship Qualifiers for 2020
6. Radius of a circle
7. The height of a snake plant
8. The number of eggplants produced per kilo
9. The number of face shield manufactured in a day
10. The time it takes for a car battery to die
11. Weight (in grams) of sweet potatoes in the public market
12. Number of times a person change his Facebook profile picture in a month
13. Percentage of COVID asymptomatic cases in the Philippines
14. Daily temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) in Baguio City for the last three months
15. Number of General Education courses

9.8 Levels of Measurement

Nominal Level of Measurement – classifies data into mutually exclusive (non over-lapping) categories
in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.

Examples: zip code, gender, eye color, political affiliation, major field, nationality

Ordinal level of Measurement - classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise
differences between the ranks do not exist.

Examples: Grades (A,B,C,D), judging (first place, second place, ..), rating scale (poor, good,
excellent)

Interval Level of Measurement - ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist;
however, there is no meaningful zero.

Examples: SAT score, IQ, Temperature

Ratio Level of Measurement - possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exists
a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members of
the population.

Examples: Height, weight, time, salary, age

 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 16

Practice Drill

Determine whether each of the following is nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio variable.
1. Pages of a school paper publication (Ratio)
2. World University ranking (Ordinal)
3. Water temperature (Interval)
4. Weights of Milkfish in the market (Ratio)
5. Salaries of the government officials (Ratio)
6. Time required to finish decorating one layer cake (Ratio)
7. Ratings of pupils’ artwork (poor, fair, good, excellent) (Ordinal)
8. Number of items delivered by a JNT rider (Ratio)
9. Ages of freshman students in a university (Ratio)
10. Category of Irrigation system in the Philippines (NIS, CIS) (Nominal)

Take this Challenge

Exercise 7: Deter mine whether each of the following is nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio variable.
1. Flavors of ice cream
2. Amount of money in savings accounts
3. Students classified by their reading ability: Above average, Normal, Below average
4. Letter grades (A, B, C, D, and F) on an English essay
5. Religions
6. Distance from your house to school
7. Ages (in years) of Math students
8. Ice cream flavor preference
9. Years of important historical events
10. Metacognitive Awareness classified as: Very High, High, Average, Fair, Poor
11. Women hair color
12. Assignment code for an online class
13. Scores of students in a statistics class
14. Temperatures of 25 selected refrigerators
15. Number of parcels delivered by LBC per month
16. Number of pages in your statistics book
17. Civil status of the faculty at BISU-Bilar Campus
18. List of SSS numbers
19. Movie rating ranging from “poor” to “good” to “excellent”
20. Grades of students in a chemistry class
21. The annual salaries of teachers in the Philippines
22. List of zip codes in the Province of Bohol
23. The nationalities listed in the latest Farmer Satisfaction Survey
24. The amount of chocolate chips (in grams) per chocolate cookies
25. Political affiliation
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 17

CHAPTER 4: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

A. For each statement, decide whether descriptive or inferential statistics is used.
1. The average procedural knowledge of freshman students of BISU-Bilar A.Y. 2018-2019 was 3.55.
2. There is a high correlation between metacognitive knowledge and regulation.
3. Researches have concluded that academic performance is a predictor of success in taking board exams.
4. Tiffany’s average sales in her online dessert business for the month of July was P34, 500.
5. In the academic year 2018-2019, there were 1, 307 freshman students at BISU-Bilar campus.

B. For each statements, answer what is asked.

1. A survey will be given to 300 students randomly selected from the freshmen class at BISU-Bilar Campus.
What is the population?
2. Fifty bottles of water were randomly selected from a large collection of bottles in a company’s warehouse.
These fifty bottles are referred to as the _________.
3. A quality control engineer is curious about the thickness of paint on a car at her factory. She randomly
selects 30 points on the car and measures the paint thickness at each of those points. What is the sample?
4. A scientist studies a pod of humpback whales to determine the migration of humpback whales. Identify the
population and sample.
5. A mayor surveys 1 200 voters in his municipality to see if they approve of the job he is doing. What is the
population?

