COMPUTER NETWORK

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OSI LAYER
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PHYSICAL LAYER
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DATA LINK LAYER
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NETWROK LAYER
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TRANSPORATION LAYER
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SESSION LAYER
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PRESENTATION LAYER
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APPLICATION LAYER
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LAN, MAN, WAN
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TCP
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IP
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CLASSFULL CLASS: A, B, C, D, E
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CLASSLESS ADDRESS CIDR
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UDP
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MAC ADDRESS
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Internetworking & Networking devices
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CABLE TYPES
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REPEATERS
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HUBS
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ROUTERS
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BRIDGES
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SWITCHING
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Circuit swithcing = physical layer

Packet swithcing = data link ( virtual circuits) and network layer ( datagram)

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GATEWAY
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IDS
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FIREWALL
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MODEM
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TOPOLOGY
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MESH
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In this type of topology, a host is

connected to one or multiple hosts.
This topology has hosts in point-to-
point connection with every other host
or may also have hosts which are in
point-to-point connection to few hosts
only.

Mesh technology comes into two types:

• Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-
to-point connection to every other
host in the network. Thus for every
new host n(n-1)/2 connections are
required. It provides the most
reliable network structure among all
network topologies.

• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have

point-to-point connection to every
other host. Hosts connect to each
other in some arbitrarily fashion.
This topology exists where we need
to provide reliability to some hosts
out of all.

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STAR OR HUB
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All hosts in Star topology are connected to a

central device, known as hub device, using a
point-to-point connection. That is, there exists
a point to point connection between hosts and
hub. The hub device can be any of the following:
• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater

• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge

• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

Hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails,
connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts
fails. Every communication between hosts, takes
place through only the hub.
Star topology is not expensive as to connect one
more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.

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BUS
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In case of Bus topology, all

devices share single
communication line or cable.
Collison: Bus topology may have
problem while multiple hosts
sending data at the same time.
Therefore, Bus topology either
uses CSMA/CD technology or
recognizes one host as Bus Master
to solve the issue.
It is one of the simple forms of
networking where a failure of a
device does not affect the other
devices. But failure of the
shared communication line can
make all other devices stop
functioning.
Both ends of the shared channel
have line terminator. The data is
sent in only one direction and as
soon as it reaches the extreme
end, the terminator removes the
data from the line.

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RING
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In ring topology, each host machine

connects to exactly two other machines,
creating a circular network structure.
When one host tries to communicate or send
message to a host which is not adjacent to
it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts.
To connect one more host in the existing
structure, the administrator may need only
one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of
the whole ring. Thus, every connection in
the ring is a point of failure. There are
methods which employ one more backup ring.
NUMBER OF CABLES = N+1
NUMBER OF PORTS = 1 * N

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ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION
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SINGLE BIT PARITY
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Two-dimensional Parity check
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HAMMING
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For hamming distance = perform XOR on

two data bits. THE NUMBER OF 1s =
hamming distance.
d= hamming distance. And it can detect
d-1 error.
Hamming distance for 4 bit data will be
minimum 2 and max 4

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CHECKSUM
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This is a block code method where a checksum is created based on the data values in the
data blocks to be transmitted using some algorithm and appended to the data. When the
receiver gets this data, a new checksum is calculated and compared with the existing
checksum. A non-match indicates an error.

Error Detection by Checksums

For error detection by checksums, data is divided into fixed sized frames or segments.
• Sender’s End − The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic to get
the sum. It then complements the sum to get the checksum and sends it along with the
data frames.
• Receiver’s End − The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the checksum
using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum and then complements it.
If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise they are discarded.

Example
Suppose that the sender wants to send 4 frames each of 8 bits, where the frames are
11001100, 10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
The sender adds the bits using 1s complement arithmetic. While adding two numbers
using 1s complement arithmetic, if there is a carry over, it is added to the sum.
After adding all the 4 frames, the sender complements the sum to get the checksum,
11010011, and sends it along with the data frames.
The receiver performs 1s complement arithmetic sum of all the frames including the
checksum. The result is complemented and found to be 0. Hence, the receiver assumes
that no error has occurred.

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CRC
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FLOW CONTROL PROTOCOL
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PORT NUMBERS
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protocol port Transport reason

protocol
ECHO 7 TCP/ UDP To check connectivity, just like ping.
FTP 20 / TCP FOR FILE TRANSFER. Use TCP bcoz we need complete
21 data i.e reliability. Always use TCP for
reliability
20 = Data transfer
21 = Control
SSH 22 TCP USED FOR SECURITY. CRYPTOGRAPHIC FUNCTIONS.
TUNNELING IS USED FOR SECURE CONNECTION.
TELNET 23 TCP LOCAL CONNECTIVITY
SMTP 25 TCP SIMPLE MAIL TRANFER PROTOCOL.
DNS 53 UDP UDP BCOZ WE NEED SPEED CONSISTENTLY.

DHCP 67/68 UDP IF NEED DYNAMIC IP. NOT NEEDED FOR STATIC IP.
67 = DATA
68 = CONTROL
TFTP 69 UDP TRIVIAL FILE TRANFER PROTOCOL = WHEN CLIENT WANT
TO SEND DATA TO SERVER WITHOUT MAKING A DATA
CONNECTION - NO HAND SHARING.
HTTP 80 TCP ALL WEBPAGES.
POP 110 TCP POST OFFICE PROTOCOL. FOR POPPING OR WITHDRWAING
MAILS FROM SERVER TO OUR PC.
NTP 123 UDP NETWORK TIME PROTOCOL. FOR TIME SYNC OF SERVER AND
CLIENT MACHINE. NOT NEEDED A CONNECTION HENCE UDP.

HTTPS 443 TCP SECURED. WORKS ON SSL. CRYTOGRAPHY IS USED - CYPHER

TEXT CONVERSION. USED IN PAYEMNT PORTAL
RIP 520 UDP ROUTING INFO PROTOCOL
NO CONNECTION IS MADE. JUST BROADCASTS.
DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING.

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IP4 VS IP6
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IP4

FLOW LABEL = CONVERT DATAGRAM IN IP6 INTO VIRTUAL CIRCUITS FOR REAL TIME DATA
TRANSMISSION

JUMBOGRAMS = UPTO 4GB IN IP6

HOP LIMIT = TTL

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