C. Identify the dependent and independent variables in each of the following titles of students’ researches.
1. The Effect of Distant Education on Students’ Achievement
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:
2. The Impact of English Only Policy to students communication skills
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:
3. Factors Affecting the Students’ Anxiety in Mathematics
Independent Variable: Dependent Variable:

D. Identify the following variables as quantitative or qualitative.

1. Income 11. Ice cream flavors

2. Zip code 12. Age
3. Height 13. Blood Types
4. Level of satisfaction 14. Eye color
5. Marital Status 15. Tally of medals
6. Letter grades 16. Country of birth
7. Length of time it takes to
17. Number of siblings
get to school
8. Religions 18. Gender
9. Weight 19. High temperature
10. GWA 20. SSS numbers
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 18

E. Identify each of the following as either continuous or discrete variable.

6. The distance from here to the
1. A stack of coins
moon
7. Weight (in grams) of
2. Thoughts
cabbages at a grocery store
8. Number of times person
3. A dozen eggs
checks their e-mail per day
4. The area of a circle 9. Sentences
5. Pearls on a necklace 10. A bag of apples

F. Indicate whether the following variables are nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.

1. Age 11. Level of satisfaction

2. Height 12. Income
3. Class standing (freshman,
13. Zip code
sophomore, junior, senior)
4. Gender 14. GPA
15. Perceived speed of
5. Length of time it takes to
computer (very slow, slow,
get to school
fast, very fast)
16. Years of important historical
6. High temperature
events
7. Shirt size (S, M, L, XL) 17. Religions
8. Number of siblings 18. Ice cream flavor preference
9. Country of birth 19. Letter grades on an essay
10. Eye color 20. SSS numbers

CRITERIA
100-Word Content — 5 points
R efl ect i on Organization— 5 points
10 points

From this unit, I have learned that ...

___________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
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 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 19

Collecting Data
Chapter This chapter will introduce you to the methods of collecting data. It also

5 discusses sampling and some sampling techniques. Think of this unit like the
exercises you would do before an important sporting event. Its goal is to prepare
you as you will engage research endeavor in the future.

LEARNING TARGET
At the end of this chapter you are expected to :
LESSON 10: a. identify the appropriate way of collecting data;
Methods of Collecting Data b. identify the appropriate sampling for a certain research study;
c. differentiate random sampling from non-random; and
LESSON 11:
d. collect statistical data.
Census, Sampling and Sampling
Techniques

I
11.1 Random or Probability n research, statisticians use data in many different ways. As stated
Sampling
previously, data can be used to describe situations or events. For example,
11.2 Non-random or Non-Probability a businessman might want to know the suitability of building a coffee shop near
Sampling
the university, so he conducted a feasibility study for that area. In another
LESSON 12: situation, the customer satisfaction feedback assessment team conducts a survey to
Advantages and Disadvantages of the university’s offices to assess the needs of their clienteles as a basis of
Sampling providing quality services. In addition, data can be used to determine whether the
educational goals of an institution are being met. Finally, trends in various areas,
such as the stock market, can be analyzed, enabling prospective buyers to make
more intelligent decisions concerning what stocks to purchase. These examples
illustrate some situations in which data collection can help people make better
decisions in life.

LESSON 10 : METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA

1. Survey Method. We sometimes use sur vey when data can only be
obtained through responses from people in a sample. We can obtain data
through questionnaires which may be distributed by hand, face-to-face or
telephone interviews.

 Direct or Interview Method. It is a face-to-face encounter between the

interviewer and the interviewee. The interview may vary according to the
preference of either or both parties.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 20

Example : A short face-to-face interview to know the opinions of consumers about a new bath soap.

 Indirect or Questionnaire Method. Unlike direct method, this method utilized questionnaires to obtain
information. It can be done by mail or hand-carried to the intended respondents.

Example 1: A survey to investigate the attitude of the students in studying mathematics.

Example 2: A survey to investigate the opinions of students about changing the grading system.

2. Registration Method. This method of gathering information is governed by laws.

Example: birth certificates, death certificates and licenses, etc.

3. Observation Method. This method is used to data that ar e per taining to behavior s of an individual or a
group of individuals at the time of occurrence of a given situation are best obtained by observations.

Example 1: An observation to investigate the number of students studying in the library from 1pm to 5pm.

Example 2: An observation to determine the number of students who go to a mall after school hours.

4. Experiment Method. This is used to deter mine the cause and effect r elationship of cer tain phenomena
under controlled conditions. This method usually employed by scientific researchers.

Example 1: A drug company wants to test the effectiveness of its new product in treating virus infection.
An experiment or clinical test is done by treating fifty persons with the new product and another fifty persons
using the existing drug. The results are analyzed statistically to determine if the new product is significantly
effective in treating virus infection.

Example 2: At the start of the semester, Mrs. Belmonte administered an examination to two of her classes
in order to determine the entry knowledge of the students. During the semester, she applied cooperative
learning approach to one class and the usual approach to the other class. At the end of the semester, she again
administered an examination and compared the results of the two classes so that she could know if the
cooperative learning approach was more effective than the usual approach.

Take this Challenge

Exercise 1: Supply the advantages and disadvantages of using each of the following methods of collecting
data.

1. Survey Method 3. Observation Method

2. Registration Method 4. Experiment Method

LESSON 11 : CENSUS, SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

In complete enumeration/census, measurements on the variables of interest will be taken from all the
elements in the population.

Example 1. To know the number of persons in different places in our country, the government conducts
a census by taking into consideration the entire population. The data are stored in the National Statistics Office
(NSO) now Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA).
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 21

Example 2. To know if the breaks for cars produced by a car manufacturing company are of good
quality, the company implements a strict rule for testing all the breaks.

In sampling, measurements will be taken only from a subset of a population.

11.1 Sampling Techniques (Random or Probability Sampling)

Random Sampling is a process whose members had an equal chance of being selected from the population;
it is also called probability sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling. It is a pr ocess of selecting (n) sample size in the population via r andom
numbers or through lottery. Two types: SRS without replacement and SRS with replacement
2. Systematic Sampling. Resear cher s obtain systematic samples by number ing each subject of the
population and then selecting every kth subject.
Example 1: Suppose there were 2400 subjects in the population and a sample of 40 subjects were
needed. Since 2400/40 = 60, then k=60, and every 60th subject would be selected.

3. Stratified Sampling . Resear cher s obtain str atified samples by dividing the population into gr oups
(called strata) according to some characteristic that is important to the study, then sampling from each
group. Samples within the strata should be randomly selected.
Example 1: Suppose the president of a two-year college wants to learn how students feel about a certain
issue. Furthermore, the president wishes to see if the opinions of the first-year students differ from those
of the second-year students. The president will randomly select students from each group to use in
the sample.

Example 2: A researcher wishes to estimate average enrollments and faculty sizes for high schools.
Private institutions tend to be smaller than the public ones, so stratified sampling is used where in two
strata are private and public.

Example 3: A standard quality control check an automobile batteries involves simply measuring the
weight. One particular shipment from the manufacturer consisted of batteries produced in six different
months. The investigator decides to stratify in months the sampling inspection to observe a month-to-
month variation.

4. Cluster Sampling. Her e the population is divided into gr oups called clusters by some means such as
geographic area or schools in a large school district, etc. Then the researcher randomly selects some of these
clusters and uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the samples.

Example 1: Suppose a researcher wishes to survey apartment occupants in a subdivision. If there

are 12 apartment buildings, the researcher can select at random 3 buildings from the 12 and interview
all the occupants of these apartment.

Example 2: The circulation of a newspaper wishes to estimate the average number of newspapers
purchased per household in a particular barangay. The 1 000 households in the barangay are listed
in 100 clusters of 10 households each, and a simple random sample of 4 clusters is selected, and all
households in these clusters constitute the sample.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 22

Example 3: A forester wishes to estimate the average height of trees in a plantation. The plantation is
divided into quarter-acre plots. A simple random sample of 20 plots is selected from the 386 plots in the
plantation. The forester then measures the height of all trees in the sampled plots for his study.

Example 4: A quality control inspector wants to estimate the average weight of cookies filled in box. There
were 15 available box of cookies . The quality control inspector randomly selected seven boxes and measure the
weight of every cookie in each box.

Take this Challenge

Exercise 2: Classify each sample as simple random, systematic, stratified, or cluster sampling.
1. Twenty out of fifty-five Presidents of Irrigators Association were selected randomly using a sampling interval

2. Every 50th ‘chorizo’ manufactured is checked to determine its protein content.

3. School principals are selected using random numbers to determine their monthly salaries.

4. Every fifth client entering the guidance office is asked to answer the Customer Satisfaction Survey.

5. A researcher aims to get the metacognitive levels of freshman students. So, he conducted a survey to 50
students per college.

11.2 Sampling Techniques (Non-Random or Non-Probability Sampling)

1. Convenience Sampling. A process of selecting a group of individuals who conveniently are available for
study. The investigator chooses the closest live persons as respondents. "Captive audience" sampling.
Example: A researcher may only include close friends and clients to be included in the sample
population.

2. Quota Sampling. Equivalent to a stratified sample with the added requirement that each stratum is
generally represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the entire population.
Example: 60% democrats and 40% republicans - select a sample of the two

3. Purposive Sampling. The r esear cher uses his or her own judgment about which r espondents to
choose, and picks those who best meets the purposes of the study.

4. Snowball Sampling. Has achieved incr eased use in r ecent year s; par ticular ly by r esear cher s
conducting observational research and in community studies. Conducted in stages. In the first stage a few
persons having the requisite characteristics are identified and interviewed. These persons are used as
informants to identify others who qualify for inclusion in the sample. The second stage involves
interviewing these persons who in tum lead to still more persons who can be interviewed in the third
stage, etc. The term "snowball" stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes
bigger and bigger and rolls downhill. Also called "chain referral sampling" particularly useful in deviant
studies and subcultures (drug addicts, etc).
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 23

Take this Challenge

Exercise 3: Classify each sample as convenience, quota, purposive or snowball sampling.

1. Mr. Cruz and his company were hired by a prospective senatorial candidate to study whether the latter would
win the election. They conducted the surveys or interviews in places where people voted for the winners in the
series of previous elections. They did this because they believed that the people would again vote for the
winners in the next election.

2. You are asked by your teacher to conduct a study on how six-year old children acquire number sense. You
may consider your six-year old brother or sister or any six-year old child in your neighborhood to have ample
time in observing and interviewing your respondents.

3. You are to investigate the relationship of students’ performance in Math and their attitude towards the subject.
However, you are only given limited time to do the study. So, you only considered 25 out of 500 students in
your school.

LESSON 12: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
1. Economy
A census or complete enumeration may not be practical and is almost never economical. That’s why,
sampling in research has an economic advantage. Obviously, taking a sample requires fewer resources than a
census or complete enumeration.

2. Timeliness
A sample may provide you with needed information quickly. For example, you are a Doctor and a disease
has broken out in a village within your area of jurisdiction, the disease is contagious and it is killing within hours
nobody knows what it is. You are required to conduct quick tests to help save the situation. If you try a census of
those affected, they may be long dead when you arrive with your results. In such a case just a few of those
already infected could be used to provide the required information.

3. The large size of many populations

Many populations about which inferences must be made are quite large. For example, consider the population
of our country which is over 90 million people. A responsible agency/organization has to plan a survey for the
coming election for Presidential bet. But the big size of the population makes it physically impossible to
conduct a census. In such a case, selecting a representative sample may be the only way to get the information
from the voters.

4. Inaccessibility of some of the population

There are some populations that are so difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used. Like people
in prison, like crashed airplanes in the deep seas, presidents etc. The inaccessibility may be economic or time
related. Like a particular study population may be so costly to reach like the population of a certain country that
only a sample can be used. In other cases, a population of some events may be taking too long to occur that
only sample information can be relied on.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 24

5. Destructiveness of the observation accuracy

Sometimes, the very act of observing the desired characteristic of a unit of the population destroys it for the
intended use. Good example of this occur in quality control. For example to test the quality of a fuse, to determine
whether it is defective, it must be destroyed. To obtain a census of the quality of a lorry load of fuses, you have to
destroy all of them. This is contrary to the purpose served by quality-control testing. In this case, only a sample
should be used to assess the quality of the fuses.

6. Greater Accuracy and Efficiency

When all entities are measured, the measurement error increases.

7. Greater Scope
More information can be extracted even with a limited amount of resource because of generalizations.

8. Research Ethics
A researcher should control the use of animals, and it should be under an ethical framework.

DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

1. There are chances of bias in the selection of the sampling method.

2. Appropriate calculation of sample size is a challenging task.

3. It requires adequate knowledge of the subjects.

4. When the population is not homogenous, there is a need for an expert who has specialized knowledge in
sampling.

CHAPTER 5: SUMMATIVE TEST

A. Review about sampling and describe each sampling techniques using the graphic organizer below.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Random or Probability Sampling Non-Random or Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Convenience

Systematic Quota

Stratified Purposive

Cluster Snowball
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 25

B. Differentiate stratified sampling from cluster sampling using a graphic organizer.

C. Read and understand the statements below. Write the letter of the correct answer.
1. A researcher divided participants into two groups according to sex and then selected members from each
group for his sample. What sampling method was the researcher using?
a. Cluster c. Systematic
b. Simple Random d. Stratified
2. A politician ask his neighbors their opinions about a controversial issue. What type of sampling is this?
a. Simple Random c. Cluster
b. Stratified d. None of the above
3. A school request on each clients to fill out a satisfaction survey on the services they availed. What type of
sampling is this?
a. Simple Random c. Stratified
b. Systematic d. None of the above
4. A principal order t-shirts and wants to check some of them to make sure they were printed properly. She
randomly selects 2 of the 10 boxes of shirts and checks every shirt in those 2 boxes.
a. Cluster c. Stratified
b. Systematic d. Systematic
5. Which one of these sampling methods is a probability sampling?
a. Quota c. Convenience
b. Purposive d. Simple Random
6. Michael is trying to gather data for his study. He goes to a fast food restaurant during the lunch hour and asks
people who walk into the restaurant if they would be willing to fill out a questionnaire. Which sampling
method is Michael using?
a. Convenience c. Quota
b. Purposive d. Snowball
7. Matthew is gathering data for his study. Matthew tells his research assistants to be sure to interview 20 Grade
6 pupils, 20 Grade 7 and 20 Grade 8 students. Which sampling method is Matthew using?
a. Convenience c. Quota
b. Purposive d. Snowball
8. Which of the following is not a type of non-probability sampling?
a. Snowball c. Quota
b. Stratified d. Convenience
9. When people are readily available, volunteer, or are easily recruited to the sample, this is called
a. Snowball Sampling c. Stratified Sampling
b. Convenience Sampling d. Random Sampling
10. Which one of these data collection methods has the highest response rate?
a. Online c. Phone
b. Personal d. Postal
11. Mystery shopping is a form of:
a. Questionnaire c. Analysis
b. Observation d. Postal survey
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 26

12. A primary data collection method that involves tracking behavior over a period of time is called
a. Browsing c. Sampling
b. Observation d. Testing
13. Which one of these data collection methods is the fastest way to collect data?
a. Online c. Phone
b. Personal d. Postal
14. Which one of these data collection methods is the most expensive way to collect data per respondents?
a. Online c. Phone
b. Personal d. Postal
15. Why is experimental data collection a favorable method?
a. Because it only requires reviewing existing data
b. Because this usually consists of interview, and it is easy to find people who want to participate
c. Because it takes the least amount of time and is inexpensive.
d. Because experimental data collection typically produces the most valid data

CRITERIA
Content — 5 points
100-Word
R efl ect i on Organization— 5 points
10 points

From this unit, I have learned that ...

___________________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 27

Methods of Organizing
Chapter and Presenting Data
6 This chapter explains how to organize and present data. Constructing
frequency distributions, charts and graphs will be discussed in this chapter. The
charts and graphs includes histograms, frequency polygons, ogives, pie graphs,
and pictographs.

LESSON 13:
Textual Method
LEARNING TARGET
LESSON 14:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to :
Tabular Method a. organize data in a table;
b. construct graphs for sets of data; and
LESSON 15:
c. identify the most appropriate graph for sets of data.
Graphical Method

W hen conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for
the particular variable under study. For example, if a researcher
wishes to study the learning styles and preferences of BSEd-Mathematics LET
Topnotchers, he may gather information from the Professional Regulation
Commission and from various higher education institutions

To describe situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the

researcher must organize the data in some meaningful way. The most convenient
method of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution.

After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so they can be
understood by those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful
method of presenting the data is by constructing statistical charts and graphs.
There are many different types of charts and graphs, and each one has a specific
purpose.

LESSON 13: TEXTUAL METHOD

This method presents the collected data in narrative and paragraphs forms.
When texts are used in presenting statistical information, we have what is called
textual presentation. That is, the data are presented in phrase, sentence or
paragraph form. However, textual presentation would not be of much use as basis
for analysis and interpretation.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 28

LESSON 14: TABULAR METHOD

This method presents the collected data in table which are orderly arranged in rows and columns for an easier
and more comprehensive comparison of figures.

Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.

1. Categorical frequency distribution – used for data that can be replaced in specific categories, such as
nominal or ordinal data. For example, such as political affiliation, religious affiliation or major field of study
would use categorical frequency distributions.
Freshman Students of BISU-BILAR Campus A.Y. 2018-2019

POPULATION
COLLEGE
(frequency)
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources
564
(CANR)
College of Technology and Allied Sciences
467
(CTAS)
College of Teacher Education (CTE) 275

TOTAL 1 307

2. Grouped frequency distribution – when range of data is large, the data must be grouped into classes that are
more than one unit in width.

a. Class interval – refers to the numerical width of any class in a particular distribution. It is defined as the
difference between the upper class limit and the lower class limit.

b. Lower class limit – represents the smallest data value that can be included in the class.

c. Upper class limit – represents the largest data value that can be included in the class.

d. Class boundaries – these numbers are used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in the frequency
distribution. The gaps are due to the limits.

e. Class width – can be found by subtracting the lower (or upper) class limit of one class from the lower (or
upper) class limit of next class.

f. Class midpoint – is obtained by adding the lower and upper boundaries and dividing by 2, or adding the
lower and upper limits and dividing by 2.

Example: Below is a list of scores of students in Statistics quiz.

14 23 45 19 20 28 38 33 36 30

45 25 33 16 15 25 47 23 21 43

24 34 45 22 26 33 42 20 49 23

43 11 28 36 35 27 37 19 23 20

17 18 14 40 39 30 39 36 44 45
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 29

To find the width:

1. Calculate the range of the entire data set by subtracting the lowest point from the highest. The highest score in
our example is 49 and the lowest score is 11. So, 49 - 11 = 38
2. Divide it by the number of classes. I want 8 number of classes. Thus, 38/ 8 = 4.75
3. Round this number up (usually, to the nearest whole number). 4.75 rounded up becomes 5. Therefore, the
class width is 5

Scores Class Class

Frequency
(Class Interval) Boundaries Midpoints

46-50 2 45.5-50.5 48

41-45 8 40.5-45.5 43
36-40 8 35.5-40.5 38
31-35 5 30.5-35.5 33

26-30 6 25.5-30.5 28
21-25 9 20.5-25.5 23
16-20 8 15.5-20.5 18

11-15 4 10.5-15.5 13

There are eight classes or class intervals in our group frequency table as shown in the table. The scores 46,
41, 36, 31, 26, 21, 16, 11 are called the lower limits while the scores 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 are called the
upper limits.

Stem and Leaf Plot

The stem and leaf plot is a method of organizing data and is a combination of sorting and graphing. It has
the advantage over a grouped frequency distribution of retaining the actual data while showing them in graphical
form.

Example: Let’s make use of the same data (scores of students in Statistics quiz in page 22).

Stem L e a v e s

1 1 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 9

2 0 0 0 1 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 8 8

3 0 0 3 3 3 4 5 6 6 6 7 8 9 9

4 0 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 5 7 9
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 30

Take this Challenge

Exercise 1: Consider the scor es of students in a Math Examination and answer the following
questions.

16 18 20 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25

25 26 26 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 29

30 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 33 34 34

34 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 38

39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 44 45 47

1. How many students took the exam?

2. What is lowest score? highest score?
3. Make each of the following using the given scores:
a. Frequency Distribution Table (with 8 classes)
b. Stem and Leaf Plot

LESSON 15: GRAPHICAL METHOD

This method presents the collected data in visual or pictorial form to get a clear view of data.

Bar Graphs

A bar graph (also known as a bar chart or bar diagram) is a visual tool that uses bars to compare data among
categories. A bar graph may run horizontally or vertically. The important thing to know is that the longer the bar,
the greater its value.

Bar graphs consist of two axes. On a vertical bar graph, as shown below, the horizontal axis (or x-axis) shows
the data categories. In this example, they are the colleges. The vertical axis (or y-axis) is the scale (number of
students). The colored bars are the data series.

Bar graphs can be single, multiple, bilateral or subdivided bar graphs. If only one attribute is to be portrayed,
the single bar graph is constructed.

Freshman Students of BISU-BILAR Campus

A.Y. 2018-2019

POPULATION
COLLEGE
(frequency)

College of Agriculture and

564
Natural Resources (CANR)
College of Technology and
467
Allied Sciences (CTAS)
College of Teacher Education
275
(CTE)
TOTAL 1 307
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 31

The bilateral bar graph is used when characteristics are opposite in nature and are to be compared.

Metacognitive
Awareness
Mathematics
Achievement
Cognitive Regulatory
Factor Factor

High 4.08 4.08

Average 3.61 3.64

Low 3.39 3.38

Note that in bar graph, the bars do not touch each other. This indicates the discrete nature of variable being
grouped. Bar graphs are often used to show the frequencies of various nominal variables. They used to compare
magnitudes.

Bar graphs are often used for nominal variables. Since scores are interval in nature, we are using a special
kind of bar graph called histogram.

The histogram is constructed as a sequence of touching vertical rectangles. Each rectangle is drawn with a
height corresponding to the frequency.

Observe that the histogram for grouped data is drawn with a rectangle such that its base, equal to the class
size and the middle point of each interval is considered. The area of each bar is proportional to the frequency of
the corresponding class.

Scores
Class
(Class f
Midpoints
Interval)
46-50 2 48

41-45 8 43

36-40 8 38

31-35 5 33

26-30 6 28

21-25 9 23

16-20 8 18

11-15 4 13
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 32

Line Graphs
The line graph is used when we wish to show how one value changes with respect to another value over
successive periods of time. The movement of the linear curve indicates the variation of these changes. This
variation is presented using continuous line to show the continuity of the data presented.

Another way of presenting a frequency distribution is by drawing a frequency polygon which is done by first
constructing the histogram and getting the midpoint of every interval. Each midpoint is compared against the
class frequency which determines a point. Each point is connected from left to right with a line. The first and last
points are each connected to the horizontal axis by adding an interval with zero frequency.

Scores Class
(Class f Midpoin
Interval) ts

46-50 2 48
41-45 8 43
36-40 8 38
31-35 5 33
26-30 6 28
21-25 9 23
16-20 8 18
11-15 4 13

To make an ogive or a cumulative frequency polygon for grouped data, we mark cumulative frequencies
against the corresponding class midpoints and connect all points. A cumulative frequency curve is a graph
obtained by smoothing a frequency polygon.
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 33

Less Than Cumulative Frequency Polygon

Scores Less than

Mid
(Class f
points Cumulative
Interval) Frequency

46-50 2 48 50
41-45 8 43 48
36-40 8 38 40
31-35 5 33 32
26-30 6 28 27
21-25 9 23 21
16-20 8 18 12
11-15 4 13 4

More Than Cumulative Frequency Polygon

Scores More than

Mid
(Class f
points Cumulative
Interval) Frequency

46-50 2 48 2
41-45 8 43 10
36-40 8 38 18
31-35 5 33 23
26-30 6 28 29
21-25 9 23 38
16-20 8 18 46
11-15 4 13 50

Take this Challenge

Exercise 2
A. Make a bar graph using the data below.
Tiffany’s Online Shop Sales January to July 2020

Month January February March April May June July

Sales(in Php) 4 500 4 800 3 400 5 900 6 100 6 550 7 700

 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 34

B. Consider the scores of students in Science Quiz. Do as indicated.

11 21 12 18 36 28 33 37 42 40
45 32 15 23 28 40 36 23 31 28
28 47 18 49 44 35 42 38 16 34
14 33 28 38 42 30 17 18 19 43
48 23 24 35 32 29 23 44 26 32
Make each of the following using the given scores:
a. Frequency Distribution Table (with 8 classes)
b. Frequency Polygon
c. Less Than Cumulative Frequency Polygon
d. More Than Cumulative Frequency Polygon

Circle Graph

The circle or pie graph is another type of graph that is used in illustrating how a whole quantity is divided
into parts. The pie graph or pie chart is used when percent distribution of a whole into its component parts is to
be presented.
My Monthly Budget
Amount Percentage
Savings 8 000 44
Transportation 1 000 6
Grocery 4 000 22
Bills 2 000 11
Miscellaneous 3 000 17
TOTAL 18 000 100

Take this Challenge

Exercise 3
A. Make your Weekly Budget and use these data to make a pie graph.

My Weekly Budget
Amount Percentage
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 35

Pictograph

In a pictograph or pictogram, the frequency of each item is presented by pictures or graphics. Observe that
pictographs are more interesting and attractive than frequency distribution.

Source: https://www.math-only-math.com/examples-of-pictographs.html

CHAPTER 5: SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

DIRECTIONS: Read the following car efully. Do as indicated.

A. Consider the scores of students in a History exam.

16 18 20 20 21 21 22 23 23 24 25

25 26 26 26 26 27 27 28 29 29 29

30 30 31 31 31 32 33 33 33 34 34

34 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 38

39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 44 45 47

1. How many students took the exam?

2. What is the lowest score?

3. What is the highest score?

4. Make each of the following using the given scores.

a. Frequency Distribution Table (with 8 classes)

b. Stem and Leaf Plot
c. Histogram
d. Frequency Polygon
e. Less Than Cumulative Frequency
f. More Than Cumulative Frequency
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 36

B. Consider the scores of students shown on the table on the right.

1. How many students took the exam? Scores Frequency
2. What is the lowest score? 45-49 2
3. What is the highest score? 40-44 7
4. How many got a score: 35-39 11

a. below 15? 30-34 13

b. above 34? 25-29 12

20-24 8
c. of at most 19?
15-19 2
d. of at least 39?

C. Make a stem and leaf plot of the scores of students in an examination shown below.

27 33 39 41 46 48 50
27 35 40 44 46 49 50
28 36 40 44 47 49 50
30 37 40 45 47 49 50
32 38 41 48 48 49 50

D. Marco always tries to budget his time for the day prior to his major examination day. He makes a
schedule in his notebook as shown below.
Time Subject/Activity Remarks
Morning Session
8:00-9:30 College and Advanced Algebra
9:30-10:30 Understanding Self
10:00-12:00 Mathematics in the Modern World
Lunch
1:00-2:00 Purposive Communication
2:30-3:00 Physical Education
3:00-5:00 Child and Adolescent Development
5:00-6:00 History of Mathematics
Dinner
7:00-8:30 National Service Training Program

Based on Marco’s schedule, make a pie graph of the amount of time he spends on each activity in a day.

E. A Physical Education teacher conducted a survey to find out which Philippine Folkdances are popular
among the students in her class. Use appropriate representation of the data.

Philippine Pandango sa Sayaw sa

Carinosa Itik-itik Tinikling
Folkdances Ilaw Bangko
Number of
23 19 12 9 21
Students
 M a t h e m a t i c s i n t h e M o d e r n W o r l d 37

CRITERIA
100-Word Content — 5 points
R efl ect i on Organization— 5 points
10 points

From this unit, I have learned that ...

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REFERENCES
Books:
Bluman, A. (2014). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach 9th Ed. Mc Graw-Hill: NY

In, J. and S Lee.(Jun, 2017). “Statistical Data Presentation”. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology.

Vol. 70. No. (3). https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2017.70.3.267

Marcelino, D., et al. (2011). Contemporary Mathematics. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Cubao, Quezon City, Metro
Manila.

Internet Sources:
http://researcharticles.com/index.php/textual-presentation-of-data

https://dissertationrecipes.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Words-and-Phrases-to-avoid1.pdf

https://www.smartdraw.com/bar-graph

https://www.math-only-math.com/examples-of-pictographs.html

https://atozmath.com/StatsGraph.asp